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EUBIONET III—Solutions to biomass trade and market barriers
Abstract
The EUBIONET III project has boosted (i) sustainable, transparent international biomass fuel trade, (ii) investments in best practice technologies and (iii) new services on biomass heat sector. Furthermore, it identified cost-efficient and value-adding use of biomass for energy and industry. The aims of this article are to provide a synthesis of the key results of this project. Estimated annual solid biomass potential in the EU-27 is almost 6600 PJ (157 Mtoe), of which 48% is currently utilised. The greatest potential for increased use lies in forest residues and herbaceous biomass. Trade barriers have been evaluated and some solutions suggested such as CN codes for wood pellets and price indexes for industrial wood pellets and wood chips. The analysis of wood pellet and wood chip prices revealed large difference amongst EU countries, but also that on the short term prices of woody and fossil fuels are barely correlated. Sustainable production and use of solid biomass are also deemed important by most European stakeholders, and many support the introduction of harmonised sustainability criteria, albeit under a number of preconditions. The study identified also that a number of woody and agro-industrial residue streams remain un- or underutilised. The estimated European total potential of agro-industrial sources is more than 250 PJ (7.2 Mtoe), the amount of unutilised woody biomass (the annual increment of growing stock) even amounts to 3150 PJ (75 Mtoe). Finally 35 case studies of biomass heating substituting fossil fuels were carried out, showing that the potential to reduce GHG emissions ranges between 90 and 98%, while costs are very similar to fossil fuel heating systems. Overall, we conclude that solid biomass is growing strongly, and is likely to heavily contribute to the EU renewable energy targets in the coming decade.
... With the prospect of old coal power plants shutdown, the co-combustion potential decreased on the other hand, and it should be close to zero in 2040. Overall potential of residual and waste biomass in the EU-27 for the use in energy production sector exceeded 6000 PJ/year as concluded by both Hansson et al. (2009) [9] and Alakangas et al. (2012) [60], with woody residues, firewood, and herbaceous and fruit biomass representing more than two thirds of the total biomass [60]. More recent studies estimated this potential as high as 11,500 PJ/year in the EU-28 + Western Balkan countries [61], while solely in Germany, the annually available unused biomass amounted up to 30 to 47 million tons [62], representing roughly 250 to 400 PJ/year of energy content. ...
... With the prospect of old coal power plants shutdown, the co-combustion potential decreased on the other hand, and it should be close to zero in 2040. Overall potential of residual and waste biomass in the EU-27 for the use in energy production sector exceeded 6000 PJ/year as concluded by both Hansson et al. (2009) [9] and Alakangas et al. (2012) [60], with woody residues, firewood, and herbaceous and fruit biomass representing more than two thirds of the total biomass [60]. More recent studies estimated this potential as high as 11,500 PJ/year in the EU-28 + Western Balkan countries [61], while solely in Germany, the annually available unused biomass amounted up to 30 to 47 million tons [62], representing roughly 250 to 400 PJ/year of energy content. ...
... With the prospect of old coal power plants shutdown, the co-combustion potential decreased on the other hand, and it should be close to zero in 2040. Overall potential of residual and waste biomass in the EU-27 for the use in energy production sector exceeded 6000 PJ/year as concluded by both Hansson et al. (2009) [9] and Alakangas et al. (2012) [60], with woody residues, firewood, and herbaceous and fruit biomass representing more than two thirds of the total biomass [60]. More recent studies estimated this potential as high as 11,500 PJ/year in the EU-28 + Western Balkan countries [61], while solely in Germany, the annually available unused biomass amounted up to 30 to 47 million tons [62], representing roughly 250 to 400 PJ/year of energy content. ...
Co-combustion of biomass-based fuels and fossil fuels in power plant boilers, utility boilers, and process furnaces is a widely acknowledged means of efficient heat and power production, offering higher power production than comparable systems with sole biomass combustion. This, in combination with CO2 and other greenhouse gases abatement and low specific cost of system retrofit to co-combustion, counts among the tangible advantages of co-combustion application. Technical and operational issues regarding the accelerated fouling, slagging, and corrosion risk, as well as optimal combustion air distribution impact on produced greenhouse gases emissions and ash properties, belong to intensely researched topics nowadays in parallel with the combustion aggregates design optimization, the advanced feed pretreatment techniques, and the co-combustion life cycle assessment. This review addresses the said topics in a systematic manner, starting with feed availability, its pretreatment, fuel properties and combustor types, followed by operational issues, greenhouse gases, and other harmful emissions trends, as well as ash properties and utilization. The body of relevant literature sources is table-wise classified according to numerous criteria pertaining to individual paper sections, providing a concise and complex insight into the research methods, analyzed systems, and obtained results. Recent advances achieved in individual studies and the discovered synergies between co-combusted fuels types and their shares in blended fuel are summed up and discussed. Actual research challenges and prospects are briefly touched on as well.
... Among the most relevant works for this article are [18] where a global analysis of the sustainability of bioenergy is carried out without specifying the route of conversion and the sustainability aspects are grouped into economic, environmental, and ecological, social aspects, and aspects related to land use. Focusing on gaseous fuels from biomass, in Ref. [19][20][21] the review on the sustainability of the production of gaseous fuels from biomass is divided into environmental, social and economic aspects; where the main environmental aspects that have been studied are GHG emission, land-use change, biodiversity, and water use and management. In the social aspects, the most relevant are job creation, governance, and rural development, and the management of agro-industrial waste. ...
... These barriers to the penetration of this technology, in general, are institutional, financial, political and market barriers, as observed in Ref. [21,25], one of the few studies to address these issues related to sustainability of biomass as an energy source. Normally, these barriers are observed in these developing countries, where, with few exceptions, for years no public institutions have established goals for sustainable growth. ...
... The lack of information or knowledge is also another barrier that has prevented the penetration of these technologies. This is shown in Ref. [21], where the existence of many of the biomass resources is unknown to possible users. Also, a large part of the population in developing countries is unaware of the implications of global warming and climate change and similarly, their expectations are too ambitious that renewable energy is believed to change the population's life instantly. ...
A review of the aspects related to the sustainability of the biomass gasification and the use of syngas from biomass for small scale power generation is presented, taking as a frame of reference the sustainable development goals (SDG) of the UN. Initially, the most relevant aspects of the SDGs related to the energy transition and the energy trilemma are presented, as well as different considerations on the sustainability of bioenergy from biomass. The aspects related to the sustainability of the gasification processes are also presented, dividing them into different categories to find the most important restrictions for gasification processes under the framework of sustainability. Aspects such as the availability of land, the development of policies that promote the use of bioenergy, and the effects of syngas on the power and efficiency of combustion engines have been found to be the most relevant when reviewing the sustainability of biomass as a resource for small-scale power generation. It is found that the complexity of the relationship between bioenergy and sustainability requires the elaboration of detailed studies in the different aspects to find the most appropriate configurations and features to bring these energy solutions mostly to rural areas of developing countries.
... Th e basic approach in the research was to assemble the viewpoints of diff erent stakeholder groups and strive towards a consensus regarding how sustainable biomass imports can be part of European bioenergy markets. Th is work builds further on the previous work of EUBIONET III 11,12 and IEA Bioenergy, 13,14 which focused on sustainability governance and trade barriers for biomass. Th is paper will present the approach followed and will discuss the results of the stakeholder consultations on key principles for sustainable trade, opportunities and risks, barriers for trade, and potential policy options. ...
... Sustainability requirements can be perceived as trade barriers. 11 It is important to fi nd a balance between suffi ciently strong quality and sustainability requirements and market access. In the discussion with stakeholders it was indicated that administration and practical procedures to demonstrate sustainability criteria can be a barrier for smallholders, so solutions are needed to also open up opportunities for smallholders. ...
... It is diffi cult to defi ne clearly what (indirect) trade barriers are and what general barriers hamper the use of biomass (irrespective of being traded or used domestically). Based on previous research work 7,8,11,12,13,14,24,25,26,27 and discussion panels with stakeholders and experts, we defi ned 23 potential biomass trade barriers, categorized in (1) national/regional protectionist policies and trade tariff s, (2) technical standards, (3) logistics, (4) safety and sanitary/phytosanitary requirements, (5) sustainability criteria and certifi cation systems, (6) global classifi cation and trade statistics and (7) public knowledge and public opinion. Th ese were included in the global survey. ...
... Studied phases include the raw material production and delivery, pellet production, transport to Europe as well as delivery and conversion in a coalbased co-firing power plant, located 75 km from EU import harbour. Because of increasing biomass resources and recent dominance over pellet imports into the European market, British Columbia (Canada), Western Australia, and Northwest Russia are chosen as the case studies (Junginger 2012;Lamers et al. 2012;Röder 2012). They further offer a good comparison as they differ significantly in biomass source, distance and region. ...
... After the observation of long-term price variations, actual price changes in the 3-year period from 2008 to 2011 are investigated. A period of 3 years complies with the typical (long-term) planning and contracting horizon of pellet producers and end-users (Alakangas et al. 2012;Sikkema et al. 2011). The simulation of the recent 3-year variations reflects the cumulative annual price changes due to raw material prices, exchange rates and ocean shipping rates as the most crucial price factors (see Fig. 2.3). ...
... As seen in Fig. 4.7, there is a certain upward trend for both coal and pellet prices from 2010 to 2011. As found by Alakangas et al. (2012) and visible here, often a time lag of a year or more occurs between fossil fuel price hikes and increases in pellet prices because of long-term decisions to switch from fossil fuel to bioenergy. ...
This chapter deals with the evaluation of most crucial supply risks, which exist under real market conditions in the biomass market. General risk parameters and relevant indices along the biomass supply chain are discussed in detail. A modelling of 10-year-price variations based on the three investigated supply chains is followed and current 3-year-price volatilities are presented. Raw material prices, shipping rates, exchange rates, and the final market price turn out to be the main drivers for actual price variations and investment decisions. They can have a major impact on supply chain economics and investment success. Finally, responding hedging strategies for biomass supply chains and related investment decisions are summarised.
... Studied phases include the raw material production and delivery, pellet production, transport to Europe as well as delivery and conversion in a coalbased co-firing power plant, located 75 km from EU import harbour. Because of increasing biomass resources and recent dominance over pellet imports into the European market, British Columbia (Canada), Western Australia, and Northwest Russia are chosen as the case studies (Junginger 2012;Lamers et al. 2012;Röder 2012). They further offer a good comparison as they differ significantly in biomass source, distance and region. ...
... After the observation of long-term price variations, actual price changes in the 3-year period from 2008 to 2011 are investigated. A period of 3 years complies with the typical (long-term) planning and contracting horizon of pellet producers and end-users (Alakangas et al. 2012;Sikkema et al. 2011). The simulation of the recent 3-year variations reflects the cumulative annual price changes due to raw material prices, exchange rates and ocean shipping rates as the most crucial price factors (see Fig. 2.3). ...
... As seen in Fig. 4.7, there is a certain upward trend for both coal and pellet prices from 2010 to 2011. As found by Alakangas et al. (2012) and visible here, often a time lag of a year or more occurs between fossil fuel price hikes and increases in pellet prices because of long-term decisions to switch from fossil fuel to bioenergy. ...
This chapter describes the three chosen case studies for biomass supply from Canada, Australia, and Russia to the EU. The case studies contain a detailed cost outline from biomass resource to final consumer for the year 2011. The supply patterns include raw material, pellet production phase, transportation and shipping to the EU, delivery to the conversion plant and final conversion in a coal co-firing plant. The individual costs are summarised and compared, explaining the related market connections. Dedicated and region specific cost drivers and economic framework conditions are defined along the whole biomass supply chain.
... Statistics and flows of wood fibre for use in different products, including biofuels are available in some parts of the world, e.g. Finland [16] and the EU [17]. In Finland, these statistics are compiled annually by The Finnish Forest Research Institute where energy production is treated as a forest industry product along with pulp or particle board [18]. ...
... In Finland, these statistics are compiled annually by The Finnish Forest Research Institute where energy production is treated as a forest industry product along with pulp or particle board [18]. In contrast, for the broader EU, the flow of wood fibre into energy and trade in biofuels has been largely uncharted until recently [17]. Their study relied on forest product statistics from the Food and Agriculture Organization and EUStat however those statistics only include wood fibre as a fuel in firewood or charcoal form and do not include energy as a forest product [19]. ...
... In addition, biosludge from the wastewater treatment plant is incinerated and the energy is captured. Surprisingly similar to the BC results, for the EU overall, Alakangas et al. [17] reported 31% of the biomass supply to the forest industry was used for bioenergy. Furthermore, other users access the forest for fuel, so overall 40% of the forest biomass supply was used for energy in 2008. ...
The lack of data about current bioenergy production in British Columbia severely limits stakeholder analyses of the true value and growth potential of bioenergy within the province and the forest industry's sustainability. Fifty-two facilities were surveyed to gather statistics on rates of fibre use for energy, thermal and electrical energy capacity and net production. We estimated that from 2000 to 2011, on average 9.4 Mt of wood fibre (oven-dry) was used annually to produce energy, which was about one-third of the total harvested biomass. However, bioenergy does not drive the harvest. Bioenergy uses residual fibre from other operations—primarily black liquor from pulp mills. In total, the forest sector produced approximately 118 PJ of thermal and electrical energy in 2011, based on the net calorific value provided by respondents. Based on these results, we concluded that wood-based bioenergy supplied approximately 10% of British Columbia's energy demands in 2011. Forestry sector commodity and economic statistics likely underestimate the more than 640 M$ worth of energy it produced. The survey results also showed a wide variation in the efficiency of energy production between different facilities. Given the large discrepancy between the theoretical high heating values and what the producers achieved, it may be prudent to use an operationally-derived net calorific value or low heating value for estimating energy supply from biomass, especially for policy or business development.
... Many projects have taken a place to find technical, economical, and sustainable solutions for biomass trade and market barriers in EU countries. An earlier report by EUBIONET III [15] refers to the established EUBIONET III project that shed significant light on the sustainability of international biomass fuel trade. The study estimates the yearly produced biomass fuel based in the EU is almost 6600 PJ (6573.28 ...
... Several factors could influence the growth of the international trade of biomass and bioenergy and can lead towards the required trade intensity level. Researchers in studies [11][12][13][14][15][16] analyzed the growth and improvement of the primary variables of the bioenergy international trade in few European countries. The previous studies presented fast improvement in the bioenergy trade but had limitations pertaining to the bioenergy industry's output such as bioethanol, biodiesel, and bio-wood. ...
This paper examines the dynamic effect of the economic determinants on bilateral trade intensity of the European Union (EU) region’s bioenergy industry outputs. The authors adopt the panel co-integration model approach to estimate annual trade intensity data of the EU-28 countries’ bioenergy industry outputs from 1990 to 2013. This study investigated the long-term influence of the rate of real exchange, gross domestic product (GDP), and export price on the trade intensity of bioenergy industry applying fully modified oriented least square (FMOLS), dummy oriented least square (DOLS), and pooled mean group (PMG) models. In the current study, the findings boost the empirical validity of the panel co-integration model through FMOLS, indicating that depreciation has improved the trade intensity. This study has further investigated, through the causality test, a distinct set of countries. FMOLS estimation does find proof of the long run improvement of trade intensity. Thus, the result shows that the gross domestic product (GDP) and the real exchange rate have a positive and noteworthy influence on the EU-28 region trade intensity of the bioenergy industry. Moreover, the export price affects negatively and significantly the trade intensity of the bioenergy industry in the EU-28 countries.
... The basic approach in the research was to assemble the viewpoints of different stakeholder groups and strive towards a consensus regarding how sustainable biomass imports can be part of European bioenergy markets. This work builds further on the previous work of EUBIONET III 11,12 and IEA Bioenergy, 13,14 which focused on sustainability governance and trade barriers for biomass. This paper will present the approach followed and will discuss the results of the stakeholder consultations on key principles for sustainable trade, opportunities and risks, barriers for trade, and potential policy options. ...
... Sustainability requirements can be perceived as trade barriers. 11 It is important to find a balance between sufficiently strong quality and sustainability requirements and market access. In the discussion with stakeholders it was indicated that administration and practical procedures to demonstrate sustainability criteria can be a barrier for smallholders, so solutions are needed to also open up opportunities for smallholders. ...
Projections show that biomass will remain important for reaching future EU renewable energy targets. In addition to using domestic biomass, European bioenergy markets will also partly rely on imports of biomass, in particular in trade‐oriented EU member states like the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Belgium, and Denmark. There has been a lot of debate on the sustainability of (imported) biomass and how policy should deal with this. In this research, therefore, we defined long‐term strategies for sustainable biomass imports in European bioenergy markets. We used the input of different stakeholders in our approach through focus‐group discussions and a global survey, focusing on the following aspects: key principles of sustainable biomass trade, risks and opportunities of biomass trade, both for import regions (EU countries) and for sourcing regions, and practical barriers for trade. Overall we conclude that policies should be stable and consistent within a long‐term vision. An overall sustainability assurance framework of biomass production and use is key, but should ultimately apply to all end uses of biomass. Furthermore, the mobilization of biomass should be supported, as well as commoditization, considering the large diversity of biomass. Side impacts of biomass use should be monitored. Reducing investors’ risk perception is crucial for future developments in the biobased economy, and a clear policy to phase out fossil fuels, e.g. through a carbon tax, needs to be implemented. The results of this research are of interest for policy makers when deciding on long‐term strategies concerning sustainable bioenergy markets. © 2018 Society of Chemical Industry and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd
... The future production of wood pellets will mandatorily evolve to the use of wet raw materials and increment of production capacity, benefiting from the competitive advantages related to economies of scale [4]. The development of wood pellets production and consumption differs greatly between countries, and it is of high interest for forestry, forest industries and wood pellets producers to get better knowledge about the causes for the differences and their development [5]. ...
... Cost factor 10,000 t/y 100,000 t/y Interest rate 6 % Investment (€) 1,000,000 10,000,000 Maintenance (€/t) 5 2 Transport (€/t) 12 ...
During the last decade wood pellets consumption grew rapidly. In this paper the development of the wood pellet production factors for markets in Germany, Sweden and Portugal are compared. Domestic market prices for pellet production factors as well as domestic market prices for pellets variation are analysed. The analysis are based on two model plants, representing the first common technologies for small scale production based on dry sawdust sources, and the second represents large scale production based on wet materials. The results show how differences in costs of raw materials, energy and labour affects wood pellets production. The economic sustainability for European pellet producers depends on their domestic markets as internationally traded pellets are priced lower than their production costs, being Portugal an exception due to lower labour and raw materials costs. Future pellet production will be based on wet raw materials such as logs and wet sawdust. These raw materials are also demanded by pulp and paper or fiberboard industries. The transition from smaller wood pellets plants using dry raw materials to larger plants using wet raw materials, can be expected to follow comparative advantages regarding raw materials, energy costs and economies of scale.
... While converting woody waste into AC presents significant environmental and economic benefits, widespread adoption by farmers could potentially lead to market saturation and a subsequent decline in AC prices. This phenomenon has been observed in other biomassderived markets, where rapid expansion of production capacity outpaced demand, resulting in price volatility (Alakangas et al. 2012). To mitigate such risks, it is essential to assess other biomass-derived products' production potential along with AC and wood pellets. ...
Agriculture generates a large volume of waste and contributes to environmental pollution. For instance, pruning the orchards leads to an abundant volume of woody residues. Disposing of this material improperly has adverse effects. Thus, it makes sense to convert this material into wood pellets or activated carbon (AC). This work compared these two options by producing samples of both types from the same biomass. A sample of AC was prepared in a fluidized bed reactor at an activation temperature of 580 °C and a residence time of 120 min. The life cycle assessment (LCA) technique was employed to assess the environmental impacts. Findings determined that the produced AC had a BET area and iodine number of up to 940 and 860 mg/g, respectively. Furthermore, the outputs of the LCA analysis demonstrated that wood pellets compared to AC had more environmental impacts for the global warming, abiotic depletion, ozone layer depletion, and photochemical oxidation indicators. Generally, the results showed that between the defined methods for managing the generated woody waste, using them as a feedstock for AC production is preferable to wood pellets production. In this case, the benefits for the farmers and the environment are significantly greater.
... Various agricultural products and wastes can be used for pellet production as raw material, towards the purpose of biomass fuel production [25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34]. In the present work, Onopordum is evaluated in this respect. ...
... Indeed, this versatile resource can significantly contribute to the supply of the different energy needs: heat, transport and electricity, as well as to the non-energy demand (Daioglou et al., 2015). The bottleneck for a more extensive deployment of biomass in the energy transition is the availability of a sustainable feedstock and the development of the related supply chains (Alakangas et al., 2012;PricewaterhouseCoopers et al., 2017;Smeets et al., 2004). Therefore, it is important to carefully study the potential of biomass production considering sustainability aspects and the required supply chains. ...
Energy crops on marginal lands are seen as an interesting option to increase biomass contribution to the primary energy mix. However, in the literature there is currently a lack of integrated assessments of margin land availability, energy crop production potential and supply chain optimisation. Assessing the potential and the cost of these resources in a given region is therefore a difficult task. This work also emphasises the importance on a clear definition and discussion about marginal lands and the related ethical issues embedded in the concept to ensure positive societal impacts of the results. This study proposes a methodology to estimate and analyse, in terms of economic costs, the potential of miscanthus grown on marginal lands from the production to the final point of use. Different datasets are assembled and a supply chain optimisation model is developed to minimize the total cost of the system. Miscanthus is used as a representative energy crop for the Belgian and French case studies. High temperature heat demand is considered as final use. The miscanthus can be traded by truck either in the form of chips or pellets. The results show that the miscanthus on marginal lands could supply high temperature heat up to 38 TWh in France and 1,4 TWh in Belgium with an average cost of around 50 €/t. The different sensitivity analyses showed that the yield variation has the strongest influence on the final cost, together with the distances and the cost of production of miscanthus. The main pattern observed is the local consumption of miscanthus chips and export of the surplus (if any) to the neighbouring regions. Pellets are only of marginal interest for France and are never observed for Belgium. Distances and availability of sufficient feedstocks are the two main parameters impacting the production of pellets.
... Various agricultural products and wastes can be used for pellet production as raw material, towards the purpose of biomass fuel production [25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34]. In the present work, Onopordum is evaluated in this respect. ...
Onopordum spp. is investigated experimentally for biofuel properties. The plant is introduced, biofuel production processes are explained, and exergy destruction is quantified. The aim of the research is to provide a solid candidate for production and adaptation of drought-resistant renewable energy plants. The plant is not regarded as a probable source of agricultural food ethics and insignificant food properties. The onopordum plant is regarded as an ideal biofuel plant. Solid fuels in pellet form were produced from its stalk and pulp, while biodiesel was produced from its oil seeds by means of a patented method. Properties of the biodiesel that was produced from the oil of the onopordum were determined. An exergy analysis was conducted in order to find the destructed exergy by the biofuel production process. The exergy analysis is crucial to distinguish similar energy plants with similar energy contents. The onopordum pellets have lower heating value of about 15.10 MJ/kg while liquid products have values of about 40 MJ/kg. The irreversibility throughout the biofuel production process was found to be 126.692 MJ. According to the obtained quantities and the nature of the plant, the onopordum spp. has a great potential for energy plant cultivation applications.
... During the oil crisis in the early 1970s, the demand for alternatives to petroleum-based fuels came into the picture. It started the quest of deriving energy through the combustion of plant-based fuels [1]. The popularity of solid biomass for energy generation can only materialise by extending the application of biomass in the energy sector [2]. ...
Background
Biomass pre-treatment is gaining attention as a standalone process to improve the qualitative aspect of the lignocellulosic material. It has been gaining ground in the power station by replacing the coal with the pre-treated biomass. In this context, this paper enlightens the operating condition of carrying out the torrefaction so that the process can be made relatively more effective. The influence of physico-chemical characteristics on the heat of reaction of pyrolysis reactions, mass loss and temperature regimes are evaluated by thermogravimetry of the pre-treated samples of the pinecone; whereas, the structural transformation in the basic constituents is determined via knowing the fractional change in cellulose, hemicellulose and acid-insoluble lignin contents of the pine cone. The thermogravimetric (TGA) and differential thermal analysis (DTA) were performed to determine the physical as well as the thermal behaviour of the thermally processed biomass. The samples had undergone thermal decomposition at heating rates of 5 °C min⁻¹, 10 °C min⁻¹ and 15 °C min⁻¹. Nitrogen gas was used as a purge gas for the pyrolysis of the pre-treated samples. The volumetric rate of 200 ml min⁻¹ was pre-set for the thermal decomposition of the samples at 600 °C; whereas, the selected torrefaction temperature range varied from 210 to 250 °C.
Results
The heat of reaction for the pre-treated samples was found to vary from 1.04 to 1.52 MJ kg⁻¹; whereas, it was 0.91–1.54 MJ kg⁻¹ for the raw samples. The total annual production cost of processing 3.6 Mg of fuel in a year at a pilot scale was $ 36.72; whereas, the fiscal burden per kilogram of fuel during thermal degradation of the processed fuel was reduced by 0.08–1.5ȼ. The entropy of the system decreased with an increasing ramp rate. The exergetic gain in the system increased by 1–2%. The loss of energy during the energy-intensive processing of the pre-treated fuel was relatively low at a heating rate of 5 °C min⁻¹.
Conclusion
By the physico-chemical assessment, it was determined that pinecones required the highest torrefaction temperature and time to provide the upgraded pinecones. It was concluded that the duration of the torrefaction should be at least 15 min for a temperature of 250 °C so that the chemical exergy of the system, energy yield and the energy density of the processed material are qualitatively improved. The volatile and ash contents were noticed to decrease during the torrefaction process. The least fractional change in the volatile content was estimated at 210 °C for a torrefaction time of 15 min; whereas, the ash content was minimum at 210 °C for a torrefaction time of 5 min.
... As shown in Figure 4, it can be seen that the rankings of European countries are relatively high and stable as a result of having been emphasizing the use of biomass energy recent years. This is similar to previous study, which shows that 48% of the annual biomass potential (157 Mtoe for biomass excluding biodegradable waste) is currently used in the EU-24 and Norway [12]. This is, to some extent, also related to many projects carried out in Europe dedicating to solutions to biomass trade and market barriers. ...
In recent years, increasing attention has been paid to the development of biomass energy. Global biomass energy trade plays an important role in this development process. However, due to the uneven distribution of biomass energy supply and demand, as well as different policies in different regions, the development of biomass energy, to some extent, has been affected. Thus, it is essential to investigate the evolution mode of global biomass energy trade, so as to promote its balanced development and sustainable growth. In this paper, we analysed the dynamic evolution of global biomass energy trade from 2011 to 2017 based on complex network theory and some conclusions were given. Firstly, the results show that the overall volumes of biomass energy trade is on the rise, but its mode tends to be low density with a large volume of trade concentrated in some countries. Secondly, it is worth noting that European countries and the North America are more active in global biomass energy trade, while only a small number of developing countries, like Brazil, China and India, have certain influence on the biomass energy trade. Thirdly, it seems that most countries prefer to establish biomass energy trade export relationships with other countries rather than import. Finally, given the poor performance of both in-degree and out-degree in the Middle East and North African regions over time, more attention should be paid to the development of biomass energy in these areas. The main contribution of this paper is to understand the market evolution of global biomass energy trade in 2011-2017 from the perspective of complex networks, being a supplement to the existing researches on biomass energy trade.
... Bioenergy has complex environmental, industrial and social interactions, including feedback on climate change (Alakangas et al. 2012). Biomass is immersed in different routes of natural biomass systems that are used for the production of food or raw materials. ...
This book reveals key challenges to ensuring the secure and sustainable production and use of energy resources, and provides corresponding solutions. It discusses the latest advances in renewable energy generation, and includes studies on climate change and social sustainability. In turn, the book goes beyond theory and describes practical challenges and solutions associated with energy and sustainability. In particular, it addresses:
· renewable energy conversion technologies;
· transmission, storage and consumption;
· green buildings and the green economy; and
· waste and recycling.
The book presents the current state of knowledge on renewable energy and sustainability, supported by detailed examples and case studies, making it not only a cutting-edge source of information for experts and researchers in the field, but also an educational tool for related undergraduate and graduate courses.
... Biomass logistics management was recognised as another key challenge for the commercialisation of BCT [117]. Due to the low mass density of biomass, an extensive amount of volume per mass ratio was required for storage and transportation [118]. ...
Biomass, which its conversion into greener bio-based products, is able to achieve a more balanced carbon cycle through circular utilisation. The development of biomass industry, therefore, appears to be one priority area and is an important step to motivate the global circular economy and sustainability. However, due to the existence of commercialisation barriers, the biomass industry in developing country, such as Malaysia, is not on par with the increment of the country's gross domestic product. This paper overviews the barriers of development and challenges encountered by the biomass industry in Malaysia. Challenges are classified into four barrier categories, i.e., (i) technical barrier, (ii) financial barrier, (iii) social awareness barrier and (iv) misunderstanding and gaps between stakeholders. Based on the barriers identified, recommendations which embrace the areas of technology innovation, logistics management, interaction between academia and industry, policy and enforcement, social impact and international benchmarking, are proposed. These recommendations can act as good references for the development of biomass industry in Malaysia and reflection for other developing countries with biomass resources in the promotion of sustainability and commercialisation of biomass products. The role of the five key stakeholders in commercialising the biomass technologies are highlighted in this review.
... The USA, Canada, Switzerland, Germany and Russia are the largest pellet producers, while Sweden, the USA, Italy, Germany, Denmark and the Netherlands are the largest consumers (Eurobserv'er, 2013a). However, obtaining reliable statistics on the EU biomass market regarding use, prices, trade routes and other relevant information for the industry is difficult at present, as both policy makers and scientists from other fields continue to pose a challenge (Alakangas et al., 2012). Despite these challenges, the drive to incorporate biomass as one of the principal energy sources in Spain remains consistent. ...
To mitigate the effects of global warming, the European Union must reduce its dependence on foreign fossil fuels to produce energy. Biomass from forests and agroforestry residues are a readily available source of domestic renewable energy. However, further technological developments must be made in order to foster its use in machines and thermal engines. The present study analyses the current situation of biomass energy in Spain as well as its future prospects, potential challenges and opportunities moving forward. This analysis is performed through a review based on bioenergy resources, technology and management to provide recommendations and carry out a more comprehensive energy assessment. Non-food biomass resources are intended to be useful in the development of bioenergy industrial sector. This study is applied to Spain due to its remarkable forests and wealth of agricultural areas. The methodology is based on three phases of energy conversion: resources, technology and management. The main achievements are pathways definition from resource to bioenergy application in Spain. Bioenergy advances offer management drive forces to meeting the energy and environmental challenges in the European Union.
... Some authors in their studies showed the potential energy availability of residual biomasses of individual European countries by type of residue [2]. On average, agro-industrial residues represent 12% of this potential. ...
Autothermal gasification of hazelnut and almond was carried out and the performances of a pilot plant with a feeding rate of 20 -30 kg/h were evaluated. Air, mixes of air with steam and oxygen with steam were used as gasification medium; the gas flows corresponded to different equivalence ratios of combustion, ER(O2), and water reaction, ER(H2O). The recording of the thermal profile inside the reactive bed during the runs made it possible to highlight a sequence of exothermic and endothermic reactions. In the plant tests, the residues were completely converted in gaseous and liquid energy carriers with a cold gas efficiency (CGE) ranging from 61% to 75% while the production of biooil ranged from 90-250 g/kg of fed nutshell (dry basis). The molar ratio H2/CO in syngas increased by using steam as co-gasification agent. Steam was necessary to stabilize the process in the case of using oxygen as main gasification agent. Oxy-steam gasification also provided the best results in terms of syngas heating value and thermal power output of the plant. The tar yield was inversely correlated to the residence time of the gas in the bed, in according with a zero order reaction for tar cracking into incondensable hydrocarbons.
... Por otra parte, según los resultados del proyecto EUROBIONET III, sólo se utiliza el 48% del potencial anual de biomasa en la UE (Alakangas et al., 2012). La utilización de pellets es aproximadamente un 20% superior que la producción en la UE. ...
This paper focuses mainly on analyzing the biomass in the framework of the European Union and Spain, particularly regarding to shortrotation woody crops. For that firstly is presented a review of the environmental implications and socio-economic impacts of these crops. Currently the biomass is the most used renewable resource, both in terms of primary energy and in terms of final energy, and energy sources with the greatest rowth potential in the coming decades. However, Spain is at a disadvantage situation in this development, which contrasts strongly with the existence of abundant primary resources. The current situation and the reasons behind this retail development are discussed in this work. It also sets out the opportunities for the development of short-rotation woody crops (SRWC), on the basis that it is a proven fact that conventional energy sources are limited and cause significant environmental degradation.
High consumption of energy from fossil fuels, the oil crisis, and global environmental problems such as climate change, demands the need for research, development and exploitation of alternative energy sources. For achieving this, the support of the social, political and governmental nature shall be clearly decisive.
Keywords: Biomass, short-rotation woody crops, environmental impact, rural development.
... A study carried out an analysis on costs of wood pellet production in five countries, namely Finland, Germany, Norway, Sweden, and United States. The study was carried out using two high-and low-capacity production models and showed that the pellet producers in the US had lower feedstock costs than producers in the analyzed European countries [10], the development of wood pellets production and consumption differed greatly between countries, and it was of high interest for forestry, forest industries and wood pellets producers to improve knowledge about the causes for the differences and their development [11]. ...
Climate changes
and increased Earth’s temperature form a phenomenon that affects all humans and
countries. Consequently, even countries with plenty of fuel energy resources
have realized the importance of this issue. Wood pellet is among the most
commonly used bio fuels and is spreading quickly all over the globe.
In this research, the feasibility of wood pellet production in Iran was
assessed by studying a production project and economically analyzing it. Based
on the results, all of the economic indicates are reflective of economic
utility of wood pellet production in Iran. For instance, the IRR index of the
project was 64.54%, and the final price of the product was 118.89 EUR per ton. Analysis of production costs indicated that raw materials had the highest share of the final price followed by fixed investment costs
and energy costs.
... 20 Another survey from 2009 concluded that a harmonized European bioenergy certification system is needed. 21 Other studies have reached similar conclusions, [22][23][24] but unresolved questions still remain. Specifically, which combination of governance mechanisms will be most efficient, fair and transparent; how harmonization can be achieved; and, how large a role can certification systems play? ...
The increased international trade led to growing concerns over sustainability of biofuels and a variety of governance systems has emerged to regulate the bioenergy sector for maximization of the benefits and minimization of the possible negative impacts. The general concept of governance is used in different ways. But in this chapter it is used in the broad sense of governance processes undertaken by governments, market actors, voluntary organizations or networks. This concept of governance recognizes the interdependence of the public, market-based and voluntary governing processes, and the relationships that may exist between them. A survey was designed with the objective of analyzing stakeholders' views, experiences, and ideas in relation to the governance challenges. The survey revealed a broad support for existing and new co-regulation among stakeholders, but also that low share of certified land is seen as a challenge for both forestry and agriculture.
... Although fossil fuels such as oil, coal and natural gas are the primary energy sources in the world, it is foreseen that these sources of energy will deplete within the next 40-50 years. In addition, the environmental damages due to the emissions from these sources have led to reduce carbon emissions and shift toward using a variety of renewable energy resources that are less environmentally harmful, such as solar, wind and biomass [1]. The economic competitiveness of many industries strongly depends on the amount of energy used during the production. ...
Biomass residue is one of the raw materials of most interest as a source of renewable energy. There are three major types of biomasses to obtain energy: lipids, sugars/starches and cellulose/lignocellulose. The estimate of the gross calorific value (PCS), whose determination methods require long periods and are relatively expensive, is crucial in the analysis and development of bioenergy systems. There are empirical correlations in the literature for higher heating value (HHV) determination based on both elemental analysis data (more demanding in terms of instrumentation) and proximate analysis data (simpler and easier to achieve experimentally). This study evaluates the feasibility of using artificial neural networks (ANN) and empirical correlations (Matlab 2013) to fit and estimate the gross calorific value of biomass from proximate analysis databases available in the literature. Matlab eases the development of ANNs, as provides easy programming and many functions that can be directly used. Starting from a database of 100 records and raising then the database to 225 and thereafter to 350, it was possible to analyze the differences between basic fitting characteristics of ANNs and correlation models. Twelve HHV values of biomass available in the literature were used to verify the validity of the fittings.
... At the time, solid feedstocks mainly consisted of industrial wood processing and tertiary waste streams, and were predominantly sourced from within the EU itself (contrary to liquid biofuels imported from, among others, Latin America and South-East Asia). 3 However, between 2009 and 2013, imports of solid (mostly woody) biomass increased greatly, notably from western Canada, Russia, and the south eastern United States (USA). 4 Moreover, biomass removed directly from forest sites, such as harvest residues (and sometimes whole trees), is increasingly being used as feedstock for wood pellet production. ...
In 2009, the European Union (EU) Renewable Energy Directive (RED) mandated that 20% of the EU’s final energy consumption consist of renewable sources by 2020, and included sustainability criteria for liquid biofuels. Discussions around extending criteria to solid and gaseous biomass, including wood pellets, have been ongoing. Continued investment in forest bioenergy feedstock production is partly dependent on the stability of global market demand and the economic viability of feedstock production and trade. For trans-boundary governance mechanisms such as the RED to be efficient, a proper assessment of the specific forest and land policy contexts of wood pellet exporters that the mechanism will affect, such as Canada, the USA, and Russia, is crucial. This paper builds on sustainability criteria for biodiversity protection and assurance of sustainable forest management (SFM) for woody biomass that are currently under discussion for inclusion in the RED and compares them with national and local regulations of those three countries. This illustrates potential challenges in the establishment of sustainability criteria related to: differences in land definitions, delineation and reporting systems; lack of a uniform definitional paradigm for SFM; and difficulties in establishing efficient monitoring/auditing systems. Regulators wanting to implement supra-national sustainability schemes such as the EU RED need to be aware of challenges that such schemes carry and make efforts to reduce or eliminate pitfalls. There is also a need to assess the aggregated effects of these various tools, and a need for communication, collaboration and outreach among stakeholders. © 2015 Society of Chemical Industry and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd
... 20 Another survey from 2009 concluded that a harmonized European bioenergy certification system is needed. 21 Other studies have reached similar conclusions, [22][23][24] but unresolved questions still remain. Specifically, which combination of governance mechanisms will be most efficient, fair and transparent; how harmonization can be achieved; and, how large a role can certification systems play? ...
Different governance mechanisms have emerged to ensure biomass and bioenergy sustainability amidst a myriad of related public and private regulations that have existed for decades. We conducted a global survey with 59 questions which examined 192 stakeholders' views and experiences related to (1) the multi‐leveled governance to which they are subjected, (2) the impacts of that governance on bioenergy production and trade, and (3) the most urgent areas for improvement of certification schemes. The survey revealed significant support along the whole supply chain for new legislation which uses market‐based certification schemes to demonstrate compliance (co‐regulation). Some respondents did not see a need for new regulation, and meta‐standards is a promising approach for bridging divergent views, especially if other proof than certification will be an option. Most respondents had so far experienced positive or neutral changes to their bioenergy production or trade after the introduction of new sustainability governance. Legislative requirements and a green business profile were important motivations for getting certified, while lack of market advantages, administrative complexity and costs all were barriers of varying importance. A need to include, e.g., regular standard revision and dealing with conflicting criteria was identified by respondents associated with bioenergy schemes. Respondents associated with forestry schemes saw less need for revisions, but some were interested in supply chain sustainability criteria. Significant differences among schemes suggest it is crucial in the future to examine the tradeoffs between certification costs, schemes' inclusiveness, the quality of their substantive and procedural rules, and the subsequent effectiveness on‐the‐ground. WIREs Energy Environ 2016, 5:89–118. doi: 10.1002/wene.166
This article is categorized under: Bioenergy > Climate and Environment
... Por otra parte, según los resultados del proyecto EUROBIONET III, sólo se utiliza el 48% del potencial anual de biomasa en la UE (Alakangas et al., 2012). La utilización de pellets es aproximadamente un 20% superior que la producción en la UE. ...
... Imported biomass comprises between 21% and 43% of Europe's total available biomass [6]. Canada is now one of the world's leaders with regard to production and trade success of wood pellets because of many contributing factors, including its surplus of natural resources, low-cost mill residue, excess pellet production capacity, and abundance of export opportunities [91][92][93][94]. ...
We reviewed 153 peer-reviewed sources to provide identification of modern supply chain management techniques and exploration of supply chain modeling, to offer decision support to managers. Ultimately, the review is intended to assist member-companies of supply chains, mainly producers, improve their current management approaches, by directing them to studies that may be suitable for direct application to their supply chains and value chains for improved efficiency and profitability. We found that information on supply chain management and modeling techniques in general is available. However, few Canadian-based published studies exist regarding a demand-driven modeling approach to value/supply chain management for wood pellet production. Only three papers were found specifically on wood pellet value chain analysis. We propose that more studies should be carried out on the value chain of wood pellet manufacturing, as well as demand-driven management and modeling approaches with improved demand forecasting methods.
... The future production of wood pellets will mandatorily evolve to the use of wet raw materials and increment of production capacity, benefiting from the competitive advantages related to economies of scale [4]. The development of wood pellets production and consumption differs greatly between countries, and it is of high interest for forestry, forest industries and wood pellets producers to get better knowledge about the causes for the differences and their development [5]. The main objectives of this paper are to compare the development of market, economic and sustainability conditions in Portugal, Germany and Sweden, and to analyse how domestic market prices for pellets, capital costs, feedstock, energy and labour vary between these countries. ...
... The future production of wood pellets will mandatorily evolve to the use of wet raw materials and increment of production capacity, benefiting from the competitive advantages related to economies of scale [4]. The development of wood pellets production and consumption differs greatly between countries, and it is of high interest for forestry, forest industries and wood pellets producers to get better knowledge about the causes for the differences and their development [5]. The main objectives of this paper are to compare the development of market, economic and sustainability conditions in Portugal, Germany and Sweden, and to analyse how domestic market prices for pellets, capital costs, feedstock, energy and labour vary between these countries. ...
... Only 40 per cent of the current potential of the world biomass energy potential is utilised, but biomass has the potential of producing 30 per cent of the current energy consumption in the world (Parikka, 2004). Recent studies conclude that still only half of the woody bioenergy potential in Europe is utilised (Alakangas et al., 2012). Based on this, the transition from non-renewable energy sources to renewable energy sources (wind, water, solar, biomass) seems to be viable with regard to abundance; however, its accessibility to energy users must be established. ...
Purpose
One way of overcoming logistics barriers (poor transportation, handling and storage properties) towards increased utilisation of biomass is to introduce a pre‐treatment process such as torrefaction early in the biomass‐to‐energy supply chain. Torrefaction offers a range of potentially beneficial logistics properties but the actual benefits depend upon how the supply chain is configured to address various elements of customer demand. Hence, the aim of this paper is to develop a framework for torrefaction configuration in a supply chain perspective for different types of customers.
Design/methodology/approach
Sophisticated pre‐treatment processes are yet to reach the commercialisation phase. Identification of possible supply chain configurations is in this paper done through a conceptual approach by bringing together knowledge from related research fields such as unrefined forest fuel, pellets and coal logistics with prescriptions for configuration derived from the subject area of supply chain management (SCM).
Findings
A framework that explicates different elements of supply and demand of torrefaction is proposed, and exemplified by three distinct supply chains. Depending on demand, torrefaction serves different purposes, bridging gaps in place, time, quality and ownership. Furthermore, different supply chain configurations will pose different requirements on torrefaction in terms of producing different product quality, durability, energy density and hydrophobicity of the pellets.
Research limitations/implications
The proposed framework entails a set of propositions, but requires further development through empirical studies using complementary research methods such as interviews or surveys and quantification through techno‐economical or optimisation from a supply chain perspective.
Practical implications
This paper provides a framework that can inform decisions makers in biomass‐to‐energy supply chains, in particular at torrefaction plants, on upstream and downstream implications of their decisions.
Originality/value
The findings have implications for biomass‐to‐energy supply chains in general, and in particular, the paper provides a supply chain perspective of pre‐treatment processes, where previous research has focused primarily on technical aspects of torrefaction.
... We think the discussion so far suppresses that current wood pellet import streams are predominantly residue based while (low-grade) roundwood still plays a marginal role. 27,28,73 Yet many temporal carbon analyses focused on whole-tree harvesting in (sub-) boreal regions. Future EU import streams will likely continue to be dominated by North America, 74 especially from the South-East USA where an increasing share is based on pulp-grade plantation roundwood from the temperate southern forest biome. ...
The temporal imbalance between the release and sequestration of forest carbon has raised fundamental concern about the climate mitigation potential of forest biomass for energy. The potential carbon debt caused by harvest and the resulting time spans needed to reach pre-harvest carbon levels (payback) or those of a reference case (parity) have become important parameters for climate and bioenergy policy developments. The present range of analyses however varies in assumptions, regional scopes, and conclusions. Comparing these modeling efforts, we reveal that they apply different principle modeling frameworks while results are largely affected by the same parameters. The size of the carbon debt is mostly determined by the type and amount of biomass harvested and whether land-use change emissions need to be accounted for. Payback times are mainly determined by plant growth rates, i.e. the forest biome, tree species, site productivity and management. Parity times are primarily influenced by the choice and construction of the reference scenario and fossil carbon displacement efficiencies. Using small residual biomass (harvesting/processing), deadwood from highly insect-infected sites, or new plantations on highly productive or marginal land offers (almost) immediate net carbon benefits. Their eventual climate mitigation potential however is determined by the effectiveness of the fossil fuel displacement. We deem it therefore unsuitable to define political guidance by feedstock alone. Current global wood pellet production is predominantly residue based. Production increases based on low-grade stemwood are expected in regions with a downturn in the local wood product sector, highlighting the importance of accounting for regional forest carbon trends.
This review paper aims to investigate the supply costs and prices for biogenic residues, wastes and by-products for Europe that are used as key economic parameters for techno-economic analyses in the relevant literature. The scope of the paper is to show: (i) which information on costs and prices is used in techno-economic models; (ii) which sources these monetary values are based on; and (iii) whether these values are able to be compared and classified. The methodology employed in this review paper is a systematic evaluation of the supply costs and prices for residual biomass used as the basis for techno-economic analyses in the literature. Three evaluation criteria (COST TYPE, TIME PERIOD and COST SCOPE) are used to operationalise the scope of the delivery, the time frame and the spatial resolution of the monetary values. The pricing and cost variables UNIT and BIOMASS are also studied. The results show that the supply costs and pricing differ in terms of the units used, the scope of the delivery and the spatial scale, making it difficult to compare individual studies or transfer the findings to other use cases. The costs and pricing examined range from 0.00 EUR/Mg (dm) for “bio-waste from private households” to a regional value of 1097.02 EUR/Mg (dm) for “woody biomass from vineyards”. They are rarely based on cost calculations or price analyses over a period of several years, and more than half of the literature sources examined do not take into account regional differences. The findings suggest that the input data on costs and prices are not always of sufficient quality. For that reason, in the future, the data on supply costs and prices that are provided for processing should have a more detailed temporal and spatial resolution.
The energy transition can also be promoted by the sustainable use of biomass. Residual biomass in the Mediterranean areas can be exploited to a greater extent through highly efficient fuel cell systems. The Direct Biomass-SOFC project is based on a direct coupling between biomass power supply and SOFC tubular cells. This research project stems from the need to cover the electricity demand, avoiding the use of non-renewable sources. It will be investigated the unused or little-used biomass sources that can be exploited from the Mediterranean area.
To this purpose, analyses were conducted to model a SOFC tubular cell stack by investigating the optimal configuration. The basic objective is to design a SOFC tubular cell stack, fed by syngas to produce at least 200 W. Two configurations were chosen: a square and a circular arrangement. Another objective of the study is to choose the best temperature control system. It have been selected a pressurised water system and an air system. The results show that the best performance is guaranteed by a square arrangement with an air temperature control system. The circular configuration provides less power than the square configuration, being limited by the multiple series connection to the lowest current value. The maximum electrical power produced with the square configuration is 225 W.
Biomass energy can be obtained from different sources and nature. The estimation of biomass potential as an energy source is being investigated all over the world from a technological and environmental challenge point of view, in the current context of energy transition. This paper reviews the perspectives of traditional approaches compared to the recently presented uses of biomass in energy systems as an alternative to fossil fuels. The present work shows research results in the energy context. Bioenergy proves to be an alternative fuel in conventional energy conversion systems.
Neste artigo, buscou-se literatura técnico-científica que determinasse padrões de qualidade na produção de briquetes e péletes no Brasil, entretanto nada foi encontrado. Assim, foi feito um estudo para se verificar como são estabelecidos os parâmetros para esses produtos; posteriormente, realizou-se uma análise em nível internacional da evolução dos mesmos. Utilizou-se a pesquisa bibliométrica para quantificar estudos recentes na área, retornando 41 trabalhos na base SCOPUS e apenas seis na base Web of Science (ISI). Dentre eles verificou-se que apenas 18 da base SCOPUS e nenhum da base ISI tinham aderência ao assunto proposto. Com isso, foi possível verificar a ausência de padrões e conformidades bem estabelecidos para a qualidade da produção brasileira, dificultando a entrada no mercado internacional, necessitando com urgência de subsídios técnico-normativos para certificação internacional.
This chapter gives an overview of related research and outlines the methods applied in the present study. The study is analysing three real case biomass supply chains with an in-depth assessment of individual variables underlying actual market actions. Because of increasing biomass resources and recent dominance over pellet imports into the European market, the considered origin countries are Western Canada, Western Australia, and Northwest Russia. Studied supply phases include the raw material production and delivery, pellet production, transport to Europe, as well as delivery and conversion in a coal based co-firing power plant in the EU. The specific supply costs from origin country to the EU are derived from current market and country related data. For evaluating the pellets production and end-conversion in power plants, a full cost account is applied. For most vulnerable, market-related cost items the imputed risk is evaluated as effect of underlying price changes in a 3- to 10-year period. Corresponding de-risk strategies are concluded from expert interviews.
Wood pellets have been used in domestic heating appliances for three decades. However, because the share of renewable energy for heating will likely rise over the next several years, alternative biomass fuels, such as short-rotation coppice or energy crops, will be utilized. We tested particulate emissions from the combustion of standard softwood pellets and three alternative pellets (poplar, Miscanthus sp., and wheat straw) for their ability to induce inflammatory, cytotoxic, and genotoxic responses in a mouse macrophage cell line. Our results showed clear differences in the chemical composition of the emissions, which was reflected in the toxicological effects. Standard softwood and straw pellet combustion resulted in the lowest PM1 mass emissions. Miscanthus sp. and poplar combustion emissions were approximately three times higher. Emissions from the herbaceous biomass pellets contained higher amounts of chloride and organic carbon than the emissions from standard softwood pellet combustion. Additionally, the emissions of the poplar pellet combustion contained the highest concentration of metals. The emissions from the biomass alternatives caused significantly higher genotoxicity than the emissions from the standard softwood pellets. Moreover, straw pellet emissions caused higher inflammation than the other samples. Regarding cytotoxicity, the differences between the samples were smaller. Relative toxicity was generally highest for the poplar and Miscanthus sp. samples, as their emission factors were much higher. Thus, in addition to possible technical problems, alternative pellet materials may cause higher emissions and toxicity. The long-term use of alternative fuels in residential-scale appliances will require technological developments in both burners and filtration.Copyright © 2016 American Association for Aerosol Research
The pellet market in Portugal is a developing market where the main producers of wood pellets try to convince the small-scale buyer that wood pellets are a good alternative as a fuel because energy from them is cost-effective in long-term use. For this work, data about production, production capacity and consumption in Portugal were collected. Consumption levels are low since the majority of sales are exports. The different points of pellet production in Portugal have been located, and a price analysis has been made. To obtain data on the production capacity of the plants and get referrals from the market, the database Bioraise has been used in order to complement the information raised through prospecting and inquiries. Although it is noted that the pellet industry in Portugal is a sector in the initial stage of its development, the potential for growth is high, since internal consumption is low compared to the level of exports to other countries in which the pellet industry is booming. We conclude that the pellet industry is an important alternative in the Portuguese energy market due to the competitive price of this fuel compared to traditional fuels.
In 2009, the European Union (EU) Renewable Energy Directive (RED) mandated that 20% of the EU's fi nal energy consumption consist of renewable sources by 2020, and included sustainability criteria for liquid biofuels. Discussions around extending criteria to solid and gaseous biomass, including wood pellets, have been ongoing. Continued investment in forest bioenergy feedstock production is partly dependent on the stability of global market demand and the economic viability of feedstock production and trade. For trans-boundary governance mechanisms such as the RED to be effi cient, a proper assessment of the specifi c forest and land policy contexts of wood pellet exporters that the mechanism will affect, such as Canada, the USA, and Russia, is crucial. This paper builds on sustainability criteria for biodiversity protection and assurance of sustainable forest management (SFM) for woody biomass that are currently under discussion for inclusion in the RED and compares them with national and local regulations of those three countries. This illustrates potential challenges in the establishment of sustainability criteria related to: differences in land defi nitions, delineation and reporting systems; lack of a uniform defi nitional paradigm for SFM; and diffi culties in establishing effi cient monitoring/auditing systems. Regulators wanting to implement supra-national sustainability schemes such as the EU RED need to be aware of challenges that such schemes carry and make efforts to reduce or eliminate pitfalls. There is also a need to assess the aggregated effects of these various tools, and a need for communication, collaboration and outreach among stakeholders.
Traditionally, wood fuels are used in the same geographical region, in which they are produced. However, this pattern is changing in Northern Europe due to large-scale use of biofuels for district heating and a vast supply of recycled wood and forestry residues. The aim of this study is to analyze the mechanisms behind the expanding European trade in biofuels and the ever increasing Swedish import of those materials. It is shown that the bioenergy trade is increasing rapidly and includes numerous types of wood materials and substances other than solid wood waste.
This questionnaire analyzed the ongoing development of sustainability criteria for solid and liquid bioenergy in the European Union and further actions needed to come to a harmonization of certification systems, based on EU stakeholder views. The questionnaire, online from February to August 2009, received 473 responses collected from 25 EU member countries and 9 non-European countries; 285 could be used for further processing. A large majority of all stakeholders (81%) indicated that a harmonized certification system for biomass and bioenergy is needed, albeit some limitations. Amongst them, there is agreement that (i) a criterion on 'minimization of GHG emissions' should be included in a certification system for biomass and bioenergy, (ii) criteria on optimization of energy and on water conservation are considered of high relevance, (iii) the large variety of geographical areas, crops, residues, production processes and end-uses limits development towards a harmonized certification system for sustainable biomass and bioenergy in Europe, (iv) making better use of existing certification systems and standards improves further development of a harmonized European biomass and bioenergy sustainability certification system and (v) it is important to link a European certification system to international declarations and to expand such a system to other world regions.
In the European Union (EU), waste management is almost totally regulated by EU directives, which supply a framework for national
regulations. The main target in view of sustainability is the prevention of direct disposal of reactive waste in landfills.
The tools to comply with these principles are recycling and material recovery as well as waste incineration with energy recovery
for final inertization. The adaptation of the principles laid down in EU directives is an ongoing process. A number of countries
have already enacted respective national regulations and their realization shows that recycling and incineration are not in
competition but are both essential parts of integrated waste management systems. In the EU, the amount of residual waste available
for energy recovery can supply approximately 1% of the primary energy demand. About 50% of the energy inventory of municipal
solid waste (MSW) in most EU countries is of biogenic origin, and MSW is to the same extent to be looked upon as regenerative
fuel. Hence part of the CO2 released from waste incineration is climate neutral. In the EU, this share could produce savings of the order of 1% of annual
CO2 emissions if energy from MSW replaced that derived from fossil fuel.
The EUBIONET III project investigated the use and possibilities of biomass in new industrial sectors. The aim was to identify new industries where biomass is used as an energy carrier, or has the potential to be used in the future, and to describe which drivers, bottlenecks and opportunities these sectors see for the (increased) use of biomass. By ‘new industries’ we mean industries, which are normally not directly associated with bioenergy like metal (e.g. steel, silicon carbide), cement, food processing, and construction (brick producing) industries. In general, those industries which have biomass resources (by-products) themselves, have often already built a bioenergy project, if it was profitable. Bioenergy plans were considered interesting to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, to receive green certificates, to use by-products and to improve their brand image. Also the independence from fossil fuels was an advantage of biomass use. In some cases bioenergy was considered financially attractive, but this was not the case for the majority – at least not without some kind of financial incentives. Concluding, in general, the new industries are interested in bioenergy, but the practical problems such as lack of infrastructure, insecurity of biomass supply and high fuel prices tend to limit the realisation of the investments. In many countries there is also lack of skilled people and knowledge on the new technologies.
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