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Transformational leadership, job satisfaction, and team performance: A multilevel mediation model of trust
Abstract
In spite of calls for deliberate differentiation between individual and team levels of analysis, leadership research based on well-grounded theory referring to multiple levels is scarce. We seek to fill this gap by analyzing the relations between transformational leadership, trust in supervisor and team, job satisfaction, and team performance via multilevel analysis. Results are based on a sample of 360 employees from 39 academic teams. Transformational leadership was positively related to followers' job satisfaction at individual as well as team levels of analysis and to objective team performance. The relation between individual perceptions of supervisors' transformational leadership and job satisfaction was mediated by trust in the supervisor as well as trust in the team. Yet, trust in the team did not mediate the relationship between team perceptions of supervisors' transformational leadership and team performance. Implications for theory and research of leadership at multiple levels as well as for practice are discussed.
... Job satisfaction can be defined as the measurement of a person's job or experience in terms of positive emotions, job enjoyment (Ahmad et al., 2019), and how the person feels at work (like or dislike) (Braun et al., 2013). This definition refers to individual emotions that tend to lead to increased productivity, creativity and work engagement. ...
... The appreciation provided by the organization can be in the form of a psychological contract for employee performance achievements (Andayani et al., 2022). The greater the level of employee psychological contracts that can be fulfilled, will increase employee loyalty and job satisfaction (Braun et al., 2013;C.-J. Chen et al., 2022). ...
... Fujiasih (2017) researched the PT Sucofindo organization in East Kalimantan, finding that the psychological contract provided by the organization to employees in the form of financial and non-financial will increase employee job satisfaction. Braun et al (2013) states that psychological contracts are positively related to job satisfaction. Utami et al (2021) stated that the psychological contract given by the organization to employees for performance will increase job satisfaction. ...
This research investigates how the role of the mediating variable of psychological contract and the moderating variable of tenure on the influence of the independent variable of transformational leadership on job satisfaction in Indonesian government organizations. This research is in line with Decker, (2018) the results of the study show that transformational leadership significantly affects job satisfaction, this is also expressed in research. Masal, (2015) with the title "Shared and transformational leadership in the police" shows that transformational leadership exerts a significant influence on shared leadership and has a significant influence on organizational goals and creates job satisfaction for followers. Quantitative was used for data analysis and questionnaires as a data collection technique distributed online using Google Forms to all employees of civil servants in the Indonesian government with a simple random sampling technique. Data analysis using SEM-PLS with the help of applications, namely SmartPLS. This study shows the results that the independent variable of transformational leadership has a significant influence on the dependent variable of job satisfaction. Directly, the psychological contract promotes increased job satisfaction. The psychological contract acts as a partial mediation on the influence of transformational leadership on job satisfaction. The moderating variable of tenure also plays a role in strengthening the influence of the independent variable of transformational leadership on job satisfaction.
... Thereby, leadership aspects have attracted researchers' attention for years, however, transformational leadership (TFL) has been the focus of a significant amount of published work and "dominates the leadership landscape" (Antonakis, 2012, p. 257;Arnold, 2017). Prior research has not only linked TFL to micro level of employees' attitude and behaviors such as in-role and extra-role performance, work engagement (WE), employee creativity and wellbeing (Wang et al., 2011), but also macro organizational level of outcomes like team and organizational performance (Braun et al., 2013). However, the process through which TFL triggers employee's attitudes is complex (Ghadi et al., 2013). ...
... First, existing studies lack clarity on the role of SE as mediator between the TFL-WE link (Prochazka et al., 2017). Second, the literature has well recognized the followers trust in leadership as mediator between the TFL and job satisfaction, employee psychological well-being, commitment, in-role, extra-role and organizational performance (Braun et al., 2013;Kelloway et al., 2012;Yang, 2016;Zhu et al., 2013). Likewise, WE is a conceptually associated construct (Alfes et al., 2013), but less known about its mediating effect between the TFL-WE. ...
... According to Gillespie and Mann (2004), TFL is a prerequisite for followers' trust in their leaders. Likewise, other academics concur that developing followers' trust is a key element of TFL (Braun et al., 2013;Wang et al., 2016;Zhu et al., 2013). Afsar and Umrani (2020) argue that TFL builds credibility and trust by taking into account the demands of each employee individually and encouraging acceptance of the group's aims and interests. ...
Purpose
The importance of transformational leadership (TFL) for improving followers’ work engagement (WE) has been highlighted by management researchers, but little is known about how and why TFL is related to WE. This study develops an integrated model that addresses the questions and uncovers the influence of TFL on employees’ WE through two pathways reflecting simple and parallel mediating effects of employees’ self-efficacy (SE) and trust in the leader.
Design/methodology/approach
In a developing country’s organizational context, a total of 376 employees working in four different types of organizations voluntarily participated in the survey. Partial least square structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) was used to test the study model.
Findings
Data supported the joint parallel mediation effect of subordinates’ SE and trust in the leader and partially confirm the role of a single mediator of each between the relationship of TFL and WE.
Practical implications
In public sector, it is a daunting challenge to sustain a high degree of WE of employees so that they may actively involve in the provision of better services planned by policymakers. Therefore, WE has deemed a very important construct for both administrators and researchers in such organizations. The framework and relationships that are discussed and displayed in this study help administrators in understanding the driving forces that cause in to WE.
Originality/value
This research links multiple theories to develop an integrated model. The employees' perceptual data supported predictive power of the model both in-sample and out-of-sample through a rigorous statistical technique. Hence, this study is contributing to narrowing the gap between theory and practice.
... On the other hand, participative management styles have been shown to be associated with higher levels of job satisfaction, affective commitment, and employee engagement 25,32 . However, the majority of literature examining the relationship between leadership and well-being has primarily focused on transformational and transactionalleadership styles 28,33 , as defined by Bass in 1985 34 , and has taken into account aspects of wellbeing that are strictly related to the work context, such as job satisfaction 32,33,35 . Thus, the relationship between autocratic, democratic, and let-it-be leadership and employees' general well-being remains understudied in recent literature, as these leadership styles have mostly been explored in terms of their impact on job performance 36,37 . ...
... On the other hand, participative management styles have been shown to be associated with higher levels of job satisfaction, affective commitment, and employee engagement 25,32 . However, the majority of literature examining the relationship between leadership and well-being has primarily focused on transformational and transactionalleadership styles 28,33 , as defined by Bass in 1985 34 , and has taken into account aspects of wellbeing that are strictly related to the work context, such as job satisfaction 32,33,35 . Thus, the relationship between autocratic, democratic, and let-it-be leadership and employees' general well-being remains understudied in recent literature, as these leadership styles have mostly been explored in terms of their impact on job performance 36,37 . ...
Investigating the role of individual differences in Environmental Sensitivity for well-being and stress at work is an emerging area of research with significant potential for practical implications in organizational management and human resources. Recent studies have begun to explore how individuals with high sensory-processing sensitivity (SPS) may be more vulnerable to work-related stress than their less sensitive peers, but may also derive greater benefits from positive job resources when available. The present study aims to investigate the role of leadership style in the complex interplay between individual differences in sensitivity, stress at work, and general well-being. A questionnaire was administered through Qualtrics to a total of 317 workers from two medium–large–sized Italian companies, across two waves between May and July 2022. Findings provided support for a three-way interaction effect, with job stressors exerting an adverse effect on participants’ well-being, mitigated by democratic and let-it-be leadership styles at the team level, particularly among highly sensitive individuals. Thus, our findings suggest a vantage sensitivity effect and underscore the importance of cultivating positive work climates to enhance workers’ ability to cope with stressors and improve their global well-being, with particular relevance for highly sensitive individuals.
... While the structural working conditions of early career researchers and leadership styles of German professors have already been addressed in national studies (Schmidt & Richter, 2009;Gassmann, 2018;Moll & Kretschmar, 2017), research on the interplay between the organization and leadership of professorships and the individual level has been scarce. Braun et al. (2013) explored the link between leadership of academic research teams and how it affects team-level performance and individual job satisfaction. Wilkesmann and Wagner (2024) applied a mixed-methods approach to work out the particularities of the internal organization and division of labor at German professorships along Ahrne and Brunson's (2011) five criteria that define organization (membership, hierarchy, rules, monitoring, and sanction). ...
... Autonomy granted by professors increases autonomous motivation while promoting competence and fostering relatedness through inclusive leadership increases internalized motivation. The FRLM, which is effective in academic settings (Braun et al., 2013), supports this analysis by emphasizing the role of leadership in motivating team members by addressing their autonomy, competence, and relatedness needs. Bass and Avolio's (1994) FRLM identifies transformational leadership as key to meeting basic psychological needs. ...
This study examines the relationship between predoctoral researchers’ perceptions of transformational leadership and their autonomous work motivation, with basic psychological need satisfaction (autonomy, relatedness, and competence) as a mediator. Based on the full range leadership model and self-determination theory, hypotheses are tested using an online survey (n=1,969) conducted from March to May 2022 among professors and their academic staff at German research universities in the fields of business administration, biology, mechanical engineering, and sociology. For the subsample of predoctoral researchers (n=1,005), the structural equation model reveals that transformational leadership increases autonomous work motivation through perceived autonomy and competence, whereas perceived relatedness has a negative effect. In addition, academic career aspirations positively influence autonomous work motivation, while gender has no significant effect. These findings highlight the role of transformational leadership in promoting basic psychological needs satisfaction among emerging scientists.
... A confiança é um fator positivo no enfrentamento desses desafios e um caminho para a solução dessas dificuldades gerenciais. A cooperação (Coleman et al., 1990), os comportamentos de cidadania organizacional (McAllister, 1995), o melhor desempenho do grupo (Dirks, 2000), o desempenho organizacional (Davis et al., 2000), a satisfação no trabalho (Braun et al., 2013), a comunicação, compartilhamento de informações (Ferrin, Dirks, & Shah, 2003), e o comprometimento (Morgan & Hunt, 1994;Walter et al., 2003) são fatores relacionados positivamente com a confiança na relação entre líder-liderado. A confiança é um fator relevante na influência das relações interpessoais nas organizações, e consequentemente, no sucesso organizacional (Caldwell & Dixon, 2010;Dirks & Ferrin, 2001). ...
... Embora a literatura exponha de modo consistente a complexidade da confiança pela sua construção através de seis diferentes estruturas subjetivas (Habilidades/Competências; Transparência/Comunicação Aberta; Justiça/Ética; Benevolência; Comportamento Íntegro/Consistente; Participação na Tomada de Decisões) (Zaccaro et al., 2001;Coleman et al., 1990;McAllister, 1995;Dirks, 2000;Davis et al., 2000;Braun et al., 2013;Ferrin, Dirks & Shah, 2003), aqui denominadas domínios, apenas duas delas despontaram com indiscutível força na construção da liderança. A baixa significância, ou sua falta, nos outros 4 domínios requerem mais estudos, embora tenham se mostrado poderosos em outras investigações confiança (Avolio, 1999;Brown, Treviño & Harrison, 2005;Agote et al., 2016). ...
Abusca porresultados tornou-se mais desafiadora pela maior intensidade de trocas e de relações interpessoais. Essas novas condições têm sido enfrentadas pela liderança, por seu poder de fomentar a cooperação entre pessoas e grupos e de energizar a motivação. Sendo a liderança um poder construído nas relações interpessoais, a confiança desponta como variável crucial de sua produção. Sem a confiança comprometemos a capacidade de trocas da qual depende a eficácia e sustentabilidade dos negócios. Estudar a relação entreliderança e confiança é o principal objetivo deste projeto, que foi viabilizado através de uma pesquisa com a finalidade de avaliar como a confiança é construída no contexto das relações da liderança. Tal pesquisa foi desenhada e realizada pela utilizaçãoda Metodologia Q. Os resultados obtidos na Escala Q confirmaram a relação entre confiança e liderança, permitindo diferenciar os desempenhos empoderadores da confiança entre líderes e subordinados e detectar a influência do comprometimento nessa interação.
... At the most local level, positive research group climate is related to greater individual job satisfaction, commitment, and involvement (Braun et al., 2013;Parker et al., 2003). Perceptions of climate at that level (person-research group fit) are especially influenced by trust, support, and cooperation among group members (James et al., 2008) and intragroup conflict or tension (de Wit et al., 2012). ...
... Given the existing literature on the relationships between climate and career outcomes (Braun et al., 2013;Parker et al., 2003) and the comparatively negative climate perceptions among members of underrepresented groups in STEM (Settles, Brassel, et al., 2019;Settles et al., 2016), we expected inclusive climates to be a central factor affecting career outcomes for marginalized early career scholars. We examined how inclusive climates at three academic levels affect academic science career outcomes in four science disciplines: biology, economics, physics, and psychology. ...
Existing academic structures and norms perpetuate the mistreatment and marginalization of scholars resulting in a climate that is misaligned with the values of academics from marginalized groups. Therefore, we study how climates at multiple levels of the academy (i.e., research group, department, and professional field) shape marginalized scholars’ careers and career attitudes. Participants (N = 3,204) were doctoral students, postdoctoral fellows, and assistant professors from four science fields (biology, physics, economics, and psychology) who completed an online survey about psychological safety and intragroup conflict within their research group, climate of diversity within their department, climate of scholarly inclusion within their professional field, and their career outcomes. We conducted three general structural equation models with marginalized identity status predicting three career outcomes: turnover intentions, burnout disengagement, and burnout exhaustion. We also tested the mediation effect of climate at the levels of the research group, department, and profession on these career outcomes. Participants with a greater number of marginalized identities experienced a more negative climate at all three levels compared to those with no and fewer marginalized identities. The climate experienced at these three levels also significantly mediated all three career outcomes for marginalized scholars. Climate of scholarly inclusion at the level of the profession was especially strongly related to intent to leave and burnout. These results add to the breadth of research on multiply marginalized scholars’ negative experiences of academic climates and point to areas that may be particularly important for interventions.
... This increased job satisfaction, in turn, leads to higher levels of performance (Judge, Thoresen, Bono, & Patton, 2001). For instance, a study by Braun, Peus, Weisweiler, and Frey (2013) found that job satisfaction mediates the relationship between transformational leadership and team performance, highlighting the importance of employee well-being in achieving organizational success. ...
... The mediation analysis revealed that job satisfaction partially mediates the relationship between transformational leadership and employee performance (indirect effect = 0.25, p < 0.001). This finding aligns with the notion that transformational leaders create a positive work environment that fosters job satisfaction, which, in turn, translates into improved employee performance (Braun et al., 2013;Griffith, 2004). Transformational leaders inspire employees, provide them with growth opportunities, and create a supportive climate, thereby enhancing their job satisfaction and motivating them to perform better (Aydin et al., 2013;Riaz et al., 2012 Moreover, job satisfaction was found to partially mediate this relationship, suggesting that transformational leaders create a positive work environment that fosters job satisfaction, which, in turn, translates into improved employee performance. ...
This study investigated the impact of transformational leadership on employee performance in small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) across Malaysia, Singapore, and Thailand. It explored the mediating role of job satisfaction and the moderating effect of organizational culture on the relationship between transformational leadership and employee performance. Data were collected from 450 employees across various SME sectors using validated scales for transformational leadership (MLQ), job satisfaction (JSS), employee performance (Borman and Motowidlo's scale), and organizational culture (OCAI). Structural equation modeling revealed a significant positive relationship between transformational leadership and employee performance (β = 0.30, p < 0.001), with job satisfaction partially mediating this relationship (indirect effect = 0.25, p < 0.001). Additionally, organizational culture significantly moderated the relationships among transformational leadership, job satisfaction, and employee performance (β = 0.18, p < 0.001). However, multigroup analysis showed that the strength of these relationships did not significantly differ across the three countries. The findings underscore the importance of transformational leadership in enhancing employee performance in Southeast Asian SMEs, with job satisfaction and organizational culture playing crucial roles. Practical recommendations for SME leaders include cultivating transformational leadership behaviors, fostering a positive organizational culture, prioritizing job satisfaction, and tailoring leadership practices to cultural nuances.
... Management transformation as the third dimension of agile business transformation is a business strategy that enables firms to react more quickly and innovatively to shifting market needs and consumer demands by planning, organising, directing and coordinating supply chain activities that add value to partners Braun et al. (2012), Samanta and Lamprakis (2018) and Krchmer (2015). Management transformation refers to an uncommon corporation that understands the necessity of aligning, and developing corporate objectives with human resources, policies, personnel, resources, and processes Okanga and Drotskie (2016), Berendi et al. (2012), and Alotaib and Liu, (2017). ...
... Also, Gilley et al. (2009), Mclaren (2004, Geib and Swenson (2013) and Lei and Xu (2021) affirmed that the urgency and incentive of a leader to envisage and build the future out of motivation is another motivator in management transformation that requires organisational paradigms and fresh ways of thinking that compelled new innovation that will improve supply chain performance. Nevertheless, Braun et al. (2012), Berendt et al. (2012), Ashurst and Hodges (2010), and Vaska et al. (2021) maintained that frequently design work based not only on organisational priorities but also on the preferences, areas of expertise, and general deposition of each employee. Alotaibi and Liu (2017), Kirchmer (2015), Samanta and Lamprakis (2018), and Day and Antonakis (2011) also pointed out that for the purpose of achieving effective and efficient management transformation, organisations now have a much greater need than ever before to keep improving the professional abilities and the knowledge of their current personnel. ...
... A multilevel mediation model was used to test the possible pathways and quantify the mediated effects 73 . Here we used the "PROCESS" function from the BruceR package in R 74 . ...
Smartphones have become an integral part of modern life, raising concerns about their impact on mental health, especially among young people. However, previous studies yielded inconsistent results, possibly due to neglecting the possibility of interactions between offline and online communications. To explore potential interactions among different communication modes (online vs. offline) and communication types (private vs. public), we adopted the experience sampling method to track 418 Japanese individuals over 21 days and analyzed the data using multilevel models and psychometric network models. The findings revealed that digital use has only small direct effects on happiness and loneliness, especially through public (one-to-many) online communication. The increased digital use reduced offline communication time, indirectly influencing loneliness to a large degree. Overall, this study highlights the indirect effects of decreased face-to-face communication and the significant role of one-to-many online communication, which may explain a part of the diverse findings on this issue.
... When subordinates perceive that their leaders trust them, they are more inclined to share their knowledge (Nguyen & Mohamed, 2011;Zach & Hill, 2017). Additionally, transformational leaders inspire enthusiasm for knowledge sharing among employees, as it can simplify their work (Braun et al., 2013). Theoretically, knowledge sharing is supported by social exchange and the reduction of bureaucratic barriers (Kim & Beehr, 2018). ...
This study investigates the impact of transformational leadership on innovative work behavior, with a focus on the mediating role of knowledge sharing. Data were collected through a questionnaire administered to 126 respondents from small and medium-sized export industries in Bali. The data were analyzed using SmartPLS 3.2.9. The findings indicate that transformational leadership has a significant effect on innovative work behavior. Furthermore, knowledge sharing serves as a mediator between transformational leadership and innovative work behavior. The study acknowledges limitations, such as potential bias from self-assessment methods. The implications suggest that leaders in small and medium-sized industries should gain a deeper understanding of the relationships between these variables and the mediating mechanisms involved. This information can be valuable for enhancing leadership performance and fostering innovative work behavior in these industries. Theoretically, this study contributes to the understanding of how leadership styles can enhance organizational behavior, particularly in promoting innovative work behavior.
... Burns (1978) theory of transformational leadership [33], empirically measures influence, enthusiasm, and satisfaction among employees. Aligning individual goals to a common mission, trust and support, and managing resources are just a few of the challenges of leadership [34]. Ross et al. (2014) described five leadership practices', which inspire others. ...
This descriptive phenomenological study was to explore how communication and leadership influenced retention of registered nurses. The theoretical foundation of this descriptive phenomenological study is communication and leadership grounded in Burns theory of transformational leadership. The purpose of this study was to expand on and fill a gap in the research of how the lived experiences of nine registered nurses add to the influence communication and leadership has on retention, and to answer the following research questions. What are the lived experiences of registered nurses in the Western United States as they relate to retention when those registered nurses perceive a lack of communication? And, what are the lived experiences of registered nurses in the Western United States as they relate to retention when those registered nurses perceive a lack of leadership? The researcher interviewed nine participants working in hospitals in the Western United States. Thematic and descriptive data analysis resulted in five primary themes: transparency, cohesive workplace, passion, collaboration, and leadership. The study used transformational leadership as the primary leadership philosophy. The results of the study showed that leadership and communication can have a positive, or a negative influence on retention of registered.
... The theory of knowledge creation suggests that the sharing of tacit knowledge within an organization, combined with the processes of socialization, externalization, integration, and internalization, can lead to knowledge innovation 17 . For instance, a discord among team members, like in an innovation team, might cause the inadequate utilization of knowledge assets, impeding the achievement of RTI in national research projects 18 . ...
Based on the innovation-driven theory and the ability-motivation-opportunity (AMO) perspective, we explore the role of intellectual property protection (IPP) in enhancing the radical technological innovation (RTI) of national research project teams (NRPT). Survey data from 336 national research project team members from universities and enterprises were used to analyze the theoretical model of this study, bringing in the chain-mediated effects of innovation milieu (IM) and group potential (GP) for analysis, as well as two-stage hybrid partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) and artificial neural network techniques (ANN) to evaluate the hypotheses. The empirical findings of this paper show that the strength of IPP has a positive relationship with RTI of NRPT, and that IPP is the most important predictor of this. These new findings expand the scope of innovation-driven theory and AMO theory, and provide a constructive model for NRPT to provide suggestions for the improvement of IPP system as a way to improve the realization of RTI. The results of this study can guide policymakers in strengthening IPP systems to encourage research teams to explore innovation more proactively and to facilitate the reasonable sharing and transfer of innovative outcomes. By creating a supportive innovation environment and maximizing the potential of research teams, technological breakthroughs can be achieved more effectively.
... The success of projects in a complex and unpredictable environment depends heavily on leadership, and existing research has called for a more systemic and collective investigation of leadership as a social process in the field of project management (Agarwal et al., 2021;Bhatti et al., 2021). Because of its captivating and inspiring qualities, studies have demonstrated that transformational leadership, among the different leadership philosophies accessible, is essential for teams whose communication levels are restricted by technology (Braun, Peus, Weisweiler, & Frey, 2013). Effective leaders, especially transformational leaders, often exhibit high levels of emotional intelligence, which is the ability to detect and control emotions so that they may be used in problem-solving and decision-making, according to . ...
The number of complex projects is increasing across many sectors and the associated challenges are substantial. Using a field study, the present dissertation aims to understand how project managers' emotional intelligence (EI) contributes to project success. Further, the study proposes and tests a model linking EI to project success and examines the mediating effects of project managers' transformational leadership style on this relationship. To achieve the objectives of the study data were collected through self-administered questionnaires from a sample of 218 project managers and project employees. The descriptive stats and partial least square structural equation model were applied through SPSS and SmartPLS for data analysis. The results of the study revealed that the emotional intelligence of project managers has a significant and positive effect on project success of construction projects. Furthermore, the study found evidence that the transformational leadership style mediates the relationship between EI and project success. The study has practical implications for construction companies and recommends the need to look for cognitive intelligence and experience in hardcore management skills to recruit emotionally intelligent managers which result in project success.
... For example, a study by Dvir et al. (2002) found that transformational leadership enhances follower development and performance by promoting higher levels of motivation and creativity. Similarly, Braun et al. (2013) demonstrated that transformational leaders effectively foster team cohesion and job satisfaction, which are crucial for project success. These leaders' ability to articulate a compelling vision and encourage team members to exceed their individual interests aligns the team's goals with those of the project, leading to improved performance outcomes. ...
Leadership styles play a pivotal role in shaping the dynamics and performance of project teams, directly influencing the success of projects across various industries. This study explores the impact of different leadership styles—transformational, transactional, laissez-faire, servant, situational, and distributed—on project team performance. Utilizing a mixed-methods approach, including quantitative surveys and qualitative interviews, the research provides a comprehensive analysis of how these leadership styles affect team outcomes. The findings reveal that transformational leadership significantly enhances team motivation, cohesion, and performance, particularly in environments requiring innovation and adaptability. Transactional leadership, while effective in structured settings, may limit creativity and flexibility. The study also highlights the challenges of laissez-faire leadership and underscores the value of servant and situational leadership in fostering team collaboration and addressing diverse needs. The implications for project managers and organizations include the importance of selecting and cultivating the appropriate leadership style to align with the specific demands of the project and team. Future research directions include examining the integration of multiple leadership styles and their long-term effects on team performance.
... Employee happiness is thought to be influenced by management's capacity to properly manage human resources (Zeffane, and Melhem, 2017). According to Braun et al. (2013) employees' evaluations of job satisfaction are boosted by their trust in leaders and organizations. Before being active in a job engagement, employee cognition will develop a perception of the organization. ...
... Though there are limited studies that tackle the different aspects of digital transformation in a pandemic setting, a common implication from researchers includes that firms that fail to adapt to the demands of workplace digitalization-whether planned or unplanned-are bound to have higher employee turnover, sub-par work outcomes, lower productivity, and lesser trust in the organization (Braun et al., 2013;Hai et al., 2021). ...
This study explores how virtual leaders shifted their leadership communication strategies in relation to the workplace digitalization during the COVID-19 pandemic. Guided by the pathgoal theory of leadership, this study utilized a multiple case study research design through online in-depth interviews and thematic analysis to identify recurring themes on the experiences, challenges, and strategies experienced by the respondents.
... Kết quả nghiên cứu của Chiaburu và cộng sự (2013) nhận định rằng, tác động của nhà lãnh đạo có sức ảnh hưởng lớn đến sự hài lòng trong công việc của nhân viên. Các nghiên cứu hiện nay về ảnh hưởng của phong cách lãnh đạo đến sự hài lòng trong công việc thường có xu hướng tập trung vào các phong cách lãnh đạo tích cực như lãnh đạo chuyển đổi (Susanne Braun, 2013), lãnh đạo đạo đức (Nazim Cogaltay, 2016). Mặt khác, nhiều nghiên cứu đã chứng minh tâm lý con người có xu hướng phản ứng mạnh với những tác động tiêu cực hơn là tích cực vì thế tinh thần của nhân viên sẽ bị ảnh hưởng mạnh hơn đến từ tác nhân tiêu cực (Baumeister và cộng sự, 2001). ...
Sự hài lòng trong công việc là một trong những thái độ làm việc được nghiên cứu rộng rãi nhất trong tâm lý học công việc và tổ chức (Judge và cộng sự, 2017). Nghiên cứu tập trung tìm hiểu tác động của phong cách lãnh đạo chuyên quyền đến sự hài lòng trong công việc của nhân viên, xem xét vai trò của hiệu suất bản thân như một biến trung gian. Nghiên cứu sử dụng mô hình PLS-SEM bằng phần mềm Smart PLS 4.0 để tiến hành kiểm định giả thuyết nghiên cứu thông qua phân tích dữ liệu sơ cấp thu về từ khảo sát 352 nhân viên làm việc trong lĩnh vực công nghệ thông tin, điện tử - viễn thông tại TPHCM. Kết quả nghiên cứu chỉ ra có tồn tại mối quan hệ giữa phong cách lãnh đạo chuyên quyền, hiệu suất bản thân và sự hài lòng trong công việc, nghiên cứu cũng xác định hiệu suất bản thân đóng vai trò như một biến trung gian. Về mặt thực tiễn, kết quả nghiên cứu góp phần hạn chế mặt tiêu cực của phong cách lãnh đạo chuyên quyền đối với nhân viên các doanh nghiệp công nghệ thông tin, điện tử - viễn thông.
... Effective leadership is fundamental to providing integrated health and social care [56], improving performance [57,58], ensuring quality care [59], and fostering organisational commitment [60]. Research across health and social care has established a connection between leadership and client/service user care outcomes, including patient mortality rates [61,62], medication errors [62], hospital-acquired infections [62], patient outcomes [19], and higher patient satisfaction [62]. ...
Background
Intellectual disability services have and continue to experience changes in service provision. This has an implication for leadership in practice as the quality of leadership has a direct influence on staff practice and care provided.
Aim
To design, deliver, and evaluate a leadership programme for nurse and social care managers in Ireland.
Design
An accredited programme was designed based on evidence from literature, practice, and national expertise. A cross-sectional survey was used to collect information on the attitudes and behaviour of participants before commencing and after completing the programme. Data from the questionnaires were analysed using SPSS and open-ended questions were analysed using content analysis.
Setting
Intellectual disability services.
Participants
102 participants completed the programme and survey.
Methods
Pre-post survey and reported using the CROSS guidelines.
Results
Participants’ expectations were rated highly, and all items scored higher in the post-survey. Qualitative data was overall positive regarding opportunities for more time to work through each aspect of the programme. The key learning was through the forum day where participants shared their group projects.
Conclusions
Overall, the programme was positively evaluated and through engaging with the programme participants’ perceptions moved from seeing leadership as mostly task-oriented to realising that qualities such as good communication, person-centredness, advocacy, supporting, role modelling, and empowering are key to leadership.
... On a personal level, transformational leaders support the development and active participation of their followers while contributing to a sense of unity and togetherness among the staff. This naturally builds a sense of trust among employees (Braun et al., 2013). Compared to transactional leadership styles, the transformational leadership style can generally lead to higher performance within an organization. ...
The purpose of this research is to investigate whether there is a significant relationship between proactive workplace behaviors and transformational leadership behavior among private sector employees. If there is a meaningful relationship, the study aims to determine the direction and level of the impact of perceived transformational leadership behavior on proactive workplace behaviors. To achieve this objective, data was collected through face-to-face surveys from employees working in the workshops of Toyota, Nissan, and Peugeot companies operating in the automotive sector in Turkey. Structural equation modeling was employed to test the proposed hypotheses. Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM), a variance-based structural equation modeling method, was used to analyze the relationship between the factors included in the research model. The results of the analysis revealed a high and significant relationship between transformational leadership behavior and proactive workplace behaviors. Furthermore, it was found that transformational leadership behavior significantly and positively influenced the sub-dimensions of proactive workplace behaviors, including voice, taking charge, problem prevention, and individual innovation factors.
... It has been largely recognized for its positive influence on process and team performance over the years and in various studies for inspiring followers. Achieve goals [54]- [56]. Second, transformational leadership seems to really help the team so that the performance of its members can be of high quality. ...
We examine the factors influencing student performance in student organizations on private campuses in Indonesia by exploring the relationship between organizational culture and transformational leadership. However, the topic of student performance is still limited to research. Most research on organizational culture focuses on employee performance. This is a quantitative approach that is based on cross-sectional data. In total, 157 respondents were used to infer the results through the structural equation model. The results do not support the argument that organizational culture relations are based more on student engagement than student performance. Conversely, the results support the argument that transformational leadership relationships affect student performance and engagement. To address the possibility of endogeneity issues, we use a series of variables, including student engagement which mediates in this study.
... Trust is one of the main characteristics of any working relationship and a construct of great interest to many researchers (De Jong et al., 2016). Despite several studies, the dominant assumption in the literature is that team trust benefits organizations' performance (Braun et al., 2013). ...
Plain Language Summary
Why tech experts consider leaving public jobs in brazil: Understanding the reasons behind IT professionals thinking about changing careers
This study dives into the reasons why professionals working with technology in Brazilian public organizations might decide to leave their jobs. It turns out that the ability to work remotely and being satisfied with their pay, especially their salary, play a huge role in their decision-making. Essentially, the study found that these tech experts value the flexibility of being able to work from different locations and want to be fairly compensated for their skills, with a particular focus on their salary. The results highlight the importance of organizations offering options for remote work and making sure that their employees feel they are being paid fairly. These factors are not only crucial for keeping technology professionals on board but also contribute to creating a stable and dedicated workforce in the field. The study suggests that organizations, especially in the public sector in Brazil, need to put in place effective strategies to retain these valuable professionals. This includes establishing policies that support remote work and ensuring that the compensation offered is competitive. In a nutshell, the findings of this study provide useful insights for organizations looking to improve their decision-making and human resource practices. By addressing the specific needs and desires of technology professionals, such as the flexibility of remote work and fair compensation, Brazilian public institutions can foster a work environment that retains skilled IT professionals and ultimately enhances organizational performance.
... Transformasional leadership improves perception of its benevolence (Burke et al., 2007). Whereas research finding of (Braun et al., 2013) shows that trust in leader mediates the relationship between transformational leadership and knowledge sharing. Transformational leadership supports team building and also collaboration among the team. ...
The aim of the current research is to examine the effect of trust-based collaboration and idealized transformational leadership to the knowledge sharing. It also examined the effect of contingent reward transactional leadership to trust-based collaboration and knowledge sharing. Data used in the current research are primary ones derived from questionnaires distributed to selected respondents. All lecturers of private universities in Central Java Indonesia having A qualification in institutional accreditation are the population. The sample is part of the population. Sampling technique used is non probability sampling, not all population has the same opportunity to be sample. The reason is that population is homogeneous in nature. The sample analysed is 162 respondents. The research finding indicates that idealized influence transformational leadership positively affects to trust-based collaboration. Trust-based collaboration has a positive effect on knowledge sharing. The research fails proving the effect of contingent reward transactional leadership to trust-based collaboration and knowledge sharing. Thus, the current research contributes to literature concerning the importance of trust-based collaboration in increasing knowledge sharing. The study is the first study examining the role of trust-based collaboration to the relationship between idealized influence transformational leadership and knowledge sharing. Trust-based collaboration is the novelty of the research, that is derivation of the two theories. The finding strengthens one of main flows in literature and gives more empirical evidence about the relationship between transformational leadership and knowledge sharing that the relationship between the two is indirect in nature.
... Adicionalmente, este estilo de liderazgo describe los efectos extraordinarios que produce el líder en los integrantes de una organización a nivel individual y de equipo (Pedraja-Rejas, Rodríguez-Ponce y Rodríguez-Ponce, 2008; Braun et al., 2013); evidencia la concientización de la importancia y el valor de los resultados obtenidos luego de realizar las tareas asignadas (Bass y Avolio, 1995;Avolio, Bass y Jung, 1999). Los líderes transformacionales comparten con los seguidores emociones elementales (confianza, miedo, sorpresa y tristeza), así como la inclusión de ideales y valores morales (Deinert et al., 2015;Boukamcha, 2019). ...
Los estilos de liderazgo son un referente del clima organizacional y la intención de iniciar emprendimientos sociales que contribuyan al desarrollo sostenible en tiempos de pandemia y pospandemia del Covid-19. El propósito de este artículo fue analizar la capacidad explicativa de los estilos de liderazgo transformacional, transaccional y pasivo o laissez–faire, y la mediación que ejerce la autoeficacia en la intención emprendedora social de jóvenes universitarios de la Universidad de Cuenca, Ecuador. La metodología aplicada corresponde a un análisis factorial exploratorio, la estimación de una regresión lineal múltiple, un análisis factorial confirmatorio, y un modelo de ecuaciones estructurales. El tamaño de muestra representativa fue de 856 jóvenes universitarios. Además, de los tres estilos de liderazgo analizados, los resultados muestran que el liderazgo transformacional incide positivamente en la variable intención emprendedora social de jóvenes universitarios de la Universidad de Cuenca, esto significa que se motiva a crear o desarrollar iniciativas para emprender socialmente; y, la autoeficacia, como variable mediadora, mejora la relación explicativa entre ambas variables. Estos hallazgos indican la importancia de generar liderazgos transformadores desde la academia, así como para generar conocimientos en emprendimiento y potenciar la autoeficacia al momento de desarrollar e iniciar nuevos o futuros emprendimientos sociales.
This study examines the level of integral leadership used by managers in the manufacturing industry in Ciudad Juarez (Mexico) and the impact of leadership style on social, operational, and environmental performance. The literature review included over 180 articles on leadership, social, operational, and environmental performance, and it allowed us to design a questionnaire. The dimensions and factors of each latent variable were integrated into a questionnaire applied to the Mexican Maquiladora industry. One hundred fifty-six valid questionnaires were obtained and analyzed using a structural equation model (SEM) based on partial least squares (PLS) to validate the three hypotheses or relationships between variables. The findings indicate that leadership impacts three industrial performances: social, operational, and environmental. This study provides a framework for developing leaders in the Mexican maquiladora industry, demonstrating that investing resources in developing integral leaders is better.
The purpose of this study is investigating the effect of leadership style of consideration and structure in regard with moderator role of organizational position to promote the auditors' job satisfaction, as the level of job satisfaction is an important factors to increase the efficacy, and turnover rate in auditing institutes and results in the auditors' performance. Using a questionnaire, data from 292 auditors working at auditing institutes who were members of Iranian accountants' community were collected and analyzed. Findings of this study show that significantly positive relationships exist among structure in leadership style, consideration in leadership style and organizational position. Overall, the study show that senior managers using consideration in leadership style and structure in leadership style to present (an example, maintain the employees confidence through training them, appreciation of doing good work, deciding how to do work and insisting on fulfilling the standards) increase auditors' job satisfaction, especially at lower levels of the institute (for example the auditor and auditor's assistant).
Keywords: Job Satisfaction Consideration Leadership Style Structure Leadership Style Organizational Position
This research examines the relationship between emotional intelligence and project success, with team building serving as a mediator. The study's specific context is project-based organizations. To investigate the relationship between emotional intelligence project success and team building. The identification of team building as a mediator between emotional intelligence and the achievement of project success. The data was obtained through the administration of a questionnaire to a sample of 350 employees who were engaged in various projects across multiple minor venues. The data were analyzed using SPSS-23. The findings suggest a positive correlation between emotional intelligence and project objectives. Emotional intelligence and team building are statistically significant (r =.276**), indicating a favorable relationship between project success (r =.180**). The results indicate a statistically significant relationship between team building and project success (r =.266**). This study aims to examine the relationship between emotional intelligence,
Considering the potential impacts of context-specific value systems in individuals’ perceptions of phenomena, this study seeks to investigate whether and how cultural differences could influence the effectiveness of leadership styles in establishing trust and positive employee outcomes (PEOs) as well as the relationships between such outcomes based on the GLOBE project. The sample consisted of 1647 valid responses from 128 independent hotels’ employees in four countries from two GLOBE clusters (Anglo and South Asia). Multilevel structural equation modelling has been used for the analysis. Significant but different relationships were found between Servant Leadership and Transformational Leadership with Trust, and PEOs in the two clusters, which could be potentially attributed to societal and contextual factors as a deeper layer mechanism. Our findings have significant implications for both academics and hotel managers in terms of the critical role of alignment between context-specific contingencies and the selected leadership style in establishing trust and PEOs.
This research investigates the effect of shared leadership on employee innovation and the mediating and moderating roles of knowledge-sharing and interactive work culture in the relationship between shared leadership and employee innovation. A total of 840 respondents from 120 local beverage companies in three provinces in Indonesia were selected using purposive sampling. The survey instruments were initially tested for validity and reliability as a preliminary analysis. Data obtained during the survey were then analyzed using the hierarchical regression method with Statistical Package for the Social Science (SPSS). This research reveals that shared leadership positively affects knowledge sharing and employee innovation. In addition, knowledge sharing partially mediates the relationship, while interactive work culture moderates the relationship between shared leadership and employee innovation behavior. This study is among the first to discuss the relationship between shared leadership and employees’ innovative behavior using knowledge sharing as a mediator and interactive work culture as a moderator in the context of local beverage companies in Indonesia.
This study aims to investigate the factors influencing Employee Performance within the South Sulawesi Provincial Secretariat, with a focus on Ethical Leadership, Communication, and Trust. The primary objective is to understand the individual and combined impacts of these factors on performance outcomes. A quantitative approach was employed, involving a sample of 56 employees from the South Sulawesi Provincial Secretariat. Data was collected through structured surveys, and statistical analysis, including regression analysis using SPSS, was conducted to examine the relationships between Ethical Leadership, Communication, Trust, and Employee Performance. The findings revealed compelling insights into the factors affecting Employee Performance. Ethical Leadership was identified as a significant positive influencer, emphasizing the importance of leaders upholding ethical principles. Effective Communication emerged as a crucial factor, highlighting the need for clear and transparent communication channels to improve performance. Trust also played a vital role, underlining the significance of trust-building initiatives within the organization. Additionally, when these factors were considered together, they collectively and significantly impacted Employee Performance, highlighting the value of an integrated approach.
Sustaining trustful employee-organization relationships and improving job satisfaction are always significant challenges for managers, especially in the restaurant industry. For the purpose of fathoming the value of trust, an analytical framework examining organizational trust as an explanatory mechanism through which various organizational conditions influence job satisfaction has been proposed based on the guidance of the social exchange theory. Analysis of survey data from 302 restaurant employees in a celebrated tourist destination of Vietnam have shown both direct and indirect impacts of transformational leadership, internal communication, and career growth on job satisfaction via enhanced trust. Together these main findings have contributed to academic research on employees’ attitudes within the organization and provided a blueprint for creating a congenial working condition for employees in restaurant businesses, which results in employee trust towards their organizations and job satisfaction.
Digital revolution and the era of technological disruption are other terms for industry 4.0. One of the unique characteristics of industry 4.0 is the application of artificial intelligence (Tjandrawinata, 2016). Agile leadership is a leadership style that is much needed in this modern era. Technological disruption, global economic turmoil, and climate change, make the challenges of the current era increasingly complex. Innovative Work Behavior describes the behavior of a series of employee activities that implement and conduct exploration in the Company in order to improve the performance of employees and the company where they work. Organizational commitment is also an important factor in organizations. Organizational commitment is a condition of employees who side with the organization with goals that are in accordance with the organization's vision and mission and continue to remain as employees in the company. The population of this research are leaders in the Structural Directorate and Campus of the LP3I Jakarta Polytechnic. This research sample has 5 (five) variables and has 21 indicators, so based on the opinion (Hair et al, 2014) above, a sample of 7 x 21 or the same as 147 is needed, so based on the calculation above the number of samples that will be taken is 147 respondents. The data analysis technique uses SEM-Partial Least Square (PLS). The results of this research show that Agile Leadership, Innovative Work Behavior, Organizational Commitment have a significant influence on the Performance of the LP3I Jakarta Polytechnic Institution. The Agile Leadership variable has a significant effect on the Performance of the LP3I Jakarta Polytechnic Institution through Work Productivity; Innovative Work Behavior has a significant effect on the Performance of the LP3I Jakarta Polytechnic Institution through Work Productivity; Organizational Commitment has a significant influence on the Performance of the LP3I Jakarta Polytechnic Institution through Work Productivity.
This study examines the role of intellectual property protection (IPP) in enhancing radical technological innovation (RTI) within national research project teams, using an innovation-driven theory and an ability-motivation-opportunity (AMO) perspective. This study utilizes a sample of 336 national research project team members from various Chinese universities, research institutes, and corporations to analyze the theoretical model. Additionally, a two-stage hybrid partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) approach, combined with artificial neural network techniques (ANN), is employed to evaluate the hypotheses. The empirical findings of this study reveal a positive association between the intensity of IPP and RTI within national research project teams. Research and development investment intensity (R&DII) is identified as the primary predictor, while integrated leadership (IL) and group potential (GP) play crucial moderating roles. These groundbreaking findings extend the scope of innovation-driven and AMO theories, providing a proactive model for national research project teams to propose improvements to the IPP system, ultimately enhancing the realization of RTI.
The main goals of the study were to examine how transformational leadership affected organizational citizenship behavior, worker productivity, and employee job satisfaction in Indonesian Small- and Medium-Sized Enterprise (SME) settings. The study used a quantitative technique and included 295 people as samples. Since Indonesia is a multi-cultural nation, responses were gathered from employees in multiple cities. Data was gathered via online and print surveys and was then analyzed using SPSS 23 and Smart PLS Software. The findings of this study point to a clear, positive, and substantial relationship between transformational leadership and worker job satisfaction, organizational citizenship behavior, and work performance. Additionally, to job satisfaction and organizational citizenship, it has been shown that employee job performance is somewhat mediated by employee behavior. This is the first paper in the setting of Indonesian SMEs that looks at the impact of transformational leadership on employee job performance after job satisfaction and organizational citizenship behavior.
Purpose
Considering the important role of knowledge management in the global growth of world economies, the importance of knowledge management in the tourism industry can hardly be overestimated. Knowledge management, empowering leadership and innovation can open new research prospects for online travel and tourism, thereby increasing organizational capacity. In this context, this study aims to investigate the relationship between knowledge management practices and transformational leadership, along with the mediating role in this relationship of leadership communication. Knowledge management practices are discussed through the lens of managers’/organizational perspectives working in the online travel and tourism industry.
Design/methodology/approach
Using a descriptive research method, the data were collected from a total of 174 managers/senior executives working in the online travel and tourism sectors. The proposed conceptual framework was evaluated using structural equation modeling through AMOS 21 and Process Macro (SPSS-Plugin).
Findings
The results revealed a significant increase in the adoption of knowledge management practices in the online travel and tourism sector under transformative leadership. The results also highlighted that effective communication is a vital contributor and significant complementary mediator in the relationship between transformative leadership and knowledge management practices.
Practical implications
The results of this study suggest that transformational leaders, who are equipped with the “high touch” nature of leadership and the “high tech” aspect of the contemporary workplace, are the best fit to manage online travel and tourism organizations. To have an adequate knowledge management system, knowledge managers should adopt a transformative leadership style and receive comprehensive training in developing leadership abilities such as effective communication competencies.
Originality/value
To the best of the authors’ knowledge, this study is the first to demonstrate that, in emerging online travel and tourism sectors, organizational knowledge can be managed through effective leadership communication.
Based on criticisms and recommendations in the literature made particularly in the last decade, this study focuses on the basic assumptions of transformational leadership (TL) theory such as “follower transformation,” “conceptual differences between the sub‐dimensions of TL” and “performance beyond expectations.” In this regard, it hypothesizes that while individualized consideration and idealized influence sub‐dimensions of TL affect followers' perceptions about the quality of their relationships with their leaders, the inspirational motivation and intellectual stimulation sub‐dimensions are mostly motivational (i.e., person‐organization fit and self‐efficacy), and that these sub‐dimensions enhance follower performance (i.e., organizational citizenship behaviors and task performance) through these specified mechanisms. It also hypothesizes that the quality of leader‐member exchanges moderates the influences of the motivational aspects of TL on follower performance. These hypotheses were tested and confirmed by analyzing the data from 222 leader–follower pairs from the private security sector. Theoretical and practical implications of the findings are discussed and suggestions for future research are provided. This article hopes to motivate future studies to clarify the TL theory and to further support its development.
This chapter explores the integration of leading with agapao love in the framework of transformational leadership theory through the lens of Nehemiah. Combining agapao love and transformational leadership characteristics and behaviors drives innovation and organizational success. This case study highlights how Nehemiah exemplifies idealized influence, intellectual stimulation, individualized consideration, and inspirational motivation through his exemplary leadership style and actions through the principles of leading with love. Nehemiah serves as a role model, involves his followers in decision-making, addresses their unique needs, and inspires them through a shared vision. The discussion presents a persuasive argument for integrating love and compassion within leadership practices, emphasizing the potential of this approach to drive positive organizational outcomes.
Bu araştırmada öğretmen görüşlerine göre karizmatik liderlik, duygusal emek ve lidere güven arasındaki ilişkinin incelenmesi amaçlanmıştır. Araştırmanın örneklemi, 2020-2021 eğitim öğretim yılında Trabzon ili tüm ilçelerindeki resmi ilkokul, ortaokul ve liselerde görev yapan 522 öğretmenden oluşmaktadır. Araştırmanın verileri, Duygusal Emek Ölçeği, Conger-Kanungo Karizmatik Liderlik Ölçeği ve Lidere Güven Ölçeği kullanılarak toplanılmıştır. Veriler Pearson momentler çarpımı korelasyon katsayısı ve hiyerarşik regresyon ile analiz edilmiştir. Araştırma bulgularına göre karizmatik liderlik, lidere güven ve duygusal emeğin alt boyutları arasında anlamlı ilişkiler tespit edilmiştir. Ayrıca hiyerarşik regresyon analizine göre de karizmatik liderlik ve lidere güvenin duygusal emeğin alt boyutlarının anlamlı olarak yordayıcısı olduğu görülmüştür. Elde edilen sonuçlar karizmatik liderlik, duygusal emek ve lidere güven değişkenleri bağlamında tartışılmış ve politika yapıcılarına, uygulayıcılara ve araştırmacılara yönelik önerilerde bulunulmuştur.
Entrepreneurial leadership is a well-known leadership style that sets itself apart from others due to its exceptional qualities. The significant interest in entrepreneurial leadership is evident from the multitude of articles written on the subject. The focus of this literature review is to examine what is already known about the impact of entrepreneurial leadership on team creativity, how it can be fostered by entrepreneurial leadership, what challenges may arise and how they can be overcome, and finally, what areas need further research.
Today universities around the world are becoming subject to audits and evaluations that not only open them to outside scrutiny, but also force them to compete with each other for students, staff and funding. This development is supposed to lead to radical changes to academic work in business schools. Whereas there is an intensive debate about this issue in the UK, much less is known about changes in higher education in other European countries. This paper will show through the example of German business administration academics that similar pressures might not lead to similar outcomes. In the German system, hierarchy will remain more important than the market for academic work. Although role conflicts seem to increase for academics at all hierarchical levels, the traditional regime is likely to resist any far-reaching changes.
Research in commercial organizations has provided a multitude of examples on how leadership development can effectively foster employees’ performance and work-related attitudes such as commitment or satisfaction. In contrast, to date systematic leadership development is largely lacking for employees in higher education. However, we suggest that the positive effects of leadership development in commercial organizations also apply to the academic context. Thus, the purpose of this applied article is to present two approaches to the development of leadership in higher education. More specifically, we provide a detailed description of two different programs offered to researchers at a large German university. The first program constitutes a leader development initiative for junior faculty on an individual level, whereas the second focuses on the development of leadership within university departments on a group level. We provide recommendations for establishing and evaluating effective leadership development in higher education.
The goal of this study was to examine the effects of transformational leadership behaviors, within the context of Kerr and Jermier’s (1978) substitutes for leadership. Data were collected from 1539 employees across a wide variety of different industries, organizational settings, and job levels. Hierarchical moderated regression analysis procedures generally showed that few of the substitutes variables moderated the effects of the transformational leader behaviors on followers’ attitudes, role perceptions, and “in-role” and “citizenship” behaviors in a manner consistent with the predictions of Howell, Dorfman and Kerr (1986). However, the results did show that: (a) the transformational leader behaviors and substitutes for leadership each had unique effects on follower criterion variables; (b) the total amount of variance accounted for by the substitutes for leadership and the transformational leader behaviors was substantially greater than that reported in prior leadership research; and (c) several of the transformational behaviors were significantly related to several of the substitutes for leadership variables. Implications of these findings for our understanding of the effects of transformational leader behaviors and substitutes for leadership are then discussed.
The aim of this study was to employ qualitative and quantitative survey methods in a concurrent mixed model design to assess stressors and strains in graduate assistants. The stressors most frequently reported qualitatively were work overload, interpersonal conflict, and organizational constraints; the most frequently reported psychological strains were frustration, anger, and anxiety. The groups formed by the qualitative incident reported (e.g., work overload) partially discriminated between those scoring high versus low on the corresponding stressor scale. Finally, participants who qualitatively reported a stressor indicated more physical symptoms on a quantitative scale. The results show support for the combination of qualitative and quantitative methods in stress research, as the two types of measures provided different information about stressors and strains.
The recent economic crisis as well as other disasters such as the oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico or the nuclear disaster in Japan has fanned calls for leaders who do not deny responsibility, hide information, and deceive others, but rather lead with authenticity and integrity. In this article, we empirically investigate the concept of authentic leadership. Specifically, we examine the antecedents and individual as well as group-level outcomes of authentic leadership in business (Study 1; n = 306) as well as research organizations (Study 2; n = 105). Findings reveal leader self-knowledge and self-consistency as antecedents of authentic leadership and followers’ satisfaction with supervisor, organizational commitment, and extra-effort as well as perceived team effectiveness as outcomes. The relations between authentic leadership and followers’ work-related attitudes as well as perceived team effectiveness are mediated by perceived predictability of the leader, a particular facet of trust. We discuss the implications of our findings for theory and practice and provide suggestions for advancing theory and research on authentic leadership in the future.
Swift starting action teams (STATs) are increasingly prevalent in organizations, and the development of trust is often a critical issue for their effectiveness. However, current theory and research do not provide a clear picture regarding how trust toward the team (i.e., the team as the target) is developed in these settings. The primary contribution of this article is to present a theoretical framework describing how individual-level trust toward one’s team is developed in STAT contexts. This article integrates several existing trust theories into one comprehensive context-specific multilevel theory of how trust develops in STATs from cognitive, affective, behavioral, and contextual perspectives. This framework furthers our understanding of the unique antecedents of initial trust in STATs, how trust attitudes are adjusted over the short amount of time the team interacts, and how the team context influences this developmental process.
Despite Lewin’s identification of the importance of context in behavioral research over 70 years ago, leadership psychology tended to ignore the context. Only in the past 10 years has context been more routinely included in psychological leadership research. We provide examples of leadership research that has explored the context, introduce the special issue articles, and provide suggestions for future research on the context of leadership.
Zusammenfassung. Fehlende Werte stellen in der empirisch-psychologischen Forschung oftmals ein Problem dar. Haufig verwendete Verfahren wie fallweiser und paarweiser Ausschluss, Regression- und Mean-Imputation sind aus methodischer Sicht defizitar. Alternative Verfahren fur die Analyse von Datensatzen mit fehlenden Werten, die in den letzten drei Jahrzehnten entwickelt wurden, werden in der Forschungspraxis noch selten angewendet. Der vorliegende Beitrag fuhrt zunachst in die grundlegende Terminologie fehlender Werte nach Rubin (1976) ein. Im Anschluss daran wird eine Ubersicht der in der Literatur diskutierten Ansatze zum Umgang mit fehlenden Werten vorgenommen, wobei drei Typen von Verfahren unterschieden werden: klassische Verfahren (z.B. fallweiser Ausschluss), imputationsbasierte Verfahren, in denen fehlende Werte ersetzt (imputiert) werden, und modellbasierte Verfahren, in denen die Schatzung des Modells und die Behandlung der fehlenden Werte in einem Schritt vorgenommen werden. Anhand eines Datenbe...
This paper investigates the differential effects of transformational leadership and the “iron cage” on trust, commitment and team efficacy at the team level. Transformational leadership has been shown to have positive effects on trust, commitment and team efficacy. However, it could be argued that these results are not due to the leadership but to the idea that the team has developed strong norms that constrain their behavior and “force” them to perform. The rival hypothesis that the iron cage results in trust, commitment and team efficacy is tested using hierarchical regression analysis. We find that transformational leadership in teams predicts trust, commitment and team efficacy over and beyond the perceptions of the iron cage. The iron cage adds to the prediction of commitment only. Results suggest that while encouraging strong values and norms within a team will lead to increased commitment, focusing on transformational leadership in teams is a more effective way to encourage the development of trust, commitment and team efficacy.
Testing multilevel mediation using hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) has gained tremendous popularity in recent years. However, potential confounding in multilevel mediation effect estimates can arise in these models when within-group effects differ from between-group effects. This study summarizes three types of HLM-based multilevel mediation models, and then explains that in two types of these models confounding can be produced and erroneous conclusions may be derived when using popularly recommended procedures. A Monte Carlo simulation study illustrates that these procedures can underestimate or overestimate true mediation effects. Recommendations are provided for appropriately testing multilevel mediation and for differentiating within-group versus between-group effects in multilevel settings. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The use of interrater reliability (IRR) and interrater agreement (IRA) indices has increased dramatically during the past 20 years. This popularity is, at least in part, because of the increased role of multilevel modeling techniques (e.g., hierarchical linear modeling and multilevel structural equation modeling) in organizational research. IRR and IRA indices are often used to justify aggregating lower-level data used in composition models. The purpose of the current article is to expose researchers to the various issues surrounding the use of IRR and IRA indices often used in conjunction with multilevel models. To achieve this goal, the authors adopt a question-and-answer format and provide a tutorial in the appendices illustrating how these indices may be computed using the SPSS software.
De<plt» past entreaties to organizational theorists and reseontchars to address levels issues more carefully, levels issues continue to arouse confusion and controversy within &e organizational literature. We highlight three alternative assumptions that underlie the specification of levels of theory throuj^out mganizational behavior: (a) homo-geneity within higher level units, (b) independence from higher Uvel tinits. and (c) heterogeneity within higher level ludts. These assumptions influence the nature of theoretical constructs and propositions and should, ideally, also influence data collection, analysis, and interpretation. Greater attention to levels issues will strengthen organizational theory development and research.
Composition models specify the functional relationships among phenomena or constructs at different levels of analysis (e.g., individual level, team level, organizational level) that reference essentially the same content but that are qualitatively different at different levels (M. T. Hannan, 1971; K. H. Roberts, C. L. Hulin, & D. M. Rousseau, 1978; D. M. Rousseau, 1985). Specifying adequate composition models is a critical component of good multilevel research. A typology of composition models is proposed to provide a framework for organizing, evaluating, and developing constructs and theories in multilevel research. Five basic forms of composition are described and illustrated. Implications of the typology are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
In recent years a number of leadership constructs have been introduced to the literature that comprise explicit reference to the leader’s ethical behavior including transformational, ethical, authentic, and spiritual leadership. These types of leadership have been posited to have a positive impact on employees and the organizations they are part of, and research has pointed to positive relations with work-related attitudes. So far, however, the question whether or not these leadership styles are also related to objectively determined organizational performance has remained unanswered. Thus, the purpose of this article is to review the empirical literature on the relation between ethically-oriented leadership and economic performance. Findings indicate that ethically-oriented leadership is in fact economically effective. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Presents methods for assessing agreement among the judgments made by a single group of judges on a single variable in regard to a single target. For example, the group of judges could be editorial consultants, members of an assessment center, or members of a team. The single target could be a manuscript, a lower level manager, or a team. The variable on which the target is judged could be overall publishability in the case of the manuscript, managerial potential for the lower level manager, or a team cooperativeness for the team. The methods presented are based on new procedures for estimating interrater reliability. For such situations, these procedures furnish more accurate and interpretable estimates of agreement than estimates provided by procedures commonly used to estimate agreement, consistency, or interrater reliability. The proposed methods include processes for controlling for the spurious influences of response biases (e.g., positive leniency and social desirability) on estimates of interrater reliability. (49 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
A pretest-posttest control-group design (
N = 20) was used to assess the effects of transformational leadership training, with 9 and 11 managers assigned randomly to training and control groups, respectively. Training consisted of a 1-day group session and 4 individual booster sessions thereafter on a monthly basis. Multivariate analyses of covariance, with pretest scores as the covariate, showed that the training resulted in significant effects on subordinates' perceptions of leaders' transformational leadership, subordinates' own organizational commitment, and 2 aspects of branch-level financial performance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Although transformational leadership (TL) is considered a kind of positive leadership, which can elevate followers in the long term, the mechanism of how TL influences employee well-being remains a relatively untouched area. Based on survey data collected from 745 employees from the People's Republic of China (Beijing, n= 297; Hong Kong, n= 448), results revealed that employees' trust in the leader and self-efficacy partially mediated the influence of TL on job satisfaction, and fully mediated the influence of TL on perceived work stress and stress symptoms. Implications of these findings for research and practice are discussed.
Bien que le leadership transformationnnel (TL) soit considéré comme une sorte de leadership positif qui peut faire progresser les suiveurs sur le long terme, le mécanisme par lequel TL contribue à leur bien être reste relativement inexploré. Les résultats basés sur des données collectées auprès d’un échantillon de 745 employés de la République Populaire de Chine (Beijin, n = 297; Hong Kong, n = 448), montrent que la confiance des suiveurs dans le leader et l’auto-efficacité sont en partie dus à l’influence du TL sur la satisfaction au travail et sont entièrement dus à l’influence du TL sur le stress perçu au travail et les symptômes de stress. Les implications de ces résultats pour la recherche et la pratique sont discutées.
Interest in the problem of method biases has a long history in the behavioral sciences. Despite this, a comprehensive summary of the potential sources of method biases and how to control for them does not exist. Therefore, the purpose of this article is to examine the extent to which method biases influence behavioral research results, identify potential sources of method biases, discuss the cognitive processes through which method biases influence responses to measures, evaluate the many different procedural and statistical techniques that can be used to control method biases, and provide recommendations for how to select appropriate procedural and statistical remedies for different types of research settings.
In a longitudinal, randomized field experiment, we tested the impact of transformational leadership, enhanced by training, on follower development and performance. Experimental group leaders received transformational leadership training, and control group leaders, eclectic leadership training. The sample included 54 military leaders, their 90 direct followers, and 724 indirect followers. Results indicated the leaders in the experimental group had a more positive impact on direct followers' development and on indirect followers' performance than did the leaders in the control group.
Theories of transformational and charismatic leadership provide important insights about the nature of effective leadership. However, most of the theories have conceptual weaknesses that reduce their capacity to explain effective leadership. The conceptual weaknesses are identified here and refinements are suggested. The issue of compatibility between transformational and charismatic leadership is also discussed. Finally, some methodological problems involving construct validation and theory testing are identified, and suggestions for future research are provided.
Although research has focused on the implications of trusting others, little is known regarding how being trustworthy might influence one's own performance. In this article, the relationship between being perceived as trustworthy by one's coworkers and individual performance is examined. Exchange theory is used to consider the implications of the different factors of trustworthiness (capability, integrity, and benevolence) and how these factors might interact to predict performance. Results of a field study (Study 1) revealed that coworkers' perceptions of an individual's capability and integrity interacted to predict his or her performance. A laboratory study (Study 2) provided further insight into the exchange mechanism underlying this relationship.
This study provides a cross-cultural comparison of the mediating effects of trust in the leader on the relationship between the in-role performance of followers (as rated by their leaders) and two types of leadership: transactional and transformational. Participants were 119 full-time Australian followers and 122 full-time Chinese followers. Australian followers reported higher levels of trust in their leaders than did Chinese followers. Culture moderated the mediation effects of trust on the leadership-performance relationship. The findings highlight the need to consider the cultural context within which leadership occurs when attempting to understand mediated relationships with performance outcomes.
This research presents a comprehensive model of relationships between transformational and transactional leadership, procedural and distributive justice, trust, job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs). Structural equation modeling was used to test a theoretical model with two independent samples that were comprised of 192 and 155 matched leaders and subordinates. Several rival models were also tested. Finally, “stacked” modeling techniques showed that the parameter estimates developed from the two samples were invariant except for one additional relationship, which was significant in the second sample only. The results supported the indirect effect of transformational leadership on OCBs through procedural justice and trust. Implications and directions for future research are discussed.
Increasing organizational change and new demands in the field of leadership have evoked a growing interest in the concepts of charismatic and transformational leadership. Probably the most frequently used questionnaire to measure transformational leader-ship is the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ). In this article the validation of an adapted and modified German version of the current MLQ 5 x Short (Bass & Avolio, 1995) is presented. Psychometric properties are tested and questions concerning the validity of the instrument are discussed. Results are based on a number of different samples with more than 3 500 participants. While the postulated dimensionality is only partly supported, there is evidence for good validity with regard to external criteria. Furthermore, differences between German and American findings are discussed. Finally, recommendations for further developments and improvements of the instrument are provided.
We examined differences in leadership influence processes, perceptions, and multiple levels-of-analysis effects between close and distant charismatic and contingent reward leadership across three hierarchical levels in 13 Korean companies. Multi-source data revealed that followers' commitment to the leader mediated relationships between leadership and followers' attitudinal, behavioral, and performance outcomes in close situations, but not in distant relationships. Leadership at higher levels of management was positively related to leadership at the next lower level, which in turn related to follower outcomes at the lowest echelon. Multivariate within and between analysis indicated multiple-level effects differing by leader–follower distance and for the variables of interest.
Examined the effects of transformational leadership behaviors (TLBs) within the context of S. Kerr and J. M. Jermier's (1978) 13 substitutes for leadership (SFLs). Data on leader behaviors, job attitudes, and role perceptions were collected from 1,539 employees, with matching performance collected for 1,200 of them from their managers. Ss were employed across a variety of industries, organizational settings, and job levels. Hierarchical moderated regression analysis showed that few of the SFLs moderated the effects of the TLBs on followers' attitudes, role perceptions, and in-role and citizenship behaviors as predicted by J. P. Howell et al (see record 1986-16012-001). However, TLBs and SFLs each had unique effects on follower criterion variables. Total variance accounted for by TLBs and SFLs was greater than reported in previous research, and several of the TLBs were related to several of the SFLs.
Despite past entreaties to organizational theorists and researchers to address levels issues more carefully, levels issues continue to arouse confusion and controversy within the organizational literature. We highlight three alternative assumptions that underlie the specification of levels of theory throughout organizational behavior: (a) homogeneity within higher level units, (b) independence from higher level units, and (c) heterogeneity within higher level units. These assumptions influence the nature of theoretical constructs and propositions and should, ideally, also influence data collection, analysis, and interpretation. Greater attention to levels issues will strengthen organizational theory development and research.
Effective leadership in any organization is a crucial component of overall organizational success. While many aspects of management and leadership are common to most organizations, colleges and universities present special challenges in both their fundamental character and in practice. The presence of faculty and non-academic personnel in leadership roles in the same organization can create ambiguity and confusion. This is particularly an issue when units of the institution seek to achieve the highest possible level of performance, cooperation and mutual trust among and between them. This article looks at the challenges involved and seeks to provide guidelines for leadership decisions and practices that can be effective in institutions of higher learning.
Scholars in various disciplines have considered the causes, nature, and effects of trust. Prior approaches to studying trust are considered, including characteristics of the trustor, the trustee, and the role of risk. A definition of trust and a model of its antecedents and outcomes are presented, which integrate research from multiple disciplines and differentiate trust from similar constructs. Several research propositions based on the model are presented.
Numerous researchers from various disciplines seem to agree that trust has a number of important benefits for organizations, although they have not necessarily come to agreement on how these benefits occur. In this article, 2 fundamentally different models that describe how trust might have positive effects on attitudes, perceptions, behaviors, and performance outcomes within organizational settings, are explored. In the first section of the model, the model that has dominated the literature is explored: Trust results in direct (main) effects on a variety of outcomes. In the second section of the article an alternative model is developed: Trust facilitates or hinders (i.e., moderates) the effects of other determinants on attitudinal, perceptual, behavioral and performance outcomes via 2 distinct perceptual processes. Lastly, the conditions under which each of the models is most likely to be applicable are discussed.
Charismatische und transformationale Führung: Ein Überblick und eine Agenda für zukünftige Forschungsarbeiten
Abstract. Of all the leadership theories in organizational research, charismatic/transformational leadership has captured scholars' interest most over the past decade. This article reviews what has been learned about the antecedents of charismatic and transformational leadership, their effects on individual and collective outcomes across cultures, and moderators of those effects. We conclude with a set of recommendations for moving this field of study forward, including a call for more rigorous research designs that provide greater insight into the process of transformational leadership (i.e., causal direction and mediating mechanisms), further conceptual clarifications, and further integration with other schools of leadership thought.
Discusses why qualitative methods must play a central role in leadership research. One qualitative method that has been underutilized in leadership research–observation is included. The author discusses his own experiences employing observation methods in several research projects. A discussion of the challenges of managing the volumes of data generated by qualitative research is included. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Evidently includes an introduction and conclusions from the author's original 1955 article regarding the construction of an attitude measure. The article became the most frequently cited article published in
Personnel Psychology in the 1950s. The original article provides an account of the development of a qualitative or projective attitude scale utilizing 2 series of faces constructed to represent feelings from extremely positive to extremely negative. The faces were quantified so that attitude scales in which they are used can be scored in the same manner as any other form of attitude measuring device. (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record
1956-01689-001.) The development of an employee attitude scale involving checking faces rather than words to indicate feeling tone is described. Comparison of 2 types of faces, circular and characterized, revealed that the latter has greater potential value. As the mouth becomes a poorer indicator of mood, the secondary facial clues become more important. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Differentiates among indices of agreement, reliability, and non-independence in organizational multilevel research and provides an overview of what each measure reveals about the group-level properties of one's data. Particular attention is devoted to the concept of non-independence and to the relationship between one form of the intraclass correlation coefficient and eta-squared. The 2nd purpose of this chapter is to extend the discussion of agreement, reliability, and non-independence from an exclusive focus on validating one's measurement model to a broader focus that includes testing substantive models and detecting emergent phenomena. In the discussion of bottom-up processes, particular attention is paid to a category that the author defines as "fuzzy" composition processes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Previous literature has compared the effectiveness of different styles of leadership, yet most of this research has not compared different levels of analyses regarding leader styles or behaviors. This shortcoming often limits our understanding of how leadership acts on a phenomenon of interest to a single level of analysis. This article develops a computational model and describes a levels-based comparison of four types of leadership that represent three different levels: individual, dyad, and group. When examined across a dynamic group decision-making optimization scenario, group-based leadership is found to produce decisions that are closer to optimal than dyadic-based and individual-based leadership. An alternative computational model varying individual cognitive and experience-based components among group members also indicates group-based leadership produces more optimal decisions.
The use of both transactional and transformational leadership strategies can have a tremendous impact on the dynamics of organizational agility and subsequent competitive advantage. For educational institutions, organizational agility refers to the ability of administration and faculty to identify, acknowledge, and adapt to factors important to academic quality, quality of instruction, and overall learning experiences. When it comes to motivating faculty performance, both transactional and transformational leadership styles are important. From a transactional perspective, faculty appreciate administrators who clearly communicate both university and departmental goals. For true motivation, administrators must seek to affect faculty on an intrinsic level where personal efficacy is raised through the successful accomplishment of objectives. A model for college steering committees and a specific faculty training program for sharper instructional focus are presented.
This experimental study examined the causal effects of transformational and transactional leadership and the mediating role of trust and value congruence on follower performance. A total of 194 student participants worked on a brainstorming task under transformational and transactional leadership conditions. Leadership styles were manipulated using two confederates, and followers' performance was evaluated via three measures—quantity, quality, and satisfaction. Results, based on path analyses using LISREL, indicated that transformational leadership had both direct and indirect effects on performance mediated through followers' trust in the leader and value congruence. However, transactional leadership had only indirect effects on followers' performance mediated through followers' trust and value congruence. Implications of these results for future research on leadership are provided. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Most theories and studies of leadership simply ignore the dimension of time. This paper discusses some of the implications of neglecting time in the field of leadership studies, argues that potentially important leadership phenomena are overlooked due this neglect, and calls for more attention to time-related considerations in theory development and empirical studies of leadership.
This study tested the recent path-goal leadership theory prediction [House, R.J., 1996. Path-goal theory of leadership: Lessons, legacy, and a reformulated theory. The Leadership Quarterly, 7, 323–352] that leader contingent reward behavior negatively moderates relationships between transformational leadership and subordinate performance and job satisfaction at the individual level of analysis. Also tested was the prediction that transformational leadership would positively augment the effects of leader contingent reward behavior [Bass, B.M., 1985. Leadership and performance beyond expectations. New York: Free Press]. Confirmatory factor analyses, hierarchical linear multiple regression, and within- and between-entity analyses were employed, along with a sample of 169 social services workers in 40 groups. No evidence was found supporting either the path-goal or additive augmentation hypotheses. However, a positive moderator effect was found for some transformational leader behaviors and the leader contingent reward behavior variable, supporting a form of “augmentation effect” that is not incongruent with Bass's [Bass, B.M., 1985. Leadership and performance beyond expectations. New York: Free Press] approach to transformational leadership. Additionally, strong support was obtained for the level of analysis prediction. Future research directions are briefly considered.
This research examines the role of mood and mood contagion in a leadership situation. In phase 1 of the study participants received a positive or negative mood induction and completed a leadership speech describing how to complete a hiring task. In phase 2, participants watched one of the speeches from phase 1, completed ratings, and performed the hiring task. Followers in the positive mood condition had higher levels of positive mood and lower levels of negative mood, rated their leaders as more charismatic, and performed better than followers in the negative mood condition. Followers' mood mediated the relationship between leader mood and follower outcomes. In the third phase of the study, participants read transcripts of the speeches from phase 2 but experienced no change in mood or performance, suggesting the previous effects found in phase 2 were due to mood contagion rather than the content of the speeches.
A considerable amount of research has examined trust since our 1995 publication. We revisit some of the critical issues that we addressed and provide clarifications and extensions of the topics of levels of analysis, time, control systems, reciprocity, and measurement. We also recognize recent research in new areas of trust, such as affect, emotion, violation and repair, distrust, international and cross-cultural issues, and context-specific models, and we identify promising avenues for future research.
Attitude surveys are widely used throughout industry today, as modern management has become aware of the value of sampling employee opinion both in connection with changes of policy or procedure and with current conditions within the organization. It has been found that more harmony can be achieved within an organization and serious labor trouble sometimes can be averted if employee opinion is determined and potential problems rectified before they become serious.
Most attitude surveys utilize words as the vehicles by which attitudes are expressed. The items may require that the employee decide which of a series of phrases best expresses his feelings about a designated topic or, alternatively, whether or not a given sentence is indicative of his attitude. It is felt that a certain amount of distortion is an invariable result of this process which necessitates the translation of one man's feelings into another man's words. Error creeps in, both in the interpretation of the meaning of the items by the respondent, and in the selection of the item which most accurately indicates the true feelings of the respondent on the topic in question. This is particularly difficult for persons of low verbal facility to achieve with any accuracy.
The present paper is an account of the development of a qualitative or projective attitude scale. Two series of faces have been constructed which run the gamut of feeling from extremely positive to extremely negative. These faces have been quantified so that attitude scales in which they are used can be scored in the same manner as can any other form of attitude measuring device. They have, however, the advantage of eliminating the necessity for translating feelings into words. The respondent is required only to check the face which “looks like he feels” rather than verbalizing his feelings. It is felt that the resulting measure provides a more accurate measurement of attitudes than is otherwise possible.