A review of young people's vulnerabilities to online grooming
Abstract
This review explores risk factors that may make a young person vulnerable to being groomed online. Even though research in this area is extremely limited, adolescents appear to be the age group most vulnerable to online grooming. Other vulnerabilities appear to be consistent with those associated with offline sexual abuse. The review suggests that behaviors specific to online grooming include: engaging in risk taking behavior online, high levels of internet access, and lack of parental involvement in the young person's internet use. Vulnerabilities to carry out these types of behavior and be more exposed to the risk of online grooming, are set within the context of the Ecological Model of child protection, consisting of: individual, family, community, and cultural risk factors. Patterns of vulnerability regarding living environment, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and personality are tentative, but are often interconnected. The more risk taking behaviors the young person carries out, plus greater levels of vulnerability factors, the less resilient they are likely to be towards protecting themselves against online grooming. A protective factor appears to be parental involvement in their child's use of the internet. Therefore, this, in combination with internet safety education at school, is encouraged.
... Thus, searching for validation and support connections is an important factor that offenders exploit (Chiu & Quayle, 2022), and to do so, they target victims who share information about their problems at school and at home. Moreover, Whittle et al. (2013) showed in their meta analysis that young people in conflict with their parents or with family difficulties were more vulnerable to online grooming (Soo & Bodanovskaya, 2012). For instance, Jonsson et al. (2019) found through a survey with Swedish students that victims of online sexual abuse-in the form of sexual interaction under pressure-had poorer relationships with parents. ...
... For instance, Jonsson et al. (2019) found through a survey with Swedish students that victims of online sexual abuse-in the form of sexual interaction under pressure-had poorer relationships with parents. Although coming from a single-parent or reconstituted family is also related to suffering online grooming (Soo & Bodanovskaya, 2012), that could be due to less parental monitoring, which is also a risk factor (Whittle et al., 2013). In addition, lack of trust with parents could explain why young people did not talk to their parents to report what happened online (Soo & Bodanovskaya, 2012). ...
... Furthermore, online grooming is more frequent among minors whose parents only have primary education, according to a sample of Spanish adolescents (Villacampa & Gómez, 2016). Mitchell et al. (2007) have discussed that parental educational level is more relevant than income as the higher risk is related with the lack of information: despite higher socioeconomic status youth may be more likely to receive friend requests than lower class youth, they are still less likely to become victims of grooming (Whittle et al., 2013). ...
Online grooming is the process by which an adult uses the Internet to initiate a dynamic of sexual persuasion and victimisation through online contact to obtain an encounter or sexual content from a minor. Although there is an abundant literature of attempts to define the risk factors for grooming, fewer studies have addressed the risk factors qualitatively through direct interviews with offenders, victims and experts. Further understanding such characteristics of the grooming process allows the development and improvement of evidence-based prevention programmes, designed to target specific risk factors. To deepen our understanding of how risk factors operate and how offenders exploit minors' vulnerabilities, the European H2020 1 project RAYUELA conducted 15 in-depth interviews with offenders, 8 with victims, and 23 with subject-matter experts from different European countries. The results, based on a categorical content analysis, are consistent with previously reported risk factors for victims. Social isolation was revealed as the most relevant factor. The age of greatest risk is in adolescence due to the characteristics of this developmental stage, among which sexual curiosity stands out. In relation to gender, although girls receive more requests from groomers, boys are more likely to accept them, showing a different perception of the risk. Other relevant factors found non-heterosexual sexual orientation, and poor family communication. In addition, a high percentage of offenders were found to be from the victims' environment. Thus, a relevant conclusion is that risk factors cannot be separated from structural aspects of the offline reality, such as gender stereotypes and lack of sex education, so focusing on them in prevention may be more effective than addressing exclusively Internet aspects.
... As mentioned earlier, this can lead to anxiety about the potential misuse of the shared content after it has been sent. In terms of receiving an offer of money for a personal meeting, our findings are supported by previous research by Gámez-Guadix et al. (2021) and Whittle et al., (2013), who found a correlation between anxiety and victimization in the context of cybergrooming. Gámez-Guadix et al. (2021), focusing on specific strategies, also identified a weak relationship between the offer of gifts for personal meetings and anxiety. ...
... In the context of exploring the relationship between depression and sexting with a close person, while greater parental support is linked with a lower probability of sexting even with close acquaintances (Burén & Lunde, 2018), this study did not find a significant relationship, suggesting that the nature of parent-adolescent relationships may not always be pivotal. Subsequently, the findings of present study do not corroborate studies on the vulnerability of adolescents to cybergrooming, which have highlighted that those with poor familial relations or conflicts are more prone to online sexual advances from predators (Olson, Daggs, Ellevold, & Rogers, 2007;Whittle et al., 2013). This may correspond with the previously mentioned findings of Mýlek, Dedkova, & Macháčková (2020), which identified no relationship between parental support and contact with strangers, suggesting that parental support does not appear to influence whether a groomer contacts the adolescent. ...
... Additionally, we acknowledge that our study did not differentiate between consensual and non-consensual sexting, which may have influenced our results. Regarding receiving offers of money for personal meetings, the rationale was that online aggressors might target adolescents who appear isolated and seek support outside their peer group (Whittle et al., 2013;Wolak et al., 2008), and at the same time, that adolescents may compensate for this lack of offline support through online friendships, which groomers can exploit (Peter et al., 2005). Although some previous findings suggested a significant relationship between social support from friends and receiving such offers, our results did not confirm this. ...
This study examines how risky online behaviors among Czech adolescents relate to social support, depression,
and anxiety. The behaviors investigated include sending videos to strangers, receiving explicit content, sharing
nude photos, encountering monetary offers for meetings, and exposure to blackmail. A nationwide sample of
1095 adolescents aged 15–19 participated in a paper-pencil survey. The research utilized the Scale of Online
Risky Behavior (SORB), the Social Support Questionnaire for Children and Adolescents (CASSS-CZ), and the
Depression Anxiety Stress Scale (DASS-21) for data collection. Findings indicate the prevalence of risky online
behavior: 10.8% of participants reported sending videos, 34.5% received explicit content, 11.3% shared nude
photos, 9.2% encountered monetary offers for meetings, and 12.3% experienced online blackmail, with higher
rates observed in females. Anxiety and depression were consistently linked to an increased likelihood of engaging
in all types of risky online behavior. Parental support was negatively associated with the likelihood of sending a
video of oneself to a stranger and receiving video with inappropriate sexual content, while support from friends
showed no significant relationship with any risky behavior. Further research is needed to understand factors
influencing risky online behavior.
... Dauer, Intensität und Ablauf des Cybergroomings können erheblich variieren (Whittle et al., 2013), der Ablauf folgt jedoch häufig einem grundlegenden Muster, welches dem European Online Grooming Project zufolge nicht linear sondern zyklisch erfolgt und von den Ausübenden stetig angepasst und aufrechterhalten wird (s. Webster et al., 2012). ...
... Anerkennung unter den Peers und ein Gefühl der Zugehörigkeit zu einer oder mehreren sozialen Gruppen sind Grundbedürfnisse und eng verknüpft mit den Entwicklungsaufgaben im Kindes-und Jugendalter (vgl. Whittle et al. (2013) in ihrem Review soziale Isolation beziehungsweise Einsamkeit als Risikofaktor für die Betroffenheit von Cybergrooming, wohingegen soziale Unterstützung (durch Peers) einen Schutzfaktor darstellt. Innerhalb des unüberschaubar großen Publikums finden sich mit großer Wahrscheinlichkeit (fremde) Personen, die auch Hasskommentare oder entwürdigende Fotos liken und teilen, somit Zustimmung und Anerkennung signalisieren und in der Konsequenz aggressives und antisoziales Online-Verhalten verstärken (vgl. ...
Soziale Interaktionen von Kindern und Jugendlichen finden längst nicht mehr nur auf dem Schulhof statt, sondern zunehmend auch in virtuellen Räumen. Dieses Buch beleuchtet die zentralen Risiken, mit denen Kinder und Jugendliche bei ihren Interaktionen im Internet konfrontiert werden können: Cybermobbing, Online-Hatespeech, non-konsensuales Sexting und Cybergrooming. Auf der Grundlage entwicklungs- und medienpsychologischer Befunde und Theorien werden Gemeinsamkeiten und Besonderheiten dieser Risiken, Präventions- und Interventionsansätze sowie Empfehlungen für Forschung und Praxis vorgestellt. Das Buch bietet einen wissenschaftlich fundierten und praxisrelevanten Überblick zu aktuellen Themen der Online-Nutzung im Kindes- und Jugendalter.
... In March 2024, the same researchers found that 33% of teens own a VR device while 13% used their VR device weekly (Piper Sandler, 2024). Some research has identified that adolescents make more rational and mature decisions in situations that are not emotionally arousing but make riskier choices in high-arousal environments (Van Duijvenvoorde et al., 2010;Whittle et al., 2013). Considering that the metaverse provides a richer, deeper, and more visceral experience of heightened emotionality, it stands to reason that youth may be increasingly susceptible to significant harm on these immersive platforms (Maloney et al., 2020a;Suh, 2023). ...
Research indicates that participation in metaverse environments and with virtual reality (VR) is increasing among younger populations, and that youth may be the primary drivers of widespread adoption of these technologies. This will more readily happen if their experiences are safe, secure, and positive. We analyze data from a nationally representative sample of 5005, 13- to 17-year-olds in the United States to measure their experiences of 12 specific harms on VR platforms, and which protective strategies they employed to prevent or respond to them. Girls were more likely to be sexually harassed and to experience grooming/predatory behavior, and were more likely to have been targeted specifically because of their gender. Finally, girls were more likely to engage in some specific protective measures online, but overall both boys and girls use platform safety mechanisms infrequently. We discuss enhancements in policy, content moderation, and feature sets that can serve to better safeguard youth in the metaverse.
... • freizügiger Umgang mit privaten Informationen • Bereitschaft, mit unbekannten Personen online zu interagieren • Versenden von Nacktbildern • enthemmtes und exzessives Onlineverhalten Umweltbezogene Faktoren im Bereich familiärer Risiken (Webster et al., 2012;Whittle et al., 2013;Whittle & Hamilton-Giachritsis, 2014;Wachs et al., 2020) wie niedriges elterliches Bildungsniveau, Konflikte mit den Eltern, Gewalterfahrungen in der Familie, geringe instruktive und hohe restriktive elterliche Medienerziehung usw. können Cybergrooming ebenso fördern. ...
Eine zentrale Frage, der gar nicht mehr so jungen aber immer noch wenig beforschten digitalen Welt, soll hier im Lichte der Kriminologie und in Ansätzen beantwortet werden. Nämlich, ob Cyberkriminali-tät anderen Mustern folgt als klassische Kriminalität und sich der:die klassische Täter:in von dem:von der Cyber-Täter:in unterscheidet (Bliesener & Schemmel, 2023, S. 1). Es kristallisieren sich in der Analyse von Cybergrooming digitale Logiken heraus, z. B. dass die Online-Enthemmung im digitalen Raum besonders hoch ist und dass daraus neue Täter:innen-und Opfertypen entstehen. Digitale Delikte wie Cybergrooming-als Aufgabe einer digitalen Kriminologie-müssen neu eingeordnet, bewertet und analysiert werden, um z. B. die richtigen kriminalpräventiven Schlüsse daraus ziehen zu können. In die-sem Übersichtsartikel zeigt sich anhand der ersten Schlussfolgerung, dass die Rechtsdurchsetzung im digitalen Raum zwar erhöht werden muss, die zweite Schlussfolgerung macht zugleich deutlich, dass der Faktor Mensch, also die Personen, die das Internet nutzen, gestärkt werden muss-in diesem Falle mit digitaler Resilienz.
This paper answers a central question concerning the not-so-young but still under-researched digital world from the perspective of criminology, namely whether cybercrime follows different patterns than traditional crime and whether the traditional perpetrator differs from the cyber perpetrator (Bliesener & Schemmel, 2023, p. 1). To this end, the phenomenon of cybergrooming is analyzed and examined from various perspectives. It turns out that novel and digital phenomena are difficult to grasp crimino-logically, as they follow different logics and can give rise to new types of perpetrators and victims. Digital crimes-as the task of digital criminology-must be classified, evaluated and analyzed differently in order to arrive at the right crime prevention conclusions, for example. While the article's first conclusion shows that law enforcement in the digital space must be increased, the second conclusion also makes it clear that the human factor, i.e. the people who use the internet, must be strengthened-in this case through digital resilience.
... One participant mentioned that what made it difficult to speak out was the fear that disclosing her experiences would entail revealing the sexual image to others. Young people affected by TA-CSA often fall prey to perpetrators' manipulative strategies and initially engage in sexualized conversations due to sexual curiosity (Kloess et al., 2017), uncertainty about and exploration of their sexuality (Whittle, Hamilton-Giachritsis, Beech, & Collings, 2013), or because they perceive their abuser as their boyfriend (Whittle et al., 2014a). The fear of being blamed or considered complicit can to some extent be justified, as adults may not be as open-minded or comfortable with this natural sexual exploration, especially when it occurs online (Anastassiou, 2017). ...
... Frank Webster (2014) rozumie infosferę jako sieć technologii i procesów umożliwiających globalne zbieranie, analizowanie i dystrybucję informacji, podkreślając znaczenie ICT jako kluczowego jej elementu. Natomiast Juliusz L. Kulikowski traktuje infosferę jako synonim przestrzeni informacyjnej, definiując ją jako "środowisko informacyjne człowieka obejmujące te rodzaje informacji, które są mu dostępne za pośrednictwem centrów wyższej działalności nerwowej" (za: Kisilowska, 2011, s. 45). ...
Infosfera to wieloaspektowe środowisko informacyjne wpływające na jednostki i społeczeństwo, obejmujące mediosferę i informacje z kontaktów międzyludzkich. Artykuł przedstawia teoretyczne ramy pojęcia infosfery, jej definicje i kluczowe elementy, analizując wpływ środowiska cyfrowego na uczestników w kontekście psychologicznym, społecznym, edukacyjnym i zdrowotnym. Wskazuje również na dynamiczny charakter infosfery, kształtowany przez rozwój technologii informacyjnych i komunikacyjnych (ICT). Artykuł omawia główne wyzwania oraz strategie adaptacyjne, niezbędne dla funkcjonowania społeczeństw, szczególnie młodzieży, w dynamicznie rozwijającym się ekosystemie informacyjnym. Podkreśla potrzebę zrozumienia i aktywnego adaptowania się do zmian w środowisku informacyjnym, aby świadomie i odpowiedzialnie korzystać z oferowanych przez infosferę możliwości.
The online grooming risk (OGR) among adolescents has risen due to the development of technology and the growing use of social media. Although crucial links have been described among family support, self‐esteem and OGR, little is known about the mechanisms problematic Internet usage has in these links. This study aims to investigate the mediating role of problematic Internet usage in the relationship among family support, self‐esteem and OGR. The participants consist of a total of 406 adolescents in Türkiye, with 283 girls and 123 boys (age, mean ± standard deviation = 16.25 ± 1.68). The relationships among the variables were examined using the Pearson correlation, while mediation analyses were carried out using structural equation modelling. Correlational analyses reveal family support to be negatively associated with both OGR and problematic Internet usage. Meanwhile, family support was positively correlated with self‐esteem. Similarly, a positive and statistically significant relationship was determined between OGR and problematic Internet usage. The results indicate problematic Internet usage to mediate the relationship between family support and OGR as well as the relationship between self‐esteem and OGR. These results highlight the importance of paying attention to adolescents' mental health regarding problematic Internet usage by considering the protective factors of self‐esteem and family support due to their close association with OGR.
With the advent of new technologies, cases of online child sexual abuse have become notoriously widespread, rendering it necessary for both teachers and parents to know how to deal with this phenomenon. The aim of this study was to find out which were the main interventions and strategies that both teachers and parents could apply within their immediate environment to reduce the risk of online child sexual harassment. Using the PRISMA approach for systematic reviews, all literature about strategies and interventions for reducing the risk of online child sexual abuse from a variety of databases was analyzed. When possible, Cohen's d was used to measure the effect size of the interventions. Based on 38 included papers out of a total of 5644, it was found 13 strategies that teachers could commonly use with their students, such as reading real-life testimonies of grooming, as well as 7 strategies that parents could commonly use with their children, such as establishing rules about the use of the internet. The effect sizes showed a reduction in the prevalence of grooming [Experimental (d =-.71 to-.03); Control (d = .00 to .50)] and an increase in knowledge and attitudes [Experimental (d = .45 to 1.66); Control (d =-.03 to .22)] in favor of the students that participated in the interventions. The present results suggest that using these kind of interventions and strategies may bring positive results for children and teenagers in order to prevent and cope with online child sexual abuse.
What factors enable individuals to overcome adverse childhoods and move on to rewarding lives in adulthood? Drawing on data collected from two of Britain's richest research resources for the study of human development, the 1958 National Child Development Study and the 1970 British Cohort Study, Schoon investigates the phenomenon of ‘resilience’ - the ability to adjust positively to adverse conditions. Comparing the experiences of over 30,000 individuals born twelve years apart, Schoon examines the transition from childhood into adulthood and the assumption of work and family related roles among individuals born in 1958 and 1970 respectively. The study focuses on academic attainment among high and low risk individuals, but also considers behavioural adjustment, health and psychological well-being, as well as the stability of adjustment patterns in times of social change. This is a major work of reference and synthesis, that makes an important contribution to the study of lifelong development.
Objective: To provide clinicians with current information on prevalence, risk factors, outcomes, treatment, and prevention of child sexual abuse (CSA). To examine the best-documented examples of psychopathology attributable to CSA. Method: Computer literature searches of Medline and PSYCInfo for key words. All English-language articles published after 1989 containing empirical data pertaining to CSA were reviewed. Results: CSA constitutes approximately 10% of officially substantiated child maltreatment cases, numbering approximately 88,000 in 2000. Adjusted prevalence rates are 16.8% and 7.9% for adult women and men, respectively. Risk factors include gender, age, disabilities, and parental dysfunction. A range of symptoms and disorders has been associated with CSA, but depression in adults and sexualized behaviors in children are the best-documented outcomes. To date, cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) of the child and a nonoffending parent is the most effective treatment. Prevention efforts have focused on child education to increase awareness and home visitation to decrease risk factors. Conclusions: CSA is a significant risk factor for psychopathology, especially depression and substance abuse. Preliminary research indicates that CBT is effective for some symptoms, but longitudinal follow-up and large-scale "effectiveness" studies are needed. Prevention programs have promise, but evaluations to date are limited.
Findings from a 14 site mixed methods study of over 1500 youth globally support four propositions that underlie a more culturally and contextually embedded understanding of resilience: 1) there are global, as well as culturally and contextually specific aspects to young peoples lives that contribute to their resilience; 2) aspects of resilience exert differing amounts of influence on a childs life depending on the specific culture and context in which resilience is realized; 3) aspects of childrens lives that contribute to resilience are related to one another in patterns that reflect a childs culture and context; 4) tensions between individuals and their cultures and contexts are resolved in ways that reflect highly specific relationships between aspects of resilience. The implications of this cultural and contextual understanding of resilience to interventions with at-risk populations are discussed.
The aim of this paper was to review research investigating resilient outcomes for people with a history of childhood sexual abuse (CSA) and implications for practice, as well as to consider issues for clearer definitions. Fifty English language peer‐reviewed studies (1991–2010) met the inclusion criteria. The reviewed papers identified a number of factors that were repeatedly associated with individuals showing resilient outcomes to CSA. These included inner resources (e.g. coping skills, interpretation of experiences and self‐esteem), family relationships, friendships, community resources (e.g. church or school), as well as some abuse‐related factors (e.g. older age at onset). A large number of methodological concerns within these studies were also noted, including the way in which resilience, CSA and protective factors were defined. However, despite this, many papers identified similar factors that could be utilised to develop both effective prevention programmes and resilience interventions for the survivors of CSA. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
‘Fifty English language peer‐reviewed studies (1991–2010) met the inclusion criteria’
Key Practitioner Messages
There is a wealth of research investigating resilience in people who have experienced CSA.
Many papers presented similar findings. Interpersonal features were repeatedly identified; but importantly so were familial support and stability, peer friendships, appropriately timed social support, academic success, spirituality and a sense of community.
It seems likely that health promotion initiatives and social policies and programmes can improve resilient outcomes for people with a history of CSA, using both individual and systemic interventions.
‘Many papers presented similar findings’