Article

Conservation that's more than skin-deep: Alligator farming

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Abstract

Wildlife farming is a contentious conservation measure. In Louisiana alligator farming has generated significant conservation gains. This case study is used to test several assumptions employed in debates about wildlife farming. These include whether farming ‘floods’ the market to depress prices and deter poaching, whether it encourages wild harvest and whether it can compete against wild harvest. Data from over three decades is used to model harvest behaviour with OLS and SUR models. This shows strong separation between the market between farmed and wild alligator skins. Immense rises in farmed output have not caused prices to collapse, however poaching has collapsed. This highlights that farming can have important non-price effects on poaching. Assumptions that are commonly used to debate wildlife farming are not supported in this example. Such assumptions, including open-access of the wildlife, inert and exogenous wildlife managers and excluding indirect benefits of wildlife farming tend to bias policy away from farming. Using these assumptions makes it harder to identify cases where wildlife farming could assist conservation objectives.

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... To comply with this requirement, the Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries (LDWF) employs an extensive research and management program to ensure the well-being and sustainable use of the state's wild alligator populations (LDWF, 2016a). This effort, which includes both commercial alligator farming and wild harvest, has become a model of effective crocodilian conservation that is emulated around the world (Joanen et al., 1997;Heykoop and Frechette, 2001;Moyle, 2013). ...
... While some crocodilians in other parts of the world are produced primarily or entirely by captive breeding, most American alligators are produced from eggs taken from the wild (Lane and King, 1996;Moyle, 2013;TPWD, 2013). In Louisiana, growers collect eggs in areas approved by LDWF after annual surveys of nest densities. ...
... Original concerns about potentially negative impacts of alligator farming on management of the wild resource (e.g., by making poaching more difficult to control) have proved to be unfounded. Alligator farming has, in fact, significantly contributed to conservation of the wild resource while providing economic benefits to farmers and landowners (Moyle, 2013). ...
Article
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Commercial production of American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis) under intensive aquaculture conditions began in the 1980s. During the last 30 years, alligator farming has become an aquacultural industry worth millions of dollars in the southern United States. In 2014, farmers in Louisiana, the nation's largest producer of captive-reared alligators, sold more than 383,000 skins valued at more than $77 million. Most alligator farming operations utilize wild-sourced eggs, which are collected from wetland habitats under the authority of permits issued by State agencies. Typically, these permits include a requirement to return a portion of farm-reared animals to the same area where eggs were collected to maintain wild populations. Intensive rearing of alligators requires an abundance of warm water and good quality food. Extruded feeds formulated specifically for alligator are the industry standard in modern production systems. Disease can be an occasional problem in alligator production operations but risks can be minimized with provision of clean water, high-quality feed, and good hygienic conditions in grow-out facilities. Belly skins are the primary product of alligator aquaculture, but alligator meat is also sold in niche markets. Although products made from alligator skins have strong consumer appeal, the relatively high cost of products made with alligator leather limits sales to more affluent consumers. Growth of alligator farming, using current production methods, will be limited by the natural productivity of the wild resource upon which the industry depends and demand for products utilizing alligator leather. From 2004 to 2013, global demand for skins of all species of crocodilians averaged 1.4 million skins annually, of which 24.3% were American alligator.
... However, the rise of commercial farming does not inevitably have to lead to lower product prices. The farming of American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis) for the production of leather did, for instance, not lead to lower product prices and a higher demand (Moyle, 2013). ...
... Comparatively, farmed crocodile products have replaced the wild crocodile harvest by offering consumers a better and cheaper option (Macgregor, 2006). Wild populations of some crocodilians are recovering after 30 years of hunting restrictions and enforced trade in commercially-bred skin products (Thorbjarnarson, 1999;Moyle, 2013). Fur farmers also promote their products to be of better quality, as traditional trapping often damages the pelt (Colpitts, 1997). ...
... This is, however, not the case for all species and facets of the wildlife trade. The preference for wild animal products, for spiritual or status reasons, is generally not applicable to the pet and fur industry (Colpitts, 1997;Jepson and Ladle, 2005;Mattioli et al., 2006;Moyle, 2013). For such markets, wildlife farmers could offset competition by promoting the quality of their products, by for instance offering special breeds of pets (Jepson and Ladle, 2005), or animals free of infectious diseases (Still, 2003). ...
Article
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Wild animals and their derivatives are traded worldwide. Consequent poaching has been a main threat to species conservation. As current interventions and law enforcement cannot circumvent the resulting extinction of species, an alternative approach must be considered. It has been suggested that commercial breeding can keep the pressure off wild populations, referred to as wildlife farming. During this review, it is argued that wildlife farming can benefit species conservation only if the following criteria are met: (i) the legal products will form a substitute, and consumers show no preference for wild-caught animals; (ii) a substantial part of the demand is met, and the demand does not increase due to the legalized market; (iii) the legal products will be more cost-efficient, in order to combat the black market prices; (iv) wildlife farming does not rely on wild populations for re-stocking; (v) laundering of illegal products into the commercial trade is absent. For most species encountered in the wildlife trade, these criteria are unlikely to be met in reality and commercial breeding has the potential to have the opposite effect to what is desired for conservation. For some species, however, none of the criteria are violated, and wildlife farming can be considered a possible conservation tool as it may help to take the pressure off wild populations. For these species, future research should focus on the impact of legal products on the market dynamics, effective law enforcement that can prevent corruption, and wildlife forensics that enable the distinction between captive-bred and wild-caught species.
... Captive breeding for supplying the ornamental trade is, in our view, not recommended. While captive breeding might alleviate the exploitation pressure on wild populations, it tends to detach the fate of the economic activity from wild populations (Santiapillai and Silva 2001;Moyle 2013;Grigg and Kirshner 2015). Ranching and fishing, in contrast, tie the success of the economic endeavour to a viable and healthy wild population, which promotes conservation of this population and the ecosystem it makes part of (Santiapillai and Silva 2001;Moyle 2013;Grigg and Kirshner 2015). ...
... While captive breeding might alleviate the exploitation pressure on wild populations, it tends to detach the fate of the economic activity from wild populations (Santiapillai and Silva 2001;Moyle 2013;Grigg and Kirshner 2015). Ranching and fishing, in contrast, tie the success of the economic endeavour to a viable and healthy wild population, which promotes conservation of this population and the ecosystem it makes part of (Santiapillai and Silva 2001;Moyle 2013;Grigg and Kirshner 2015). In addition, unregulated captive breeding for commercial purposes are a major source of invasive species, especially if conducted in tropical and subtropical regions, where potamotrygonids may acclimate and settle (e.g. ...
Article
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Neotropical freshwater stingrays (Potamotrygonidae) are conspicuous components of the South American ichthyofauna, and may be regionally important as an economic resource. The smallest individuals are exploited in ornamental fisheries, while large individuals are caught in consumptive fisheries for their meat or liver oil. Potamotrygonid life history is poorly known, which complicates fisheries management and conservation. Here, we compiled life history traits of potamotrygonids and predict unknown traits from their relationship with body size, to compute the maximum population growth rate (rmax), a widely-used metric of sensitivity to overfishing. Potamotrygonid rmax was compared with that of marine chondrichthyans and South American crocodylians. Marine chondrichthyans include the closest relatives of potamotrygonids, and South American crocodylians are a group with known overexploitation history sharing the habitat and general life history strategy with potamotrygonids. Simulations for species with known traits indicated that predictions were close to real values and unbiased. Potamotrygonid rmax varied from 0.14 to 0.39, well within the range of marine chondrichthyans (0.03–1.37) and lower than crocodylians (0.23–0.52). Generation time ranged from 6.7 to 19.5 years. These figures indicate that sustainable exploitation of potamotrygonids is possible. However, tight regulations (e.g. size and catch limits) and science-based management are necessary, especially for species with small geographic range, low population size, or low rmax (< 0.2). Empirical studies on potamotrygonid life history and ecology are urgently needed to aid management. Potential scenarios for sustainable exploitation of potamotrygonids are discussed, including ornamental and consumptive fisheries, and sighting-based tourism.
... Captive breeding for supplying the ornamental trade is, in our view, not recommended. While captive breeding might alleviate the exploitation pressure on wild populations, it tends to detach the fate of the economic activity from wild populations (Santiapillai and Silva 2001;Moyle 2013;Grigg and Kirshner 2015). Ranching and fishing, in contrast, tie the success of the economic endeavour to a viable and healthy wild population, which promotes conservation of this population and the ecosystem it makes part of (Santiapillai and Silva 2001;Moyle 2013;Grigg and Kirshner 2015). ...
... While captive breeding might alleviate the exploitation pressure on wild populations, it tends to detach the fate of the economic activity from wild populations (Santiapillai and Silva 2001;Moyle 2013;Grigg and Kirshner 2015). Ranching and fishing, in contrast, tie the success of the economic endeavour to a viable and healthy wild population, which promotes conservation of this population and the ecosystem it makes part of (Santiapillai and Silva 2001;Moyle 2013;Grigg and Kirshner 2015). In addition, unregulated captive breeding for commercial purposes are a major source of invasive species, especially if conducted in tropical and subtropical regions, where potamotrygonids may acclimate and settle (e.g. ...
Article
Neotropical freshwater stingrays (Pota-motrygonidae) are conspicuous components of the South American ichthyofauna, and may be regionally important as an economic resource. The smallest individuals are exploited in ornamental fisheries, while large individuals are caught in consumptive fisheries for their meat or liver oil. Potamotrygonid life history is poorly known, which complicates fisheries management and conservation. Here, we compiled life history traits of potamotrygonids and predict unknown traits from their relationship with body size, to compute the maximum population growth rate (r max), a widely-used metric of sensitivity to overfishing. Potamotrygonid r max was compared with that of marine chondrichthyans and South American croco-dylians. Marine chondrichthyans include the closest relatives of potamotrygonids, and South American crocodylians are a group with known overexploitation history sharing the habitat and general life history strategy with potamotrygonids. Simulations for species with known traits indicated that predictions were close to real values and unbiased. Potamotrygonid r max varied from 0.14 to 0.39, well within the range of marine chondrichthyans (0.03-1.37) and lower than crocodylians (0.23-0.52). Generation time ranged from 6.7 to 19.5 years. These figures indicate that sustainable exploitation of potamotrygonids is possible. However, tight regulations (e.g. size and catch limits) and science-based management are necessary, especially for species with small geographic range, low population size, or low r max (\ 0.2). Empirical studies on potamotrygonid life history and ecology are urgently needed to aid management. Potential scenarios for sustainable exploitation of potamotrygonids are discussed, including ornamental and consumptive fisheries, and sighting-based tourism.
... Preliminary results into the immunogenetics of crocodilians have been previously discussed in this chapter, but it is not only the evolutionary knowledge we can gain from understanding the diversity of immune gene families in crocodilians but also the practical application of this knowledge in fighting crocodilian disease. The global crocodilian industry (tourism, meat, skins and live animals) is estimated to be stable in the hundreds of millions of USD for the last 5 years (Caldwell 2018;Moyle 2013). After sharp declines in wild populations from hunting, the late 1960s saw the beginning of conservation plans and commercial farming for several crocodilian species, particularly the American alligator, the saltwater crocodile and the Nile crocodile (Leslie et al. 2011;Moyle 2013;others). ...
... The global crocodilian industry (tourism, meat, skins and live animals) is estimated to be stable in the hundreds of millions of USD for the last 5 years (Caldwell 2018;Moyle 2013). After sharp declines in wild populations from hunting, the late 1960s saw the beginning of conservation plans and commercial farming for several crocodilian species, particularly the American alligator, the saltwater crocodile and the Nile crocodile (Leslie et al. 2011;Moyle 2013;others). So far, crocodilian diseases have been well documented in captivity that are not seen in wild populations (Leslie et al. 2011): but approaches to understanding these have been mostly through pathology. ...
Book
This book aims to be a comprehensive review of the literature on the conservation genetics of the New World crocodilians, from the biological and demographical aspects of the living species to the application of molecular techniques for conservation purposes. It covers the current status of the molecular genetics applied to phylogenetics, phylogeography, diversity, kinship and mating system, and hybridization, as well its implications for decision making with regards to the conservation of these species at academic and governmental levels. This book can be used as a guide for graduate and undergraduate students to understand how conservation genetics techniques are carried out and how they can help preserve not only crocodilians but also other living species.
... crocodilians; see Hutton & Webb, 2002). Whereas conservation successes have been reported in some cases, such as for alligators (Moyle, 2013), for most wildlife species that are farmed for trade, the impact on wild populations is not assessed or is extremely difficult to measure. Where farms take their stock directly from the wild, it can be easier to show the impact on wild populations (e.g. ...
... Whereas the economic costs of farming relative to wild harvesting may be a critical factor (Gentry, Gaines, Gabe, & Lester, 2019), conservation success will also depend in large part on consumer preferences and related purchasing behaviour. To date, some questionable assumptions have been made about both the magnitude and the nature of consumer demand for wildlife products (Margulies, Wong, & Duffy, 2019), which may have led to an underestimation of the potential for farmed products to displace demand for illegally harvested wild products (Gentry et al., 2019;Moyle, 2013). ...
Article
Full-text available
That wildlife consumers prefer wild products to farmed alternatives is a widely reported finding in the conservation literature. These reported preferences for wild products have been interpreted as evidence that farming and associated trade undermine conservation efforts. These conclusions have then been used to influence policy recommendations and the design of conservation interventions related to use of farming itself, as well as to underpin consumer behaviour change campaigns. However, for many species and products, the wild versus farmed narrative is based on assumptions that over‐simplify consumer behaviour and can lead to conclusions that do not recognize the complexity of real wildlife markets. These assumptions include the notions that consumers of the same products have homogeneous preferences, that wild and farmed are the only distinct product types available, and that these preferences do not change over time. We highlight the difficulty in linking stated preferences and real‐world behaviour, due to confounding factors. A consumer who typically prefers wild products may be deterred by factors such as legality, high prices or even simple availability. We recommend that researchers embrace these complex markets rather than trying to simplify them, and clearly state the limitations of studies that try to make the connection between stated preferences and actual behaviour. This includes considering the full range of products available, what or who might influence the actual purchasing decision a consumer makes, and the diversity of people who may buy wildlife products. Considering this complexity is likely to improve evidence‐based recommendations for the design of large‐scale conservation interventions and policy changes. This will ensure that these interventions are better able to reduce the negative impacts on biodiversity from illegal and unsustainable trade, and promote sustainable trade that can benefit both people and wildlife. A free Plain Language Summary can be found within the Supporting Information of this article.
... Wildlife farming, representing the domestication, cultivation, propagation or breeding of plant or animal species (Phelps et al., 2014), is a particularly contentious conservation tool (Nogueira & Nogueira-Filho, 2011;Moyle, 2013). One aim of wildlife farming is to promote sustainable trade by providing legally sourced non-wild products, decreasing harvest from the wild and driving down prices (Damania & Bulte, 2007;Abbott & van Kooten, 2011). ...
... countries, with positive impacts on the recovery of wild populations of some crocodilians (Moyle, 2013). If specific criteria regarding demand, enforcement, costs and source are met (Tensen, 2016), wildlife farming can be a useful conservation tool. ...
Article
Conflicts over natural resource use and management often arise where groups have different goals or priorities. The media can play an important dual role in these conflicts; article content might offer insights about public opinion, whilst media may shape debates and how issues are perceived by the public and decision-makers. Wildlife farming is a contentious conservation tool attracting the attention of worldwide media, and associated conflicts among different interest groups may undermine its applicability. We investigated the media's portrayal of the Cayman Turtle Farm (CTF), a facility in the Cayman Islands which breeds green sea turtles (Chelonia mydas) for human consumption, to investigate how the media presents information about wildlife farming (i.e. framing), consider its potential roles influencing conflicts and explore how it can be used for conservation conflict management. Content analysis was used to compare framing, article valence, and stakeholder representation in 634 newspaper articles from the international and local media. These media stories were framed in terms of: tourism, conflict, conservation, culture/community, management, and utilisation. International articles most often described CTF as a tourism facility. However, during a media campaign by an international animal welfare group, CTF was also often depicted as a source of controversy. Trade in turtle products was mostly debated in older articles. Local media mainly had a financial focus. Conflict framing was associated with a negative article valence, and conflict framed articles were significantly more likely to contain no conservation information. Mentions of environmental interest groups were significantly associated with negative articles, whereas academics were significantly more likely to be mentioned in positive articles. Conservationists must consider stakeholder objectives from the outset of interventions and be aware of the multiple roles the media might play. Media analysis and effectively harnessing the potential of media outlets should be considered as tools for managing conservation conflicts.
... Alligator farms exist across their natural range, many of which can house large densities of these animals for display to the public (entertainment/tourism) or for farming (hides/meat/hunting). Recommended stocking rates for farmed alligators are around 10-20 alligators/acre; however, densities can be as high as 50/acre at some farming locations [24,25]. Alligator farms play key roles in the conservation of the species by discouraging poaching of wild alligators [26]. However, WNV has been found in such farmed alligators at amplified levels sufficient for transmission to humans via Culex mosquitoes [27,28], suggesting A. mississippiensis may play a role in the ecology of WNV as an amplifying host. ...
Article
Full-text available
In an age of emerging zoonoses, it is important to understand the intricate system of vectors and reservoirs, or hosts, and their relation to humans. West Nile Virus (WNV) has been detected in a myriad of nonhuman hosts. Transmission of the virus to humans is reliant on amplified seroprevalence within the host, which occurs primarily in birds. However, recent studies have found that other animal groups, including crocodilians, can obtain seroprevalence amplification to levels that make them competent hosts able to transmit WNV to mosquitoes, which can then transmit to humans. Climate change could exacerbate this transmission risk by shifting the distributions of mosquito vectors towards novel geographic ranges. Here, we use maximum entropy models to map the current and future distributions of three mosquito vector species and four crocodilian species in North America to determine the emerging risk of WNV outbreaks associated with changing climates and WNV associated with crocodilians in North America. From our models, we determined that one mosquito species in particular, Culex quinquefasciatus, will increase its distribution across the ranges of all crocodilian species in all tested climate change scenarios. This poses a potential risk to public health for people visiting and living near crocodilian farms and high-density natural crocodilian populations.
... Positive synergies were observed when sustainable harvest methods of mushrooms in China also contributed to higher income for collectors (Yang et al., 2009). In the United States, the establishment of ranching programs for alligators potentially reduced, or at least did not increase, incentives for illegal harvest and trade (Moyle, 2013). An article that examined community-based natural resource management and crocodile ranching in Australia was unable to draw clear conclusions on the economic sustainability of the operation (Corey et al., 2018). ...
Article
Full-text available
A range of interventions have been established to manage international wildlife trade and protect traded species; however, there is little consensus as to whether, when, and how they are effective. Here, through a comprehensive, systematic review of >8000 articles, we appraise the evidence for the effectiveness of interventions on conservation, biological, and/or socio‐economic outcomes. Our systematic review examined four intervention types: “laws and regulations”, “detection and enforcement”, “efforts to reduce threats to species”, and “support local livelihoods”. We find that while laws and regulations were most well‐studied, with some reported positive outcomes, over half of articles reported unintended consequences including shifting exploitation and trade routes, increased illegal trade, and socio‐economic trade‐offs. Detection and enforcement efforts appeared effective in protecting target species but limited for high‐value species especially when combined with low reproductive rates. Efforts to reduce threats to species (particularly through area protection) had positive biological impacts, but some socio‐economic trade‐offs were reported. Evidence on community‐based approaches was limited but our review indicated positive synergies occurring between conservation and socio‐economic outcomes. Overall, socio‐economic outcomes were underrepresented, limiting understanding of potentially important socio‐ecological feedbacks. This review furthers understanding of relevant conditions, risks and enabling factors around effectiveness of wildlife trade interventions.
... Past examples of trade bans followed by successful reintroduction of legal trade include crocodilians and the vicuña (UnEp, 2019). In these cases, cITEs coupled strict trade restrictions with efforts to support nations in establishing sustainable use programs, including ranching and farming post-ban (Lichtenstein, 2010;moyle, 2013;Thorbjarnarson, 1999). 6.2 Impact on rural livelihoods and national economies ...
Technical Report
Full-text available
This report comprises a review of published literature that examines the effectiveness of trade restrictions and related measures in addressing wildlife crime and linked threats to species conservation in the Southern African (SADC) region, with a focus on elephants, rhinos, lions, and pangolins.
... Wildlife farming involving threatened, commonly traded species has the potential to displace wild-caught supply and alleviate pressure on wild populations offering substantial conservation benefit. This is documented by the breeding of American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis) in Louisiana, where poaching of locally threatened populations was deterred by substantial increases in the supply of farmed products (Moyle, 2013). ...
Article
Full-text available
Demand for wildlife and their products continues to grow, often despite increasingly militarised regulation and consumer awareness campaigns. We review the sustainability, legality and feasibility of wildlife farming of animals, as a potential conservation tool to ensure the development of an equitable and sustainable trade model. While there are some positive examples of well-managed wildlife farming in trade, we identify common themes of misuse including the intentional mislabelling of wild-caught specimens in global trade and the use of wild-caught individuals to supplement captive stocks. We also highlight the frequent failure to incorporate biological data into management strategies, resulting in the widespread use of species with potentially unfavourable life history traits, which constrain the economic and biological sustainability of wildlife farming programmes. We develop a structured decision framework to aid the examination of when wildlife farming may most benefit or hinder species conservation. Synthesis and applications. Key opportunities include developing species suitability assessments and removing barriers to legitimate participation with wildlife farming among poor, rural communities. In the absence of management strategies that address the issues of species suitability and accessibility, wildlife farming will continue to place significant strain on wild populations while failing to provide conservation value and sustainable economic returns.
... The pros and cons of reptile farms have been extensively debated (Revol 1995;Lyons and Natusch 2011;Moyle 2013;Aust et al. 2017;Nuno et al. 2017), including the case of freshwater turtles (Haitao et al. 2007;Drury 2009;Spencer et al. 2017). Although developing a detailed economic model (see Gelabert et al. 2017) of the development of freshwater turtle farming in Haiti is beyond the scope of the present article, it is possible to consider some key aspects in relation to the Haitian context. ...
... In many cases, commercial farming of wildlife is initiated as a perceived solution to alleviate exploitation of wild populations. For example, tigers (Panthera tigris) are farmed across Asia to meet the demands for commercial trade of their body parts despite their depleted numbers in the wild (Zhao, 2022), crocodiles (Crocodylus sp.) and alligators (Alligator sp.) are farmed in large numbers to reduce poaching for their skin for leather fashion products which was thought to have driven populations of some species to near extinction in some countries (Moyle, 2013;Macgregor, 2006), and commercial production of capybaras (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris) was previously proposed to reduce poaching pressure in Brazil (Moreira and Pinheiro, 2013). Tensen (2016) suggested that five criteria must be met for wildlife farming to be beneficial to species conservation and outlined that, for most species, these criteria are unlikely to be met in reality, with some cases where commercial breeding has the potential to have the opposite effect to what is desired for conservation (Tensen, 2016). ...
Article
Full-text available
To meet the global demand for the commercial trade of wildlife and wildlife derived products, wild animals are captured from wild populations or farmed. ‘Wildlife farming’ refers to commercial captive breeding or ranching wild animals in captivity with the intent to generate financial profit. Many countries encourage farming of wild animals to capitalize from consumer demand for wildlife products alongside the belief that captive breeding practises help to protect wild populations by reducing the pressure on the number of animals captured directly from the wild. However, wildlife farming is associated with concerns relating to animal welfare, public health and biodiversity conservation, and case studies demonstrate that farming wildlife does not necessarily alleviate pressure on wild populations. The global scale of wildlife farming, and hence its impact, is currently unknown. Here, we obtained data from published literature to compile a database of wildlife farmed during the period 2000 – 2020. We also obtained data from Freedom of Information requests to a small number of countries for wildlife farmed during 2021 – 2022. Our results demonstrate that at least 487 wildlife species are farmed across the world, comprised of at least 27 amphibians, 133 reptiles, 249 birds, and 79 mammals. Of these documented species, 34% are considered either Near Threatened, Vulnerable, Endangered or Critically Endangered by the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, and 62% are listed on the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) Appendices. Data pertaining to the number of farmed individuals for each species was even more difficult to determine, but reports of between 936,321,047 and 963,711,547 individual farmed wild animals were recorded in the literature. Commercial breeding operations were recorded in 90 countries worldwide. We suggest that the true number of farmed wildlife is likely to be far higher than the data compiled in our database due to the paucity of publicly available information on this topic and the challenges we faced obtaining data from relevant authorities. We discuss the implications of the scale of the industry, its inadequate transparency, and its relevance for the trade of wild animals and their derivatives as commercial products. To our knowledge this is the first attempt in the literature to summarise the global scope and scale of commercial wildlife farming. We hope this initial inventory can provide insight into the full extent of this industry and its impact on wild animals globally.
... Though our results indicate that individual crocodilians may be more valuable (monetarily) in a wildlife tourism context than in a farming or hunting context in some cases, we are not arguing that nonconsumptive exploitation of crocodilians is always and exclusively superior to consumptive exploitation. After all, crocodilian farming and legal hunting programs can lead to lower poaching pressure on wild populations, bolster wild populations by returning a portion of farm-raised individuals back to the wild, and encourage broad habitat protection (Revol 1995;Hutton and Webb 2002;Moyle 2013). In addition, the crocodilian farming and hunting industries are typically much larger in scale (involving many thousands of animals and many millions of dollars) than wildlife tourism operations (involv- ing perhaps hundreds of animals and many thousands of dollars). ...
Article
Wildlife tourism, including tourism involving large predators, is a rapidly growing industry that can generate many conservation and economic benefits. Monetary values can be derived for populations of large predators, and even individuals, on the basis of how much money tourists spend to see and interact with these awe-inspiring animals, but valuation studies only exist for a few groups of species. To help fill this gap we quantified the monetary value of crocodilians that are the focus of a wildlife tourism business in South America, the first time such a value has been calculated for crocodilians. We also compared the monetary values we derived with the monetary values of other crocodilians harvested in the hunting and farming industries during the same time period (20092014). We found mean minimum and maximum gross values of individual crocodilians per year as part of wildlife tourism were 422.00USDand422.00 USD and 566.67 USD, respectively, both higher than the mean gross value of individual crocodilians per year across hunting and farming industries (300.29USD).Individualcrocodiliansthatwererecapturedmultipletimesaspartofwildlifetourismactivitiesreachedapeakvalueof300.29 USD). Individual crocodilians that were recaptured multiple times as part of wildlife tourism activities reached a peak value of 2700.00 USD. Thus, our study demonstrates that wildlife tourism can create substantial monetary incentives for local communities that coexist with crocodilians to work toward conservation goals. We conclude that wildlife tourism focused on crocodilians should be viewed as part of a larger strategy for conserving threatened populations, one that may include partners in the farming and hunting industries as well.
... Our results confirm that consumers prefer wild over farmed tiger glue, resonating with findings of previous studies (Coals et al., 2020;Liu et al., 2015;Gratwicke et al., 2008). Unlike crocodiles and vicuñas, where farming has contributed to conserving wild populations (Moyle, 2013;McAllister et al., 2009;Macgregor, 2006), wild tigers are valued because consumers believe that wild tiger bones have higher medical efficacy thanks to living in natural habitats (Gratwicke et al., 2008). The strong preference for wild products is also considered one of main reasons leading to the failure of bear farming to reduce demand for wild bears in Vietnam (see Crudge et al., 2016). ...
Article
Full-text available
Demand for tiger parts and products has fuelled the poaching of wild tigers. As the supply of wild tigers has become scarce, tiger farming has emerged as an alternative source and proliferated in several Asian countries with unclear implications of a legalized trade in farmed tigers on wild tiger demand. We conducted a choice experiment with 228 Vietnamese tiger bone glue consumers investigating their preferences and trade-offs for different attributes of their purchase choice, including legality, source, purity, and price. We calculated consumers' willingness to pay for each attribute level under the current trade ban and in a hypothetical legal trade. Consumers preferred and were willing to pay more for wild than farmed tiger glue and a higher proportion of tiger bone in the glue. Consumers also preferred legal over illegal sufficiently for most to switch from illegal wild to legal farmed tiger. Hence, a legal trade will shift preferences significantly towards farmed tiger glue from legal sources but will not eradicate demand for wild tigers, likely leading to the parallel operation of legal and illegal markets. We discuss the implications of the results for conserving wild tigers through efforts to manage demand in Vietnam.
... Possible reasons for the shift include reliability, quality assurance, public perception regarding exploitation of wild animals, CITES controls on wild harvest, or declining availability of wild animals (Harfoot et al. 2018). For crocodilians, ranching and farming has generated significant conservation gains including suppression of poaching, and population recovery following overexploitation for their skins in previous decades (see e.g., spectacled caiman, Caiman crocodilus; Sinovas et al. 2017, and see Dutton et al. 2013, Moyle 2013, and the references within them). However, some species are difficult, sometimes impossible, to keep or to breed in artificial or confined environments. ...
Article
Full-text available
Wildlife commodification can generate benefits for biodiversity conservation, but it also has negative impacts; overexploitation of wildlife is currently one of the biggest drivers of vertebrate extinction risk. In the present article, we highlight 10 issues that in our experience impede sustainable and humane wildlife trade. Given humanity's increasing demands on the natural world we question whether many aspects of wildlife trade can be compatible with appropriate standards for biodiversity conservation and animal welfare, and suggest that too many elements of wildlife trade as it currently stands are not sustainable for wildlife or for the livelihoods that it supports. We suggest that the onus should be on traders to demonstrate that wildlife use is sustainable, humane, and safe (with respect to disease and invasion risk), rather than on conservationists to demonstrate it is not, that there is a need for a broad acceptance of responsibility and, ultimately, widespread behavior change. We urge conservationists, practitioners, and others to take bold, progressive steps to reach consensus and action.
... A diverse range of wild animal species are farmed around the world for a range of commercial purposes, for example as exotic pets (e.g., snake farms in West Africa [16]), traditional medicine (e.g., bear bile farms in China and South-East Asia [17]), leather (e.g., alligators farms in the USA [18]), or fur (e.g., mink and fox farms in Europe [19]). Cases of infectious disease emergence from pathogen transmission among farmed wildlife have been documented from across the taxonomic spectrum. ...
Article
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African lions (Pantheraleo) are bred in captivity on commercial farms across South Africa and often have close contact with farm staff, tourists, and other industry workers. As transmission of zoonotic diseases occurs through close proximity between wildlife and humans, these commercial captive breeding operations pose a potential risk to thousands of captive lions and to public health. An understanding of pathogens known to affect lions is needed to effectively assess the risk of disease emergence and transmission within the industry. Here, we conduct a systematic search of the academic literature, identifying 148 peer-reviewed studies, to summarize the range of pathogens and parasites known to affect African lions. A total of 63 pathogenic organisms were recorded, belonging to 35 genera across 30 taxonomic families. Over half were parasites (35, 56%), followed by viruses (17, 27%) and bacteria (11, 17%). A number of novel pathogens representing unidentified and undescribed species were also reported. Among the pathogenic inventory are species that can be transmitted from lions to other species, including humans. In addition, 83 clinical symptoms and diseases associated with these pathogens were identified. Given the risks posed by infectious diseases, this research highlights the potential public health risks associated with the captive breeding industry. We recommend that relevant authorities take imminent action to help prevent and manage the risks posed by zoonotic pathogens on lion farms.
... Although this idea is appealing, conservation farming remains controversial. While there have been successful cases (e.g., alligator; Moyle, 2013) and literature suggesting it may be practical (e.g., Abbott & van Kooten 2011), others suggest that farming can be impractical and even detrimental (e.g., Damania & Bulte 2007;Drury, 2009). A growing legal market can make the problem worse, for instance, by decreasing the stigma associated with the wildlife product or providing opportunities for laundering poached products through legal trade channels (Tensen, 2016). ...
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Thousands of species worldwide are threatened with extinction due to human activities. For some animals, such as elephants, totoaba, and bluefin tuna, population declines are largely driven by hunting. High prices and large profits create a strong incentive for illegal hunting, even in the face of penalties and strict international restrictions against trade. One innovative solution to help reverse the declines of such species is to farm them to increase supply, thereby reducing prices and decreasing hunting incentives. However, this idea has been criticized as impractical, though some examples exist of successful implementation. Here, we evaluate the hurdles facing endangered species farming as a market‐based mechanism to reduce illegal harvest of wild populations and provide guidance on when it is most likely to be effective. Using a simple model, we show how farming costs and enforcement of anti‐poaching measures are key drivers of success for this solution. We also argue that many of the most promising candidates are aquatic species that have been largely overlooked. Thus, while conservation farming may not be a solution for all endangered species, it should be more seriously considered for species that could be produced quickly and cost‐effectively.
... Ranching is a process described by CITES as the rearing of specimens taken as eggs or as juveniles from the wild where they would have a low probability of surviving and bringing them up in a controlled environment(CITES, 2014). Being a somewhat benign method of exploitation, if well managed, ranching may have the potential to alleviate population stress and aid conservation efforts if some of the reared offspring are released back into the wild(Moyle, 2013). ...
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Today, the demand for exotic pets, namely reptiles, amphibians, and birds, has increased so dramatically that their global trade (both wild and captive-bred) has transformed into a multi-billion-euro market. Along with this immense volume of trade, a range of associated risks that threaten animal welfare, human health, and ecosystem balance exist. Presently, the exotic pet market within Malta remains unexplored, allowing for considerable gaps in knowledge related to its dynamics, trends, issues, management, and regulatory priorities. This study aims to fill these knowledge gaps and present a detailed assessment of this market. This was achieved through the employment of a mixed-methods approach consisting of in-depth interviews with exotic pet experts, experiential research in pet shops, data mining on social media, and an online survey targeting exotic pet owners. Analysis of findings demonstrates that Malta's exotic pet market faces several key issues which necessitate addressing. Firstly, the welfare of exotic animals is threatened by the inadequate management, regulation, and (lack of) enforcement associated with Malta's pet shops, local private sellers, and facilities for seized exotic animals at Border Inspection Posts. Next, this study highlights the need for the development of a terrestrial vertebrate risk analysis model to reduce the likelihood of possible biological invasions taking place throughout Malta's natural environment through its exotic pet market. Lastly, efforts to increase awareness and knowledge among the Maltese public regarding both best practices and risks associated with exotic pets should be prioritized.
... The sustainable use of crocodilians has had a significant and positive impact on the conservation status of many previously threatened species by generating strong economic incentives for their protection (Blake and Loveridge, 1975;Bolton and Laufa, 1982;Moyle, 2013;Revol, 1995;Thorbjarnarson et al., 1992). For many species, sustainable use means rearing juveniles on farms to produce high quality skins used in the creation of luxury fashion goods (Thorbjarnarson, 1999). ...
... However, even when taking into account the estimated costs exporters' face, the proportion of final sales price received by local collectors is relatively low (1.3-2.0%). Recent comparable examples are scarce, but caiman hunters in Louisiana received 5-15% of export price (Moyle, 2013); chameleons collectors in Tanzania received~8.3% (Roe, 2002); parrot collectors in Indonesia received 5.2% (Swanson, 1992), and ornamental fish collectors in Brazil received 10%-19% (Baquero, 1999;Watson and Roberts, 2015). ...
Article
International trade in wildlife is a complex multi-billion dollar industry. To supply it, many animals are extracted from the wild, sourced from biodiversity-rich, developing countries. Whilst the trade has far-reaching implications for wildlife protection, there is limited information regarding the socio-economic implications in supply countries. Consequently, a better understanding of the costs and benefits of wildlife supply chains, for both livelihoods and conservation, is required to enhance wildlife trade management and inform its regulation. Using Madagascar as a case study, we used value chain analysis to explore the operation of legal wildlife trade on a national scale; we estimate the number of actors involved, the scale, value and profit distribution along the chain, and explore management options. We find that the supply of wildlife provided economic benefits to a number of actors, from local collectors, to intermediaries, exporters and national authorities. CITES-listed reptiles and amphibians comprised a substantial proportion of the quantity and value of live animal exports with a total minimum export value of 230,795USD per year. Sales prices of reptiles and amphibians increased over 100-fold between local collectors and exporters, with exporters capturing ~92% of final export price (or 57% when their costs are deducted). However, exporters shouldered the largest costs and financial risks. Local collectors obtained ~1.4% of the final sales price, and opportunities for poverty alleviation and incentives for sustainable management from the trade appear to be limited. Promoting collective management of species harvests at the local level may enhance conservation and livelihood benefits. However, this approach requires consideration of property rights and land-tenure systems. The complex and informal nature of some wildlife supply chains make the design and implementation of policy instruments aimed at enhancing conservation and livelihoods challenging. Nevertheless, value chain analysis provides a mechanism by which management actions can be more precisely targeted.
... Crocodiles are now abundant on many eastern and southern Africa game parks and reserves, and they are common in several rivers, lakes, and marshlands that are not under protection. In the United States, crocodile and alligator farming has been important in population recovery since the 1960s (Moyle, 2013.) The vicuña in South America provides another example of how legalization of farming (wool) could facilitate rhino recovery, although this approach has critics (Nowak, 2015). ...
... Instead the price has gone up because of the unsaturated demand driving the trade underground and into criminal networks, which by controlling the market can stockpile in anticipation of future price rises in effect banking on extinction (Mason, Bulte, & Horan, 2012). Proponents expect, based on traditional economic theory, that a legal trade of farmed rhino horn will flood the market lowering the price and hence drive poachers out of business (Biggs et al., 2013;Moyle, 2013). Those objecting to this trade suggest that this trade might awaken demand in other markets by removing the stigma associated with these products (Ayling, 2013;Milliken & Shaw, 2012), which is worrisome because rhino horn has no substitutes and might be considered to have religious or medicinal properties (Prins & Okita-Ouma, 2013). ...
Article
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We examined utilitarian and hedonic values as motivations for rhino horn use in Vietnam. We also evaluated consumers’ response to consequences of the illegal trade in behavior modification campaigns and the likely outcome of a legalized trade. The most prevalent use was for treatment of hangovers indicating utilitarian values, although difficult to separate from the hedonic value in projecting success in business. A ritualized way of honoring terminally ill relatives represented a hedonic value replacing belief in effective treatment. Demand reduction campaigns need to appropriately reflect all relevant values determining specific uses. The plight of rhino populations, Vietnam’s penal code, and the possible contribution to international crime mattered little to consumers. Horn from wild rhino was preferred over farmed, and respondents would demand more if available in a legalized trade. This suggested that a legalized trade could maintain or even increase demand for poached rhino horn.
... Crocodiles are now abundant on many eastern and southern Africa game parks and reserves, and they are common in several rivers, lakes, and marshlands that are not under protection. In the United States, crocodile and alligator farming has been important in population recovery since the 1960s (Moyle, 2013.) The vicuña in South America provides another example of how legalization of farming (wool) could facilitate rhino recovery, although this approach has critics (Nowak, 2015). ...
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Our objective was to assess the status of the large native rangeland mammals in the eastern and southern African countries focusing on conservation strategies that will benefit the animals, their rangeland habitats, and the people who live in this region. Eastern and southern African rangelands are renowned for supporting a globally unique diversity and abundance of large mammals. This wildlife legacy is threatened by changing demographics, increased poaching, habitat fragmentation, and global warming, but there are reasons for optimism. After sharp declines from 1970 to 1990 across Africa, wildlife populations in some countries have subsequently increased due to incentives involving sport hunting and ecotourism. National parks and protected areas, which have been critically important in maintaining African wildlife populations, are being increased and better protected. Over the past 50 years, the number of parks has been doubled and the areas of several parks have been expanded. The major problem is that no more than 20% of the national parks and reserves set aside for wildlife are adequately protected from poaching. The southern African countries where wildlife has recently thrived have robust hunting and ecotourism programs, which economically benefit private landowners. Considerable research shows rural communities dependent on rangelands can be incentivized to participate in large mammal conservation programs if they can economically benefit from wildlife tourism, sport hunting, and the legal sale of animal by-products. Community-based wildlife conservation programs can be economically and ecologically effective in sustaining and enhancing African wildlife biodiversity, including rhinos, elephants, and lions. Low-input ranching wild ungulates for meat and hunting may be an economically viable alternative to traditional range livestock production systems in some areas. However, in many situations, common-use grazing of livestock and wildlife will give the most efficient use of rangeland forages and landscapes while diversifying income and lowering risk.
... an alternative legal supply humane harvesting from live animals may significantly displace poaching activity. As has been the case with crocodilians (MacGregor 2006;Moyle 2013), the introduction of a legal trade would depress prices for illegal supplies because: (1) any price premium due to its illegal nature (allure factor) would be diminished; ...
Article
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Using choice modelling we explore willingness to pay (WTP) for rhino horn among existing and potential future consumers in Vietnam. We find that wild-sourced horn, harvested humanely from the least rare species, is the most highly valued product. Furthermore, consumers are willing to pay less for rhino horn products under a scenario where international trade is legalised compared to the current situation of illegal trade. We discuss the potential implications of our findings on rhino poaching and international trade policy.
... The management of crocodilian populations has seen varying levels of success over the last 40-50 years. Populations in more developed countries, such as Australia and the United States, have seen the establishment of highly successful management strategies along with, in some cases, harvesting schemes with up to and including tens of thousands of adult crocodiles being removed from the ecosystem annually (Moyle 2013;. In general, attack numbers in these countries tend to be lower than in developing nations, however, the species that are present in any particular geographical region does have a role to play in determining attack numbers (Caldicott et al. 2005;Langley 2005). ...
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The project sought to examine the effects of habitat loss and fragmentation on the ecology and population genetics of the estuarine crocodile (Crocodylus porosus). Additionally, the role played by humans in this anthropogenically-altered landscape was examined. Through the utilisation of a host of technologies, some previously established, some completely novel in crocodilian research, a new insight into how the landscape is utilised by these cryptic predators was developed. This project represents a first detailed look at Sabah’s crocodilian population, as well as being the first active crocodile research carried out in Sabah’s longest river. Male crocodiles were found to adhere to one of two behavioural strategies, territorial and nomadic, mirroring findings of Campbell et al. (2013). Territory sizes were, however, found to be smaller than those described in Australia, this was attributed to increased prey availability and ecosystem productivity. Only two females were tagged and appeared to also display differences in behavioural strategy. However, due to the small sample size, further work is required to confirm this. Both males and females were found to avoid barriers and were unwilling to pass beyond the barrier, despite no physical obstruction. Nests were detectable aerially through the use of drones and medium-large scale surveys shown to be feasible. Nests were found to all display a number of similarities in terms of habitat characteristics, allowing for refined modelling of survey locations. This allows for a larger survey area to be completed given a limited number of flights, highlighting its cost effectiveness versus traditional methods of nest surveying. Genetic analysis suggested that there was no evidence of a genetic bottleneck following the population recovery that has occurred over the last 30 years. Geographically indistinct haplogroups were discovered, as well as limited levels of inbreeding. The project also indicated that the population studied had undergone a population expansion that seems to have coincided with the onset of the last ice age and is likely attributable to changes in climate.
... In some cases, the harvesting is compensated for by the release of some offspring back into the wild. Ranching is practiced within the country where the species occurs, and if well managed, has potential to benefit both livelihoods and conservation (Gordon and Ayiemba, 2003;Moyle, 2013;Thorbjarnarson, 1999). ...
Article
Trade restrictions are often advocated and implemented as measures to protect wild species threatened by overexploitation. However, in some instances, their efficacy has been questioned, notably by governments in the southern African (SADC) region, which tend to favor a sustainable use approach to wildlife management. We conducted a systematic review of published literature guided by the PRISMA process to examine the effectiveness of trade restrictions and directly related control measures in addressing threats to species conservation in the SADC region, with a focus on elephants ( Loxodonta sp.), rhinoceroses ( Ceratotherium simum , Diceros bicornis ), lions ( Panthera leo ), and pangolins ( Manis sp.). We focused in particular on the direct conservation impact of trade restrictions at species or population level, indirect conservation impact at human behavior or attitude level, and socioeconomic impact on rural livelihoods and well‐being and on national economies. Research on these topics was uneven and focused strongly on the effects of trade restrictions and law enforcement on crime‐related behavior. Research gaps include socioeconomic impacts of trade restrictions, including effects of international restrictions on local livelihoods and consequent secondary conservation impacts, and evaluations of attempts to disrupt criminal networks. Based on the reviewed impact evidence, the effectiveness of international trade restrictions depends on a range of fully aligned measures in countries of origin, transit, and consumption. For example, our results suggest positive ecological short‐term but negative or unknown long‐term socioeconomic impacts of domestic restrictions. Based on these findings, key policy requirements include more nuanced approaches to incorporate a range of appropriate measures in range, transit, and consumer countries, that focus on capacity development for early detection and apprehension of incursions inside protected areas; measures for constructive engagement with relevant local communities outside protected areas; and future research to improve understanding of the socioeconomic contribution of wildlife.
Article
We provide a preliminary assessment of a previously overlooked wildlife trade, the legal trade in badgers (Meles leucurus and Arctonyx spp.) and badger-derived products in South Korea. A new phase of the trade emerged in the 1990s with the establishment of wildlife farms to supply demand for badger as an edible and medicinal resource, including as a substitute for Asiatic black bear (Ursus thibetanus), a Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) Appendix I species. We trace the continued existence of badger farms to supply trade between 2001 and 2020, supplemented by imported badger-derived products and some apparent illegal harvesting of wild Meles leucurus in South Korea. The range of badger-derived products available to consumers has diversified during the last two decades and now encompasses human food, traditional medicine, cosmetics, dietary supplements, and accessories. We recommend improved monitoring and regulation of the trade, given that legal farming, and potential illegal wild harvest, may present important risks to: (i) wild Meles leucurus populations in South Korea and Arctonyx spp. populations in Asia, which are currently poorly monitored; (ii) the welfare of traded badgers, as territorial mammals with specific social and housing needs; (iii) human health, with mustelid farms now in greater focus as potential sources of novel zoonotic diseases.
Chapter
Advancements in genomic techniques have greatly increased the scope of research into many aspects of crocodilian evolution and biology. As cold-blooded amniotes, crocodilians hold a unique evolutionary position for understanding all vertebrate lineages. Applying up-to-date genomic techniques to crocodilian genomes can have far-reaching implications for understanding whole-genome evolution, adaptation and veterinary medicine. The slow rates of genomic mutations in crocodilians also mean we can use them as a way to gain insights into ancient genomes. Currently, only a few complete crocodilian genomes are publicly available; however this is rapidly changing thanks to the work of several laboratories around the world. This chapter will outline the existing available genomic research into biological systems such as innate immunity and sensory perception, as well as disease susceptibility and possible applications in human medicine. We will also outline industry and conservation implications of having high-quality crocodilian genomes for complex trait analysis and identifying ancient hybridization events.
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As wild population threats for the endangered false gharial (Tomistoma schlegelii) persist, conservation breeding programs, including developing semen collection techniques for subsequent artificial insemination, are becoming important species conservation measures. Developing reproductive biology understanding of a species is important to developing best practices and hopefully maximizing reproductive successes. However, information on crocodylians functional copulatory anatomy in general is lacking. To that end, zoological facilities and conservation centres have the exceptional opportunity to contribute new understandings that may not otherwise be attainable regarding crocodylian reproductive anatomy, particularly during routine physical examinations or post-mortem necropsies. Therefore, to better understand T. schlegelii reproductive biology, to contribute knowledge in support of zoo breeding conservation efforts and to contribute to what is known overall about crocodylian reproduction, we investigated phallic anatomy of adult male Tomistoma from two zoological populations, the St. Louis Zoo, USA and Sungai Dusun Wildlife Reserve, Peninsular Malaysia. Here, we present the gross anatomical features and histological analysis of underlying tissue-level details in pursuit of a better understanding of copulatory function and associated gamete transfer mechanisms. While much of the overall Tomistoma phallic morphology and inferred function corresponds to that of other crocodylian species and speaks to conserved aspects of functional anatomy across taxa, species-specific aspects of glans and glans tip morphology are also identified. These novelties are discussed in a general function and overall broader evolutionary contexts.
Thesis
The wildlife trade represents a significant threat to biodiversity, but may also provide opportunities for societal and economic benefits. To supply the trade, wildlife is often sourced from biodiverse developing countries where poverty rates are high. Ensuring a legal and sustainable trade is therefore critical not only for conservation and implementation of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), but can contribute to UN Sustainable Development Goals to reduce poverty in developing regions. This thesis investigates trade in live animals, with emphasis on socio-economic implications of wildlife trade chains, and how these interact with conservation and sustainable use in supply countries. An interdisciplinary approach utilises global analysis of wildlife trade data; social research methods to examine the trade in Madagascar; and a specialised questioning technique to explore sustainability of the trade at the end-user level. The findings demonstrate an increasing component of the reptile pet trade comprises animals from ranching operations, or captive-bred in consumer countries. Although this may take pressure off wild populations, it may have implications for biodiversity and benefit sharing in supply countries. In Madagascar, a small proportion of the export value of reptiles and amphibians reaches local collectors. Whilst being potentially profitable and providing additional cash income to some households, wildlife trapping is also unreliable, part-time and financially risky. Consequently, it appears to bring limited opportunities for poverty alleviation or incentives for conservation at the local scale. Value chain analysis reveals the informal and complex nature of the supply chain, making design and implementation of interventions to enhance the trade challenging. Findings suggest that initiatives may be most effective working at the local level to improve organisation and cooperative management of the trade. At the consumer end, mortality of pet reptiles varies between taxa but appears to be relatively low. This directly informs debate concerning exotic pet keeping in consumer countries, for which there are limited data concerning sustainability of wildlife supply chains. Together, these studies enhance knowledge regarding implications of the wildlife trade for livelihoods and conservation, and inform dialogue concerning wildlife trade policy and practice more generally.
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Bear farms, established for the extraction of bile from live bears, have unknown effects on the conservation of bears in Asia. Whilst some major bile producing countries have tightened legislation on this practice, traders have responded by establishing bile extraction facilities in countries with weaker legislation. We conducted a survey of all known facilities in Lao PDR through direct observation or examination of governmental and non-governmental records, and documented the birth and rapid growth of this industry since the first farm was established in 2000. We also obtained trading values for gall bladders from wild bears in Lao PDR from literature, databases and direct observation. The number of farmed bears tripled from 2008 to 2012. In 2012 121 Asiatic black bears Ursus thibetanus and one sun bear Helarctos malayanus were kept on 11 commercial facilities. Evidence suggests that all bears were wild caught domestically or illegally imported internationally, in violation of national and international law. Moreover, some bile from these farms was being illegally exported internationally. Farmed bile availability has apparently not diminished the demand for wild bile, as the market value has increased dramatically since 2000. We suggest that bear farming in Lao PDR may be increasing the incentive to poach wild bears.
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Human-wildlife conflicts often spur retaliatory killing, which may be a major threat to some wildlife species. Asiatic black bears depredate crops and livestock and also attack humans. We investigated whether human–bear conflicts in Sichuan Province, southwestern China, resulted in increased bear poaching. We conducted semi-structured interviews within 429 15 × 15-km cells across the province, asking villagers about bear occurrence, population trends, attitudes toward bears, human–bear conflicts, responses to bear damage, and bear poaching. Bears raided crops (n = 174 cells), killed livestock (n = 114 cells), and attacked people (n = 49 cells). Fifty percent and 43% of villagers held negative and neutral attitudes toward bears, respectively; attitudes were more negative among people who had previous interactions with bears or lived where bear encounters were more likely. Although killing bears was illegal, villagers in 117 cells (38%) indicated that bear poaching occurred around their villages. However, killing bears was not significantly linked to damage: indeed, killing was more common in areas without human–bear conflicts. Poachers killed bears mainly for trade of their valuable parts (gall bladder and paws, 78.5%). Tibetan people experienced bear damage and also had negative attitudes toward bears, but reported less poaching than Han or Yi people, due to their religious beliefs. Our study indicated that human-wildlife conflicts shaped people’s attitudes toward bears, but strong economic incentives, not attitudes, prompted illegal killing. Whereas mitigation of human–bear conflicts could help foster more positive attitudes toward bears and the nature reserves that protect bears, this strategy will not remove the primary threat against this species.
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In Venezuela, the harvest of spectacled caiman (Caiman crocodilus) has generated significant economic benefits for citizens and the government wildlife department. Between 1983 and 1995 more than 1 million caiman were harvested, with an export value in excess of $US 115 million. Although limited survey data restrict quantitative comparisons, most indications suggest that the harvest has been within sustainable limits. Hunting is conducted on private lands in the central Venezuelan plains where caiman populations benefit from cattle ranching management activities, particularly the construction of dry-season water holes. For ranchers, caiman hunting produces a high return on investment, but the overall earnings are small when compared to those produced by cattle. Caiman are mostly a quick and easy source of income that complements cattle ranching, and there is little incentive to actively manage caiman populations. The only evidence that the income from caiman harvests generates economic incentives to protect caiman populations is that landowners sold the skins of caiman illegally hunted in other areas, so as not to reduce their own caiman populations and possibly diminish future hunting quotas. There is no evidence that caiman harvesting generates economic incentives to protect natural habitat, because caiman benefit from human alteration of savanna habitats associated with the much more economically important cattle ranching activities. Recent changes in how hunting quotas are assigned have reduced economic incentives for landowners to protect caiman populations, but the changes have made the quota-setting procedure simpler. One of the greatest conservation benefits of the program has been its ability to generate operating funds for the traditionally cash-strapped government wildlife agency through a variety of taxes and user fees. Due to a recent government restructuring, however, program proceeds will now go to the central treasury and will no longer benefit wildlife management programs. Resumen: En Venezuela, las cosechas de baba (Caiman crocodilus) han generado beneficios económicos significativos tanto para ciudadanos como para el departamento gubernamental de vida silvestre. Entre 1983 y 1995 más de un millón de babas fueron cosechados con un valor de exportación de más de 115 millones de dólares. Aunque los datos de los estudios son limitados y restringen comparaciones cuantitativas, la mayoría de los indicadores surgieren que las cosechas han estado dentro de límites sustentables. La caza es llevada a cabo en propiedades privadas de la planicie central venezolana, donde las poblaciones de babas se benefician de las actividades de manejo de ganado, particularmente de la construcción de pozos de agua para la temporada de seca. Para los rancheros la caza de babas produce un alto retorno en la inversión, pero las ganacias generales son pequeñas cuando se compara con las del ganado. Las babas son mayormente vistos como rápidas y fáciles fuentes de recursos que complementan la ganadería y hay muy pocos incentivos para manejar activamente las poblaciones de babas. La única evdencia de que las ganacias generadas por babas genera un incentivo económico para proteger poblaciones de babas es que los propietarios de tierras venden pieles ilegalmente cazadas en otras áreas, para así no reducir sus propias poblaciones de babas (y posiblemente disminuir futuras cuotas de caza). No hay evidencia de que las cosechas de babas generan incentivos económicos para proteger el hábitat natural debido a que los beneficios para la baba por alteraciones humanas en las sabanas están asociados con las aún más remunerativas actividades de la ganadería. Cambios recientes en la asignación de las cuotas de caza han reducido los incentivos económicos para los ganaderos para proteger las poblaciones de babas, pero han ocasionado que el procedimiento de distribución de cuotas sea más simple y transparente. Uno de los grandes beneficios de conservación del programa ha sido su habilidad para generar fondos de operación por la agencia gubernamental de vida silvestre, tradicionalmente limitada en recursos económicos. Sin embargo, debido a recientes reestructuraciones en el gobierno, el programa ahora pertenecerá a la tesorería central y no beneficiará más a los programas de manejo de vida silvestre.
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Tigers are a threatened species that might soon disappear in the wild. Not only are tigers threatened by deteriorating and declining habitat, but poachers continue to kill tigers for traditional medicine, decoration pieces and so on. Although international trade in tiger products has been banned since 1987 and domestic trade within China since 1993, tigers continue to be poached and Chinese entrepreneurs have established tiger farms in anticipation of their demise. While China desires to permit sale of tiger products from captive-bred tigers, this is opposed on the grounds that it likely encourages illegal killing. Instead, wildlife conservationists lobby for more spending on anti-poaching and trade-ban enforcement. In this study, a mathematical bioeconomic model is used to investigate the issue. Simulation results indicate that, unless range states are characterized by institutions (rule of law and low corruption) similar to those found in the richest countries, reliance on enforcement alone is insufficient to guarantee survival of wild tigers. Likewise, even though conservation payments could protect wild tigers, the inability to enforce contracts militates against this. Our model indicates that wild tigers can be protected by permitting sale of products from tiger farms, although this likely requires the granting of an exclusive license to sellers. Finally, it is possible to tradeoff enforcement effort and sale of products from captive-bred animals, but such tradeoffs are worsened by deteriorating tiger habitat.
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Wild animals have been a source of food and income through subsistence hunting by forest-dwelling people in Neotropical countries in spite of the fact that hunting appears to be unsustainable as it leads to the depletion of wild fauna. Laws in Brazil and other Latin American countries forbid hunting but allow the commercial use of captive-bred animals. Notwithstanding the fact that this is a controversial topic among conservationists, in this paper we propose that wildlife farming in the Neotropics can be an alternative to the over-hunting and deforestation that are carried out for the production of traditional food and pastures for livestock. This review sets out this proposal, and discusses the implications for tropical forest integrity and rural population dependency on forest resources. We discuss the ecological and economical advantages of wildlife farming and its constraints as a conservation tool, using collared peccary (Pecari tajacu) farming in the Amazon region as a model. Productivity levels may reach 19,000 times higher than those obtained from the management of peccaries from forests in the Amazon region. This can be achieved with an easily obtainable diet composed of forest fruits and locally available agricultural by-products. Therefore, establishing captive management programs for peccaries is an effective way of avoiding wild stock depletion, deforestation, and guaranteeing the livelihood of forest dwellers in the Neotropics. However, it is essential that governmental and/or non-governmental agencies be involved in providing subsides to establish peccary farms, provide technical assistance, and introducing peccary captive breeding centers to supply founder stock. KeywordsCaptive breeding–Food security–Rearing of game–Wildlife husbandry
Article
Harvest of crocodilian eggs and young for captive rearing (ranching) has been used worldwide as an option for producing crocodilian skills and meat from wild stock. The long-term effects of harvesting a certain proportion of early age class, wild American alligators (Alligator mississippiensis) without repatriation is unknown. We removed an estimated 50% of annual production of alligators on Lakes Griffin and Jesup in central Florida over an 11-year period and monitored population levels via night-light counts. Densities of the total alligator population increased (P < 0.037) on all areas. Count densities of adult (greater than or equal to 183 cm total length [TL]) alligators increased (P < 0.003) on harvest areas but remained stable (P = 0.830) on the control (no han est) area, Lake Woodruff National Wildlife Refuge (Lake Woodruff NWR). Observed densities of juvenile (<122 cm TL) alligators remained stable (P > 0.117), and subadult (122-182 cm TL) alligators increased (P < 0.011) on han est areas. The density of juveniles on the control area increased (P = 0.006), and the density of subadults showed some evidence of increasing (P = 0.088). No changes were detected in size distributions on the treatment areas. Nest production, as observed from aerial helicopter surveys, increased (P < 0.039) on Lake Woodruff NWR and Lake Jesup and showed some evidence of an increase on Lake Griffin (P = 0.098) during 1983-91. A 50% harvest rate of eggs or hatchlings did not adversely affect recruitment into the subadult or adult size classes.
Article
Little is known about nest-site fidelity in wild Alligator mississippiensis (American Alligator). As part of a long-term study on multiple paternity and mate fidelity that required capture and marking of nesting female alligators, we documented several instances of nest-site reuse by individual females. In one case, the female nested at the same site seven years after initial capture, demonstrating long-term nest-site fidelity. Another female used one nest site in 2000, 2002, and 2004. Herein, we provide data on minimum nesting intervals for recaptured alligators, including three cases of females nesting in two consecutive years. Despite tremendous habitat alteration and storm surge from Hurricane Rita in 2005 and a catastrophic drought precluding nesting in 2006, we found female alligators in 2007 at nests within 20 m and 170 m of their nest sites from seven years and three years, respectively, prior to those events.
Article
Uncertainty gives rise to two decision errors in implementing the U.S. Endangered Species Act: listing species that are not in danger of extinction and delisting species that are in danger of extinction. I evaluated four methods (minimum standard, precautionary principle, minimax regret criterion, adaptive management) for deciding whether to list or delist a species when there is uncertainty about how those decisions are likely to influence survival of the species. A safe minimum standard criterion preserves some minimum amount or safe standard (population) of a species unless maintaining that amount generates unacceptable social cost. The precautionary principle favors not delisting a species when there is insufficient evidence on the efficacy of state management plans for protecting them. A minimax regret criterion selects the delisting decision that minimizes the maximum loss likely to occur under alternative ecosystem states. When the cost of making a correct decision is less than the cost of making an incorrect decision, the minimax regret criteria indicates that delisting is the optimal decision. Active adaptive management employs statistically valid experiments to test hypotheses about the likely impacts of delisting decisions. Safe minimum standard and minimax regret criterion are not compatible with the U.S. Endangered Species Act. The precautionary principle comes closest to describing how federal agencies make delisting decisions. Active adaptive management is scientifically superior to the other methods but is costly and time consuming and may not be compatible with the U.S. National Environmental Policy Act.
Article
The supply-side approach to conservation, as recommended by economists, prescribes the provision of cheap substitutes for wildlife commodities in an effort to lower the price of such commodities and reduce harvesting pressure. We developed a theoretical economic model to examine whether wildlife farming or ranching indeed contributes to conservation. We first present the naive economic model that lends support to the supply-side approach. This model is incomplete. because it fails to capture the fact that most wildlife markets are not perfectly competitive (instead, models are characterized by a small number of suppliers who have a certain degree of market power), which also implies that it fails to incorporate strategic interaction between suppliers. We then present an alternative model of the (illegal) wildlife trade that reflects imperfect competition and strategic interaction, and demonstrate that wildlife farming may stimulate harvesting (or poaching) rather than discourage it. By applying the model to the case of rhinoceros poaching and ranching, we demonstrate the potentially ambiguous outcomes of rhinoceros-ranching initiatives-wild rhinoceros stocks may recover or suffer from additional depletion, depending on key parameters and the type of competition on output markets. We also show that this type of ambiguity may be eliminated when policy makers restrict quantities of farmed output through a quota system; in that case, introducing wildlife farming will unambiguously promote conservation. In the absence of such accompanying regulation, however, policy makers should be careful when stimulating wildlife farming and be aware of potentially adverse consequences.
Article
Individual animals undergoing ontogenetic shifts in habitat use may establish a mobile link between discrete ecosystems via movement of energy, nutrients and matter, as well as through impacts on ecosystem and habitat structure. The American Alligator (Alligator mississippiensis) is a model species for studying ecological implications of ontogenetic niche shifts, because they grow in size by several orders of magnitude, and they play a critical role as both top predators and ecosystem engineers. We used equal trapping effort, radio telemetry and nest surveys to document ontogenetic habitat shifts of alligators between hydrologically isolated, seasonal wetlands and riverine systems. To estimate the degree of functional connectivity between systems, we quantified alligator biomass and nutrient excretion in both systems. Seasonal wetlands provided nesting and nursery sites for adult females and juveniles, which constituted 0.78 g/m2 biomass and excreted 0.05 g/m2/yr N, P, Ca, Mg, Na and K in that system. In contrast, the riverine system provided non-nesting habitat for adults and sub-adults of both sexes, totaling 0.18 g/m2 biomass and excreting 0.01 g/m2/yr of nutrients. Furthermore, sub-adults and adult females were documented moving across the terrestrial matrix, while adult males spent the duration of the study in the creek. Our results demonstrated that ontogenetic niche shifts in alligators establish connectivity between seasonal wetlands and riverine systems and with the surrounding terrestrial matrix. These findings have implications for the definition of jurisdictional wetlands under the US Supreme Court’s 2001 SWANCC decision and highlight the importance of ecological, as well as hydrological, connectivity.
Article
There is growing concern that the traditional “protectionist” approach to conservation is expensive and insufficient to deliver the desired environmental outcomes. “Supply side” policies to conserve endangered species have drawn support. By generating supplies from captive-bred animals, wildlife commodity prices are expected to fall, thereby lowering the incentive to poach species in the wild. Supply side policies, however, often neglect the institutional framework within which the wildlife trade takes place, and ignore the potential strategic responses of economic agents. Adopting a model that captures imperfect competition between traders and farmers, we analyze the effect of supply side policies and conclude that under some circumstances these policies may contribute to further devastation of wild stocks. We derive conditions under which captive breeding contributes to conservation, and discuss implications for policy makers.
Article
Economic models of trade in endangered species products often do not incorporate four focal arguments in the policy debate over trade bans: (1) law-abiding consumers may operate in another market, separate from illegal consumers, that trade would bring online; (2) legal trade reduces stigma, which affects demand of law-abiding consumers; (3) laundering may bring illegal goods to legal markets when trade is allowed; (4) legal sales may affect illegal supply costs. This paper analyzes systematically which aspects of these complicated markets, separately or in combination, are important for determining whether limited legalized trade in otherwise illegal goods can be helpful for achieving policy goals like reducing poaching.
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Can domestication of wildlife lead to conservation? The economics of tiger farming in China An economic assessment of wildlife farming and conservation
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Ontogenetic nice shifts in the American Alligator establish functional connectivity between aquatic systems Reproductive characteristics of the order Crocodylia
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Effects of Hurricanes Katrina and Rita on alligators (Alligator mississippiensis) in Louisiana
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Elsey R and Kinler N (2006) Effects of Hurricanes Katrina and Rita on alligators (Alligator mississippiensis) in Louisiana. In: Crocodiles, Proceedings of the 18th working meeting of the crocodile specialist group, IUCN-the world conservation union, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK, p 267-279
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The Chinese alligator: ecology, behavior, conservation, and culture
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Thorbjarnarson J, Wang X (2010) The Chinese alligator: ecology, behavior, conservation, and culture. The John Hopkins University, Baltimore
Reproductive characteristics of the order Crocodylia
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Louisiana’s alligator program: adapting management as populations recover and risk of unsustainable use decreases
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Elsey R, Kinler N (2004) Louisiana's alligator program: adapting management as populations recover and risk of unsustainable use decreases. In: Crocodiles, Proceedings of the 17th working meeting of the crocodile specialist group, IUCN-the world conservation union, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK, p 92-101
Effects of Hurricanes Katrina and Rita on alligators (Alligator mississippiensis) in Louisiana
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