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Sketch of the edible bird's nest and its important bioactivities

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Abstract

The edible bird's nest is a nest made from the saliva of swiftlets (Aves: Apodidae). It is highly acclaimed as a catholicon and is a comprehensive health food. Increasing desire for the edible bird's nest makes the investigation of the nests urgent. There is a broad and growing interest in knowing more about the components and the nutritional and medicinal values of the edible bird's nest. This review discusses the research on the edible bird's nest currently, especially the research on its bioactivities. The content of water-soluble proteins, carbohydrates, inorganic salts, and various kinds of elements shows the important nutritional value of the edible bird's nest. The reported bioactivities and nutritional value of the edible bird's nest include the potential for mitogenic response, epidermal growth factor (EGF)-like activity, anti-influenza virus, hemagglutination-inhibitory activity, lectin-binding activity, improvement of bone strength and dermal thickness, and hormone content etc. In the future, more scientific work should be done to fully elucidate the biological and medicinal functions of the edible bird's nest. The relationships of components and functions of the nest should be studied more. Bioactive components need to be isolated and purified to make full use of the edible bird's nest.

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... Researchers have published numerous reviews and perspectives on EBN research. The nutrient composition and bioactivities of EBN were reviewed by Ma and Liu [28]. Similarly, Lee et al. [2] comprehensively surveyed an overview of EBN therapeutic properties. ...
... Results showed that only eight journals fulfilled the threshold criteria, with Food Research International (Elsevier) having the highest research outputs, i.e., 11 publications and 349 citations on EBN. The journal also has the most cited literature, possibly due to the broad influence of critical articles that disseminate the significant novel research domains in the food science, technology, engineering, and nutrition of EBN [1,20,28,31]. As observed, more than half of the journals have an impact factor (I.F.) greater than 3 (I.F.2020 > 3) based on the year 2020 data, except for AIP Conference Proceedings. ...
... Thus, the work is a valuable clue for researchers to develop new antiviral drugs derived from EBN [1]. Following the 3rd most cited paper on EBN is a review paper by Ma and Liu [28], which mainly summarises the bioactivities of various bioactive components gaining 62 citations. ...
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Edible bird’s nest (EBN) is a valuable animal bioproduct produced by Swiftlets in Southeast Asia. Numerous researchers reported that EBN has rich nutritional value and high bioactive potential with numerous therapeutic benefits. For the first time, this paper evaluated the EBN research knowledge to conduct an in-depth statistical analysis and identify research trends, advancements, and hotspots. For this purpose, a combined methodologies based on bibliometric analysis and literature review was adopted. In total, 148 publications related to research EBN from 2002 to 2021 were identified. Three research hotspots were reviewed and discussed: (i) authentication and identification of EBN, (ii) beneficial and therapeutic properties of EBN, and (iii) EBN as active ingredients for functional food development. EBN has excellent potential as a value-ingredient with beneficial properties for commercial applications. Finally, this study provides a comprehensive overview of the EBN research trends and describes some current challenges and trends, which will remain the research focus and potent tool for future food scientists working on EBN functional food development. Graphical abstract
... In addition, it increases the look of aging skin and strengthens the immune system. EBN has been demonstrated to be beneficial for asthma, cough, and stomach ulcers (Kong et al. 1987;Ma and Liu 2012;Hobbs 2004;Macron 2005). Recent research has shown that EBN has antiviral and neuroprotective qualities by inhibiting influenza infection (Haghani et al. 2016(Haghani et al. , 2017Xie et al. 2018). ...
... EBN has antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and bone-building effects (Matsukawa et al. 2011;Yida et al. 2014). Due to its therapeutic and palatable properties, EBN is gaining popularity around the globe (Ma and Liu 2012). EBN, a key component in health-enhancing foods, drinks, and cosmetics, has been synthesized utilizing contemporary technology (Kong et al. 1987). ...
... 9% of EBN is composed of N-acetylneuraminic acid (sialic acid), Galactosamine, N-acetylglucosamine, and N-acetyl galactosamine, according to Kathan and Weeks, who discovered that 28% of EBN is composed of carbohydrates. Glyconutrients are the compounds responsible for EBN's unique utility (Wong et al. 2017(Wong et al. , 2018Ma and Liu 2012;Chua et al. 2015;Kathan and Weeks 1969). ...
Chapter
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The most common kind of neurological condition leading to mobility disability is Parkinson’s disease (PD). This illness is characterized by a wide variety of motor symptoms, such as tremors, rigidity, bradykinesia or akinesia, and postural instability. Nevertheless, motor and non-motor symptoms coexist in a person with PD. In many cases, a clinical diagnosis of PD may be more reliable. Nevertheless, a wide variety of other lab tests may help differentiate PD from other forms of parkinsonism. Treatments for PD include the use of levodopa. It is the gold standard treatment for motor symptoms associated with PD. Levodopa crosses the blood–brain barrier and is converted to dopamine in the substantia nigra’s dopamine-receiving neurons (SN). Antioxidants including melatonin, resveratrol, green tea, and lipoic acid have gained widespread attention as potential neuroprotective agents in recent years. As our understanding of nutrigenomics grows, we will be able to pinpoint the role that alterations in diet play in the breakdown of normally functioning systems and the development of pathological diseases. This information might be used to improve neuroprotective mechanisms by dietary changes and the introduction of novel, more beneficial natural compounds. Such mechanisms include increased expression of health-promoting genes and decreased expression of disease-promoting genes after brain damage or other pathologies. There are numerous potential neuroprotective techniques that might include this approach.
... In addition, it increases the look of aging skin and strengthens the immune system. EBN has been demonstrated to be beneficial for asthma, cough, and stomach ulcers (Kong et al. 1987;Ma and Liu 2012;Hobbs 2004;Macron 2005). Recent research has shown that EBN has antiviral and neuroprotective qualities by inhibiting influenza infection (Haghani et al. 2016(Haghani et al. , 2017Xie et al. 2018). ...
... EBN has antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and bone-building effects (Matsukawa et al. 2011;Yida et al. 2014). Due to its therapeutic and palatable properties, EBN is gaining popularity around the globe (Ma and Liu 2012). EBN, a key component in health-enhancing foods, drinks, and cosmetics, has been synthesized utilizing contemporary technology (Kong et al. 1987). ...
... 9% of EBN is composed of N-acetylneuraminic acid (sialic acid), Galactosamine, N-acetylglucosamine, and N-acetyl galactosamine, according to Kathan and Weeks, who discovered that 28% of EBN is composed of carbohydrates. Glyconutrients are the compounds responsible for EBN's unique utility (Wong et al. 2017(Wong et al. , 2018Ma and Liu 2012;Chua et al. 2015;Kathan and Weeks 1969). ...
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Cognitive enhancement is the growth or augmentation of the mind's core capacities via the improvement or expansion of internal or external information processing systems. Edible bird nest (EBN) is a natural dietary ingredient formed from the saliva of edible velvet nests. Supplementation with EBN has been shown to boost brain growth in animals. During times of fast brain development, notably in premature newborns, the bioactivity and nutritional value of EBN are substantial. Nevertheless, the effect of EBN on learning and memory regulation is uncertain. This chapter attempts to show the neuroprotective properties of EBN and its possible cognitive-enhancing effects.KeywordsCognitive enhancementEdible bird nestNutritionNeuroprotection
... In addition, it increases the look of aging skin and strengthens the immune system. EBN has been demonstrated to be beneficial for asthma, cough, and stomach ulcers (Kong et al. 1987;Ma and Liu 2012;Hobbs 2004;Macron 2005). Recent research has shown that EBN has antiviral and neuroprotective qualities by inhibiting influenza infection (Haghani et al. 2016(Haghani et al. , 2017Xie et al. 2018). ...
... EBN has antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and bone-building effects (Matsukawa et al. 2011;Yida et al. 2014). Due to its therapeutic and palatable properties, EBN is gaining popularity around the globe (Ma and Liu 2012). EBN, a key component in health-enhancing foods, drinks, and cosmetics, has been synthesized utilizing contemporary technology (Kong et al. 1987). ...
... 9% of EBN is composed of N-acetylneuraminic acid (sialic acid), Galactosamine, N-acetylglucosamine, and N-acetyl galactosamine, according to Kathan and Weeks, who discovered that 28% of EBN is composed of carbohydrates. Glyconutrients are the compounds responsible for EBN's unique utility (Wong et al. 2017(Wong et al. , 2018Ma and Liu 2012;Chua et al. 2015;Kathan and Weeks 1969). ...
Book
This book reviews the role of trace elements in brain development, function, metabolism, and neurodegenerative disorders. It explores the molecular mechanisms of the effects of trace elements on metabolic pathways, mitochondrial nutrients, neurodegeneration, Central Nervous System (CNS) disorders, cell signaling, and neuronal functions. The book also discusses transport mechanisms of trace elements within CNS and their impact on neurotransmitter biology. Further, it examines the deleterious effects due to dyshomeostasis of trace elements in the central nervous system (CNS), resulting in damage to neurons and glial cells through the generation of reactive oxygen species and oxidative stress turn leading to neurodegeneration and neurological dysfunction. The book also explores the putative role of trace element deficiency in psychiatric disorders, including depression, and the imbalance of trace elements on neuronal genomic stability.
... In addition, it boosts the immune system and enhances the appearance of aging skin. Asthma, cough, and stomach ulcers have also been shown to benefit from EBN (38,(45)(46)(47). EBN has recently been shown to have antiviral and neuroprotective properties by suppressing influenza infection (48)(49)(50). ...
... EBN has antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and bone-strengthening properties (51,52). Due to EBNs medicinal and delectable qualities, it has become more widely known worldwide (47). EBN has been reported worldwide as a major element in health-supplementing foods, beverages, and beauty enhancers (46). ...
... Researchers found that EBN contains a high concentration of serine, threonine, and aspartic acids, glutamic acids, prolines, and valines (58,59). Glycoproteins (lactoferrin and ovotransferrin) are the molecules that provide EBN with its special usefulness and are reported to contribute to the neuroprotective activity (38,43,47,54,59,61). An important component of white EBN is the aromatic amino acid tyrosine, which has antidepressant and analgesic properties (38). ...
Article
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Cognitive enhancement is defined as the augmentation of the mind's core capabilities through the improvement of internal or external information processing systems. Recently, the focus has shifted to the potential therapeutic effects of natural products in improving cognitive function. Edible bird's nest (EBN) is a natural food substance derived from the saliva of swiftlets. Until today, EBN is regarded as a high-priced nutritious food with therapeutic effects. The effectiveness of dietary EBN supplementation to enhance brain development in mammals has been documented. Although the neuroprotection of EBN has been previously reported, however, the impact of EBN on learning and memory control and its potential as a cognitive enhancer drug remains unknown. Thus, this article aims to address the neuroprotective benefits of EBN and its potential effect as a cognitive enhancer. Notably, the current challenges and the future study direction in EBN have been demonstrated.
... It takes over 35 days to complete the nest construction. The solidified secretion enables the nest to carry the swiftlets and their eggs remaining attached to the wall during the whole breeding season (Macron 2005;Ma and Liu 2012;Ramji et al. 2013). Studies showed swiftlets are cave dweller animals mainly located at the limestone caves. ...
... Additionally, it increases immunity and improves aging skin. Studies also showed that EBN is a potential curative agent in cancer, stomach ulcers, asthma, and cough (Kong et al. 1987;Ma and Liu 2012;Hobbs 2004;Macron 2005). Lately, EBN was showed to have antiviral effect by inhibiting influenza infection (Haghani et al. 2016(Haghani et al. , 2017 and neuroprotective activity (Xie et al. 2018). ...
... EBN also benefits as an antioxidant, anti-inflammatory agent and can improve bone strength (Matsukawa et al. 2011;Yida et al. 2014). Today the awareness toward EBN has been increased worldwide as this salivary secretion is valuable for its therapeutic effect and delicacy (Ma and Liu 2012). With the aid of modern technology, EBN has been produced as one of the key ingredients in health supplementation food, drinks, and cosmetics products (Kong et al. 1987). ...
Book
This book comprehensively reviews the relationship between micronutrients and brain in health and diseases. It explains the relationship between micronutrients and brain functions, neurogenesis, and cognitive functions. The book also explores the relationship between micronutrients and brain disorders including depression, epilepsy, PD, and Autism. It further explores the recent advancements in understanding the important role of micronutrients as therapeutics in various brain disorders like TBI and AD. Lastly, it presents an overview of micronutrients as neuroprotective agents along with the main principles of nutrigenomics.
... It takes over 35 days to complete the nest construction. The solidified secretion enables the nest to carry the swiftlets and their eggs remaining attached to the wall during the whole breeding season (Macron 2005;Ma and Liu 2012;Ramji et al. 2013). Studies showed swiftlets are cave dweller animals mainly located at the limestone caves. ...
... Additionally, it increases immunity and improves aging skin. Studies also showed that EBN is a potential curative agent in cancer, stomach ulcers, asthma, and cough (Kong et al. 1987;Ma and Liu 2012;Hobbs 2004;Macron 2005). Lately, EBN was showed to have antiviral effect by inhibiting influenza infection (Haghani et al. 2016(Haghani et al. , 2017 and neuroprotective activity (Xie et al. 2018). ...
... EBN also benefits as an antioxidant, anti-inflammatory agent and can improve bone strength (Matsukawa et al. 2011;Yida et al. 2014). Today the awareness toward EBN has been increased worldwide as this salivary secretion is valuable for its therapeutic effect and delicacy (Ma and Liu 2012). With the aid of modern technology, EBN has been produced as one of the key ingredients in health supplementation food, drinks, and cosmetics products (Kong et al. 1987). ...
Chapter
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t Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is one of the key causes of deaths and disabilities worldwide. TBI progresses in two phases. The primary phase of injury is the direct result of the physical damage caused by the external force applied to the brain while the secondary injury takes place minutes to days after the primary injury. The secondary phase of TBI is marked by a series of pathological events that start following the initial mechanical impact. The mechanisms underlying TBI pathogenesis in the secondary phase are intricate and include metabolic alterations, excitotoxicity, oxidative stress, and neuroinflammation, among others; all culminating in neuronal cell damage and death. Currently, there is no FDA-licensed drug that targets TBI. Hence, the search for novel therapeutic agents that can target one or more of the mechanisms underlying the pathology of the secondary phase of TBI is warranted. Such novel therapeutic agents are expected to ameliorate the adverse consequences of TBI
... dan protein (40.00-66.00%), dengan komposisi protein adalah tertinggi dan ini menunjukkan bahawa SBW merupakan sumber protein yang baik (Ling et al. 2020;Ma & Liu 2012;Marcone 2005). SBW mempunyai protein 77 kDa yang memiliki ciri seperti protein ovotransferin (Marcone 2005). ...
... Ini menunjukkan SBW merupakan sumber protein berfungsi yang berkualiti tinggi . Komposisi karbohidrat dalam SBW adalah kedua tertinggi dan mengandungi asid sialik (9.0%), galaktosamina (7.2%), glukosamina (5.3%), galaktosa (16.9%) dan fukosa (0.7%) (Kathan & Weeks 1969;Ma & Liu 2012). ...
Article
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Kajian terdahulu menunjukkan bahawa glikoprotein sarang burung walit boleh dihidrolisis dan dipulihkan sebagai hidrolisat sarang burung walit (SBWh) yang boleh dimakan dalam bentuk serbuk. Kajian ini adalah kerja sambungan daripada kajian terdahulu, yang mana pelbagai kepekatan enzim transglutaminase (TG) telah digunakan dalam pembentukan semula bentuk serbuk SBWh menggunakan acuan dan kesannya terhadap sifat fizikokimia dan bioaktiviti SBWh. Proses hidrolisis enzim menunjukkan bahawa sampel SBWh mempunyai hasil pulih lebih daripada 60% dan menunjukkan warna yang lebih terang daripada SBW mentah. Kelarutan SBWh dengan TG lebih rendah tetapi ia boleh dibentuk semula ke bentuk yang diingini. Corak spektrum FTIR untuk sampel SBWh juga menunjukkan bahawa ketulenan glikopeptida SBW yang tinggi telah diperoleh. Untuk aktiviti antioksidan, produk sampingan SBWh (SBWhcp) menunjukkan aktiviti penyingkiran radikal bebas DPPH yang lebih tinggi. Secara ringkasnya, penambahan TG kepada SBWh telah meningkatkan sifat fizikokimia dan bioaktiviti. Penemuan ini menghasilkan wawasan tentang aplikasi dan pembangunan produk EBN menggunakan EBNh dengan TG yang mempunyai bioaktiviti yang tinggi.
... The bird's saliva gland cells secrete saliva, which solidifies to form the bowl nests adhering to the cave wall for the birds' habitation until being harvested for human consumption ( Figure 1B) [1] . The nests contain abundant proteins and carbohydrates (>50% and >30% dry weight, respectively) produced by salivary epithelial cells, which are believed to be the main nutritional ingredients that underpin the healthcare effects of EBN [11] . Utilizing the TE methodology to recapitulate the process of EBN production in vitro might open a new avenue for engineering environmentally friendly EBN. ...
... H-HA and gelatin were the main components of the receiving layer of TeeBN. To simulate the functional components of natural EBN [11,19] , we constituted carbohydrate ingredients to adjust the proportion of the final composing monosaccharides, as illustrated in composition table of Figure 3A. For the receiving layer, all the materials used are of food-grade quality. ...
Article
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Edible bird's nests (EBN)-the nests of swiftlet birds harvested from the wild- are high-end healthcare food in East Asia, while their excessive harvesting poses increasing ecological, environmental, and food safety concerns. Here, we report for the first time a tissue-engineering (TE) approach for fabricating EBNs substitutes by integrating the technologies of three-dimensional (3D) printing and live cell culture. The engineered products, tissue-engineered edible bird's nests (TeeBN), comprise two layers. The first is a feeding layer that encapsulates epithelial cells in 3D-printed biocompatible gelation scaffolds. These cells secrete bioactive ingredients, e.g., sialic acid and epidermal growth factors (EGF), recapitulating the natural production of these substances by birds. The second is a receiving layer, consisting of foodgrade natural polymers, e.g., polysaccharides, which mimics the building blocks of natural EBNs while biologically stabilizing the factors released from the feeding layer. In vitro characterizations demonstrate that the feeding layer facilitates 3D cell growth and functions, and the receiving layer (as the end product) contains the necessary nutrients expected from natural EBNs-while without harmful substances commonly detected in natural EBNs. Further, in vivo metabolomics studies in mice indicate that TeeBN showed a similar profile of serum metabolites as natural EBN, reflecting comparable nutritional effects. In summary, we innovatively developed a tissue engineering-based substitute for EBNs with comparable metabolic functions and minimized safety risks, opening a new avenue for producing delicacy food from laboratorial cell culture with 3D printing technology.
... EBN has always been expensive due to its limited supply and huge demand. Therefore, EBN source traceability and ingredient identification have always been important issues in the EBN supply chain (Hamzah et al., 2013;Ma & Liu, 2012;Shim et al., 2016). Researchers have developed various identification and detection methods. ...
... In addition to conventional methods, many unconventional identification and detection methods are effective under specific conditions, as well as the combination of various methods to facilitate comprehensive analysis and response to different conditions. Such as molecular biology identification (Guo et al., 2013;Huang et al., 2011), and fingerprinting (Sheikha, 2021;Ma & Liu, 2012). ...
Article
Full-text available
Edible bird's nest is built by swiftlet during breeding using salivary gland secretions, which have rich nutritional value, such as anti-aging, immunomodulatory, and antioxidant activity. As a result, the global demand for edible bird's nests has increased significantly. Swiftlet farmers, consumers, traders, and authorities are increasingly concerned about obtaining safe and high-quality edible bird's nests. On the other hand, subject to the limitations of the number of swiftlet populations and the ecological environment, exploring new food processing technologies to improve the utilization efficiency of edible bird's nest nutrition has also become the research frontier. Therefore, this study introduced the origin and classification of edible bird's nests in detail, presented the current situation of the edible bird's nest industry and the corresponding review measures of various countries, reviewed the efficacies of edible bird's nest, and introduced the new form of edible bird's nest utilization: edible bird's nest hydrolysates and their efficacies.
... In rats, the acute pulmonary response to the inhalation of SO 2 was shown to involve tissue injury and acute neutrophilic lung inflammation (Wigenstam et al., 2016). Interestingly, traditional Chinese medicine believes that EBN can promote the secretion of saliva to nourish the lung (Ma et al., 2012). Indeed, increasing evidence shows that EBN has a significant effect on the treatment of respiratory diseases, such as dissolving phlegm, alleviating asthma, suppressing cough, curing tuberculosis, and combating influenza virus (Ma et al., 2012). ...
... Interestingly, traditional Chinese medicine believes that EBN can promote the secretion of saliva to nourish the lung (Ma et al., 2012). Indeed, increasing evidence shows that EBN has a significant effect on the treatment of respiratory diseases, such as dissolving phlegm, alleviating asthma, suppressing cough, curing tuberculosis, and combating influenza virus (Ma et al., 2012). Therefore, a hypothesis was raised that EBN could attenuate the lung injury induced by SO 2 in mice. ...
Article
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The purpose was to investigate effect of edible bird's nest (EBN) on the immunological properties of mice with lung injury induced by sulfur dioxide (SO2). In mice, SO2 exposure caused symptoms that included a cough, tiredness, and weight loss. Administering EBN improved the immunological function of mice with lung injury in a dose‐dependent manner, leading to recovery of the lung tissue and increasing thymus and spleen indices. IL‐2 and IFN‐γ in the serum by Th1 cells in response to EBN played a leading role in cellular immune regulation. Moreover, a medium dose of EBN regulated the immune stress response, inhibited apoptosis of splenic lymphocytes, and promoted cellular immunity. EBN inhibited production of IL‐8 and MDA and upregulated mRNA expression of atrophin‐1 and cyclooxygenase‐2 in lung tissue. EBN attenuates the lung injury induced by SO2 in mice through a mechanism that involves the inhibition of inflammation and regulation of immunological balance. EBN attenuates the lung injury induced by SO2 in mice through a mechanism that involves the inhibition of inflammation and regulation of immunological balance.
... Ever since the Yuan Dynasty (Lau & Melville, 1994), EBN has been traded as a high-priced commodity due to its scarcity because it was only harvested from the swiftlets' natural habitat, i.e. the caves, those days. This might have been because it was risky for the cave bird's nest harvester during the collection work, compounded by the laborious and time-consuming cleaning process (Hobbs, 2004;Ma & Liu, 2012;Sankaran, 2001). In view of the lucrative returns, edible bird's nest industries nowadays, have become a viable venture and man-made swiftlet houses have been developed to breed swiftlets. ...
... In this study, the researchers classified the cave-harvested EBN and house-farmed EBN samples based on their mineral contents. The minerals found in EBN are calcium (Ca), sodium (Na), magnesium (Mg), potassium (K), phosphorus (P) and iron (Fe) (Ma & Liu, 2012;Marcone, 2005). Since the cave-harvested EBN are built on the walls of the caves, they tend to contain more foreign minerals and impurities as compared to the house-farmed EBN. ...
Article
Cave-harvested edible bird nest (EBN) is a high-priced commodity, that often being counterfeited with lower-priced house-farmed EBN. In this study, cave-harvested EBN and house-farmed EBN were classified based on to the concentration of calcium (Ca), sodium (Na), magnesium (Mg) and potassium (K) present. To solve the convergence failure problem caused by the complete separation of the EBN data, a logistic regression model analysis on 48 EBN samples harvested from Malaysia and Indonesia through a mineral ratio approach was adopted. Out of the 3 logistic regression models developed, the model consisting of Ca/Na ratio and Mg/K ratio gave the best performance showing no convergence failure of Maximum Likelihood Estimation (MLE) and both the explanatory variables were highly significant. The result indicated that both Ca/Na ratio and Mg/K ratio, affecting the probability of EBN type to be cave-harvested EBN in a positive manner. The logistic regression model developed with the Ca/Na ratio and Mg/K ratio gave a 100% specificity and 91.67% sensitivity in classifying the EBN type. The results of the analysis were verified using the Receiver Operating Characteristics curves. The validation result indicated that the model has a very good overall diagnostic accuracy in classifying the EBN type based on the mineral ratio.
... The main component in EBN is glycoprotein. Generally, carbohydrate of EBN composed of about 9% of sialic acid (mainly N-acetyl-4-O-acetylneuraminic acid), 7.2% galactosamine, 5.3% glucosamine, 16.9% galactose and 0.7% fucose (Ma & Liu, 2012). Glycoprotein and sialic acid are the two main nutrients that relate to the high medicinal values of EBN. ...
... Even though glycoprotein in EBN is proven to exhibit prominent bioactivities, EBN itself is not an excellent source of complete food protein (Ma & Liu, 2012). Up to recently, EBN still could not be claimed as a functional food due to the lack of concrete data from in to vitro, in-vivo and clinical research. ...
Article
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Objective Edible bird’s nest (EBN) is a popular traditional tonic food in Chinese population for centuries. Malaysia is one of the main EBN suppliers in the world. This study aims to explore the best strategy to boost the antioxidant potential of EBN solution. Methods In this study, the raw EBN (4%, mass to volume ratio) was initially enzymatic hydrolyzed using papain enzyme to produce EBN hydrolysate (EBNH), then spray-dried into powdered form. Next, 4% (mass to volume ratio) of EBNH powder was dissolved in ginger extract (GE), mulberry leaf extract (MLE) and cinnamon twig extract (CTE) to detect the changes of antioxidant activities, respectively. Results Results obtained suggest that enzymatic hydrolysis significantly reduced the viscosity of 4% EBN solution from (68.12 ± 0.69) mPa.s to (7.84 ± 0.31) mPa.s. Besides, the total phenolic content (TPC), total flavonoid content (TFC), total soluble protein, DPPH scavenging activity and ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) were substantially increased following EBN hydrolysis using papain enzyme. In addition, fortification with GE, MLE and CTE had further improved the TPC, TFC, DPPH scavenging activity and FRAP of the EBNH solution. Among the samples, MLE-EBNH solution showed the most superior antioxidant potential at (86.39 ± 1.66)% of DPPH scavenging activity and (19.79 ± 2.96) mmol/L FeSO4 of FRAP. Conclusion This study proved that combined enzymatic hydrolysis and MLE fortification is the best strategy to produce EBN product with prominent in vitro antioxidant potential. This preliminary study provides new insight into the compatibility of EBN with different herbal extracts for future health food production.
... Figure 1. Comparison of protein content in this study with several previous studies Protein is a prominent component of SBN, accounting for 50-65% of dry-weight SBN, and it plays a crucial role in nutritional and pharmacological effects, as well as having important biological roles (Ma and Liu, 2012). Factors that contribute to the high protein content include the environment and the amount of food in the swallow's home (Marcone, 2005) Protein stands as a crucial nutritional element for our body, functioning both as an energy source and as a foundational and regulatory element in bodily tissues. ...
Article
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Functional foods contain biologically active components and compounds that have physiological effects on the human body, such as promoting health and decreasing the risk of sickness. The swiftlet, which belongs to the Collocalini family, is an insect-eating bird that migrates across the Indian Ocean, Southeast Asia, and northern Australia to the Pacific Ocean. Swiftlet bird's nests (SBN) contain protein, fats, carbohydrates, iron, calcium, phosphorus, inorganic salts, fiber, and water. The objective of this study is to determine the nutritional content of swiftlet bird nests in different regions of West Sumatra. Samples of swiftlet bird's nests (SBN) were collected from Padang City (PD), Bukittinggi City (BK), and Pesisir Selatan Regency (PS). Nutritional content was analyzed using proximate methods, including moisture, protein, and fat, and the nitrite concentration was measured using UV-Vis spectrophotometry. The study found that SBN in West Sumatra contains 47.65–50.55% protein, 1.48–2.47% fat, 21.77–22.77% water, and 24.75–32.72 ppm nitrite. The results indicate that the nutritional content varies among the samples, and the protein content found in SBN is higher, making it suitable for use as a functional food. Additionally, SBN has many health benefits and biological activities, such as mitogenic response and cell growth, enhanced immunity, and improved bone strength.
... Dalam industri SBW, FTIR digunakan untuk mengesahkan ketulenan sarang ini dan membezakannya dengan yang campuran atau palsu melalui pengenalpastian kumpulan berfungsi yang terkandung dalam SBW ini (Guo et al. 2017;Noor Atikah et al. 2020). Kumpulan berfungsi utama yang terkandung dalam SBW ini adalah protein, polisakarida dan lipid, manakala kumpulan berfungsi sampingan atau hadir dalam kuantiti yang kecil adalah asid nukleik dan asid amino (Lee et al. 2021;Ma & Liu 2012). Selain daripada mengesan ketulenan SBW, FTIR juga digunakan sebagai alat untuk menganalisis kestabilan SBW ketika pemprosesan dan penyimpanan berlaku (Guo et al. 2017). ...
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Sarang Burung Walit (SBW) yang diperbuat daripada air liur burung spesies Aerodramus fuciphagus mempunyai banyak manfaat kesihatan seperti melambatkan proses penuaan serta menguatkan sistem imun manusia. Bagi memaksimumkan penggunaan SBW, hasil sampingan SBW daripada pembersihan awal digunakan oleh pengilang dengan mengekstrak semula glikopeptida yang melekat pada hasil sampingan tersebut. Namun, status Halal glikopeptida yang dikumpul daripada hasil sampingan SBW telah dipersoalkan berhubung kemungkinan kehadiran najis dan bulu burung pada produk akhir yang dijadikan bahan makanan. Kajian ini mengesan kehadiran najis dan bulu dalam glikopeptida yang diekstrak daripada hasil sampingan SBW dengan menggunakan analisis SpektroskopiFourier Transformasi Intramerah (FTIR) yang digabungkan dengan Analisis Komponen Utama (PCA) dan selanjutnya dianalisis menggunakan Resonans Magnet Nuklear(NMR). Selain itu, kajian ini juga mengupas mengenai hukum syariah berkaitan dengan burung Walit dan perbandingannya dengan burung layang-layang serta status halal penggunaan glikopeptida yang diperoleh semula daripada hasil sampingan SBW. Hasil daripada kajian ini menunjukkan, analisis FTIR yang digabungkan dengan analisis PCA, dapat mengesan dan membezakan kehadiran penanda (bulu dan najis) dalam sampel hasil sampingan SBW yang diekstrak melalui proses pembersihan yang berbeza. Keputusan analisis yang sama juga diperoleh melalui kaedah NMR. Mengikut hukum syariah, jika jumlah najis (bulu dan najis) adalah minima dan tidak kelihatan dengan mata kasar, konsep al-najasah al-ma‘fuww ‘anha li qillatiha ‘urfan(ia dimaafkan kerana kadar kecil mengikut uruf) boleh digunakan. Produk itu boleh dipertimbangkan untuk mendapat sijil Halal daripada pihak berkuasa Malaysia.
... Within these nine amino acids, lysine and tryptophan are commonly absent in plant-based proteins (Hun et al., 2015;Wong et al., 2018).Besides proteins, carbohydrates are also one the important components of EBN (Hun et al., 2015;Wong et al., 2018). The composition of carbohydrates and glycoproteins in EBN primarily consists of sialic acid (9.0%), followed by galactosamine (7.2%), glucosamine (5.3%), galactose (16.9%), and fructose (0.7%) (Ma & Liu, 2012). Sialic acid has an important role to stabilize the bird's nest and it is evenly distributed throughout the nest. ...
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Edible bird's nest (EBN) or swiftlet's nest has recently been used extensively in regenerative medicine. This study aims to give a more thorough overview on the efficacy of EBN as a wound-healing agent. Method: We searched literature through several databases: Google Scholar, PubMed, Proquest, JSTOR, EBSCOhost, and SAGE. The keywords used were "bird nest, scar, wound healing" and their synonyms. The inclusion criteria were original articles written in English and assessed the effects of EBN in the wound healing process. We found 9 in vitro studies and 4 in vivo studies reporting wound healing effect of EBN, both macroscopically and microscopically. EBN could increase wound healing process through several mechanisms, such as cell proliferation, anti-oxidants, anti-inflammation, increased collagen synthesis, and tissue hydration. EBN has the potential to be used as a natural bioactive agent to increase the wound healing process.
... When experimental detection conditions are constrained, mastering the identifcation methods for morphological and physicochemical characteristics of EBN becomes essential. Nevertheless, these two approaches have certain drawbacks, notably their unreliability and inability to accurately detect adulterants [2,85]. ...
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Edible bird’s nest (EBN) is an animal product with the world’s highest market price due to its value. The nests are made exclusively from the saliva secreted by swiftlet, a species of bird native to Southeast Asia. For over a century, EBN has been consumed in many parts of the world as a nutritious food. The high economic value of EBN attracts people to invest and engage in the bird nest industry. Currently, China is the largest importer of EBN, while Southeast Asian countries, namely, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand, are the three largest exporters of EBN. An analysis of EBN’s compositions from most previous studies revealed that protein, carbohydrate, moisture, fat, and ash in EBN from the three central producing countries did not have apparent differences in their origins and were comparable to each other. Before 2011, EBN trade with China was unregulated. Consequently, the industry encountered problems due to the high nitrite content in EBN. Since then, these three countries have taken great measures to deal with this food safety issue and formulated a standard operating procedure (SOP) to meet the specific criteria listed for exporting EBN to China. Hence, this review discusses the quality and safety standards of EBN from the three countries and China’s standards for EBN importation.
... The sublingual salivary glands of male swiftlets generate saliva used in constructing EBN during breeding season [6]. Swiftlets in the Apodidae family belong to the genera Aerodramus and Collocalia [7]. For thousands of years, the Chinese have utilized this distinctive food tonic as a traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), renowned for its health-boosting properties. ...
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Background and Aim Edible bird’s nest (EBN) is known as the “Caviar of the East” because of its high nutritional and medicinal values. Nevertheless, its effect on human immunity is yet to be explored. This study examined the effects of EBN’s aqueous extract (EBNE) on human immunity through the modular immune in vitro construct (MIMIC) model consisting of peripheral tissue equivalent (PTE) and lymphoid tissue equivalent (LTE) modules. Materials and Methods One hundred twenty mL of full blood was obtained from four healthy human volunteers. The human immune system was simulated using an in vitro model, called MIMIC. Under EBNE treatment, monocyte transendothelial migration through reversed endothelial layers was observed. Using PTE and LTE modules, monocytes were differentiated into dendritic cells with lipopolysaccharide, then co-cultured with T- and B-cells for cytokine and immunoglobulin (Ig) production. The human cytokine array G2000 and quantitative human Ig isotyping array were used to identify the cytokine profile and Ig isotypes, respectively. Results IgE, IgA, and IgG3 levels were significantly raised by EBNE. These cytokines, including brain-derived neurotrophic factor, ciliary neurotrophic factor, glial cell line-derivative neurotrophic factor, insulin-like growth factor 1, and insulin-like growth factor binding protein 4, were generated. Conclusion For the first time, this work uses a MIMIC model to illustrate the impact of EBNE on human immune response. This new understanding of EBN’s immunoregulatory effect allows for further exploration of how EBN interacts with the human immune system.
... One type produced in Indonesia is white edible bird nest (Collocalia fuciphaga), which has a very high glycoprotein content and functions as a complex IOP Publishing doi: 10.1088/1755-1315/1341/1/012093 2 compound in cell regeneration [6]. Edible bird nest extract can significantly inhibit influenza infection and prevent bone loss [7]. The benefits of edible bird nest for health and beauty have led to high market demand both domestically and internationally. ...
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The edible bird nest business has both potential and challenges. Regional and seasonal characteristics affect edible bird nest production. The dry season causes temperature to rise and affects the swiftlet foraging behavior. Efforts to overcome these challenges require strategy. Research aims to: 1) analyze the factors in the edible bird nest business; 2) formulate strategies for swiftlet farmers in facing the season; 3) formulate economic and social strategies for the development of edible bird nest business. Qualitative research method with a case study approach. The research from April to June 2023 in Pulang Pisau Regency, with characteristics of river, forest, and swamp areas. Informants were swiftlet farmers. This research uses SWOT analysis to combine strengths and opportunities to overcome weaknesses and threats. The research results: 1) internal factors are strengths (population, high selling value, quality, benefits) and weaknesses (large capital, long preparation, seasonal influence); external factors are opportunities (high market demand, suitable location) and threats (licensing, high land prices, pest attacks, theft, sewage waste, ecosystem imbalance); 2) strategies in the dry season by using dew water technology, air ventilation, temperature and humidity timers; 3) economic strategies by increasing population and product quality; social strategies by increasing cooperation networks with stakeholders.
... In the other words, this process can be used to perform authentication, which is a process to verify if the EBN has been tampered with additives [12]. Over the years, adulteration has become widespread due to the high market value of EBN. Materials such as Tremella fungus, red seaweed, agar, and others [34,35] are used to counterfeit EBN, which is harmful and hazardous to human health [19]. To ensure the quality of EBN, numerous studies are focused on authentication and chemical composition analysis, with reviews that analyze and draw insights pertaining to various EBN authentication methods [4,5] [12]. ...
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Edible Bird Nest (EBN) constitutes a thriving industry in several Southeast Asian nations where its value chain encompasses several critical processes starting with nest harvesting to processing, and finally sales. However, a detailed review addressing EBN production from an intelligent system perspective is currently missing. Hence, this paper aims to document a comprehensive study of the various parts of the EBN value chain, where machine-intelligence has been incorporated into various solutions. We classified all the EBN processes into three primary segments: farming and production, quality control, and market analysis. In farming and production, two key areas emerge. First, there is process analysis which involves Failure Mode and Effect Analysis (FMEA) as well as profit, cost, and efficiency analysis, while swiftlet house monitoring pinpoints the optimal environment for swiftlets to flourish. On the other hand, works related to the second segment of quality control can be divided two primary approaches: image analysis which involves either auto-grading or automatic impurities inspection, and chemical analysis to ascertain the origin and authenticity of the EBN. The third and final domain of market analysis, covers both business strategy and customer behavior analysis. We have identified the integration of cutting-edge intelligent methods in each area while offering recommendations for future work. Our findings also unveiled intricate patterns, networks, relationships, and trends in the application of machine intelligence within the EBN value chain. These insights highlight many underexplored areas as well as several strategic aspects in this emerging industry.
... The recommended active ingredient is testosterone; however, there is no available data to support the presence of EBN extract in it. (Ma and Liu 2012b) ...
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Edible bird’s nest (EBN) is a highly valuable food product obtained from swiftlet nests, primarily those of the Aerodramus genus. Due to its purported health benefits and exceptional taste, EBN is often referred to as the “caviar of the East.” This abstract presents a comprehensive review of the current state of EBN research, focusing on its chemical composition, nutritional value, pharmacological effects, and safety considerations. The chemical composition of EBN is intricate and influenced by various factors, including bird species, geographic origin, nest collection time, and processing methods. It is primarily composed of proteins, polysaccharides, minerals, lipids, and a wide range of bioactive compounds such as sialic acid, amino acids, and antioxidants. Additionally, EBN has demonstrated antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor, and anti-aging properties attributed to these bioactive constituents. While EBN is generally considered safe for human consumption, it is essential to address concerns related to potential contaminants like heavy metals, microbial pathogens, and allergens. This review offers a comprehensive overview of previous research conducted on residual impurities that may be present in edible bird’s nests (EBNs). The review encompasses various aspects, including, the regulatory framework and associated concerns regarding EBNs, the levels of nitrite and nitrate detected in EBNs, the presence of bacteria, fungi, and mites in EBNs, the identification of allergenic substances in EBNs, and the presence of heavy metals and excessive mineral content at different stages of EBN processing, including raw uncleaned (RUC) EBNs, raw cleaned (RC) EBNs, and EBNs after undergoing treatment. Graphical abstract :
... Beginning with Tang dynasty (618-907 AD), the edible bird's nest has become an important item in Chinese cuisine and pharmacy, consumed as a delicious tonic food known as "bird's nest soup", which is regarded as a luxury food item (Hobbs, 2004;Marcone, 2005) .It's one of the most expensive animal products of saliva secretion produce from male swiftlet's two sublingual salivary glands (Saengkrajang, 2013;Ma & Liu, 2012). It is consumed for a number of reasons and its aphrodisiac property (reflection of reproductive role) is one of the traditionally believed benefits unexplored scientifically. ...
... In this step, raw bird nests will be soaked in clean water for further cleaning (Hong et al. 2020). During the process, most dust or surface impurities will oat; the bird's nest starts to absorb the water and expand in size, increasing its original weight (Ma and Liu, 2012). e nest's condition appears so and sticky (Hong et al. 2020). ...
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Background: Food safety management systems such as ISO 22000:2018 have many advantages in solving this newcomer industry's problems. It has enabled the edible bird’s nest industry to plan, implement, operate, maintain, and update an FSMS providing edible bird’s nest products and safe services. Purpose: This review article delineates the role of the food safety management system (FSMS) in improving quality control, production performance, and economic effects in the edible bird’s nest industry. Method: This study was a literature review that collected sources from books and journals. Results: Hence, the evaluation and assessment could be adequate to meet regulatory food safety requirements. FSMS possess division properties such as quality control, production, marketing, purchasing, general affair, human resources, warehouse, and maintenance. They also have veterinary control numbers and animals quarantine installation, enhancing the edible bird’s nest industry's overall quality control and production performance in Indonesia. Conclusion: The findings of the current review depicted the tremendous potential of cleaning development, which could be explored with the recent advancements in science and technology. The advantages of compelling communication of food safety issues from the FSMS ensure that the edible bird’s nest industry conforms to its stated food safety policy and relevant interested parties in fulfilling the trade requirements set by the export/importing destination country.
... Indeed, Neu5Ac carries a hydrophobic N-acetyl group, whereas hydroxylated Neu5Gc carries a hydrophilic N-ethanolyl group; the sterical structures formed by these groups (especially C-5, C-9, and C-1) contribute to the specific function of sialoglycans and the recognition of various receptors and pathogens (Angata and Varki 2002). Sialoglycans are not present in plants but are abundant in vertebrates and invertebrates (Baydas et al. 2002;Crocker and Varki 2001), such as in beef, mutton, pork, edible bird's nest (EBN), milks, and eggs (Ma and Liu 2012;Morrissey 1973;Powell, Liu, and Pekosz 2021;Smilowitz et al. 2014). Numerous documents show that human milk contains more Sia than bovine milk (Cheng et al. 2021;Lyons et al. 2020). ...
Article
Sialic acids (Sias), a group of over 50 structurally distinct acidic saccharides on the surface of all vertebrate cells, are neuraminic acid derivatives. They serve as glycan chain terminators in extracellular glycolipids and glycoproteins. In particular, Sias have significant implications in cell-to-cell as well as host-to-pathogen interactions and participate in various biological processes, including neurodevelopment, neurodegeneration, fertilization, and tumor migration. However, Sia is also present in some of our daily diets, particularly in conjugated form (sialoglycans), such as those in edible bird’s nest, red meats, breast milk, bovine milk, and eggs. Among them, breast milk, especially colostrum, contains a high concentration of sialylated oligosaccharides. Numerous reviews have concentrated on the physiological function of Sia as a cellular component of the body and its relationship with the occurrence of diseases. However, the consumption of Sias through dietary sources exerts significant influence on human health, possibly by modulating the gut microbiota’s composition and metabolism. In this review, we summarize the distribution, structure, and biological function of particular Sia-rich diets, including human milk, bovine milk, red meat, and egg.
... Previous studies reported that EBN exhibited antiviral, immuneregulative, neuroprotective, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anti-aging effects [25]. The main bioactive compounds in EBN are SA, PUFA and proteins-derived amino acids [26][27][28]. Most of these bioactive compounds bind to or form large-sized molecules. ...
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The aim of this study is to investigate the repressive effects of enzyme-digested edible bird’s nest (EBND) on the combination of arid environment and UV-induced intracellular oxidative stress, cell death, DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) and inflammatory responses in human HaCaT keratinocytes and three-dimensional (3D) epithelium equivalents. An oxygen radical antioxidant capacity assay showed that EBND exhibited excellent peroxyl radical scavenging activity and significantly increased cellular antioxidant capacity in HaCaT cells. When EBND was administered to HaCaT cells and 3D epitheliums, it exhibited significant preventive effects on air-drying and UVA (Dry-UVA)-induced cell death and apoptosis. Dry-UVA markedly induced intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation in HaCaT cells and 3D epitheliums as quantified by CellROX® Green/Orange reagents. Once HaCaT cells and 3D epitheliums were pretreated with EBND, Dry-UVA-induced intracellular ROS were significantly reduced. The results from anti-γ-H2A.X antibody-based immunostaining showed that EBND significantly inhibited Dry-UVA-induced DSBs in HaCaT keratinocytes. Compared with sialic acid, EBND showed significantly better protection for both keratinocytes and 3D epitheliums against Dry-UVA-induced injuries. ELISA showed that EBND significantly suppressed UVB-induced IL-6 and TNF-α secretion. In conclusion, EBND could decrease arid environments and UV-induced harmful effects and inflammatory responses in human keratinocytes and 3D epithelium equivalents partially through its antioxidant capacity.
... Individual experience informed such a subjective strategy. Since then, using a mix of elemental composition, micro observations, and genetic data, has developed a number of methods for grading EBN and identifying phony or contaminated EBN (Ma, F., & Liu, D., 2012). Each approach, on the other hand, has its own set of benefits and drawbacks, and no single method can accurately quantify quality. ...
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The overall goal of this research is to understand on by equating characteristics of starting a business in previous research, its items of creating a bird nest for manufacturers. The 10 characteristics of the new business factors include invention, knowledge, resources, state subsidies, manpower, marketing program, geographical position, swiftlet risks, and Edible Bird’s Nest (EBN) farming tools. The majority of entrepreneurs lacked basic management skills when they first begun. Giving up on the process can lead to many of them failing, resulting in further losses. Furthermore, to compete in today's market, a beginning firm needs highly skilled, dedicated personnel as well as innovative management. As a result, the elements that affect the overall performance of this research focuses on new businesses in the Edible Bird's Nest (EBN) industry. In this study, a few ways will be used to offer feedback on whether certain techniques are effective or poor for creating bird nests, as evaluated by a bird nest method entrepreneur. This research helps to a deeper knowledge of the entire new economic features of the Edible Bird's Nest (EBN) Swiftlet Output value Industry. Furthermore, these discoveries will have the effect of expanding Edible Bird’s Nest (EBN) output, particularly for export, as well as the ranching industry's economy
... The carbohydrate component of REBN which is glycosidically linked to form Nacetylgalactoamine, releases as free N-acetylneuraminic acid upon enzymatic hydrolysis (Wong et al., 2018). The two main functional components in REBN found by many researchers are sialic acid and antioxidants (Babji et al., 2018;Ma and Liu, 2012). However, REBN was reported to have inferior functional effects in term of antioxidant activity and promote lower absorption rate as compared to EBNH (Babji et al., 2018;Khushairay et al., 2014). ...
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The enrichment with low amount of bioactive protein of spray-dried edible bird’s nest hydrolysates (EBNH) (3.0%) in view of its cost and high solubility provided significant value added to the overall in vitro antioxidant capacity of soy-based powder drink mix (PDM). Its beverage (12.5% concentration, consistency index 0.39 Pa.sn) antioxidant capacity as measured by ABTS and FRAP was comparable (p>0.05) but significantly higher than antioxidant assays of FCR and DPPH. The respective antioxidant capacity of the PDM beverage in terms of trolox equivalent (TE) and gallic acid equivalent (GAE) were 21.95 TE mg/g, 20.75 TE mg/g, 2.93 TE mg/g and 14.72 GAE mg/g for FRAP, ABTS, DPPH and FCR. Depending on antioxidant assay, EBNH in beverage of PDM contributed an increase in the range of 3.7-9.3% (which was significant (p<0.05) according to ABTS and FCR assays) or about 6.0% to its overall antioxidant capacity. The interaction among the antioxidant activity of all the food product’s ingredients is antagonistic since the difference between the expected and observed total antioxidant potential is significantly higher (p<0.05) for all antioxidants assays, except FCR. The beverage of PDM has excellent sensory quality. It is sugar free and high protein PDM that has excellent cocoa flavour and possesses sufficient sweetness with acceptable beany aroma and taste when served as hot beverage.
... Edible bird's nests (EBNs) are saliva-cemented nests only built by a few swiftlet species found in Southeast Asia (Chua & Zukefli, 2016). The EBNs traded worldwide today are mainly from the white-nest swiftlet (Aerodramus fuciphagus), the black-nest swiftlet (Aerodramus maximus) and some species of the Collocalia genera (Ma & Liu, 2012). Among these species, EBNs from A. fuciphagus are generally much preferred in the market as they are relatively clean, and seldom contaminated by feathers or bird droppings (Chua & Zukefli, 2016). ...
Article
Only a few species of swiftlets in the Aerodramus and Collocalia genera can produce edible bird's nests (EBN). These saliva-cemented nests have been consumed as delicacies for centuries in Asia. Many researches have reported the aqueous extract of EBN has epidermal growth factor-like (EGF-like) activity. However, no standalone EGF has been identified in EBN. Moreover, proteome of EBN remained unclear due to lack of genomic data base of an EBN-producing swiftlet to support proteomic analysis of EBN. To address this, the first genome of the EBN-producing swiftlet, Aerodramus fuciphagus, was constructed. Orthology comparison of A. fuciphagus with 10 other avian species were conducted. The results revealed that the number of predicted paralogous coiled-coil domain-containing protein 63 (CCDC63) coding sequences (CDSs) in A. fuciphagus was found to be significantly expanded in comparison to Gallus gallus. There were 3 paralogous CCDC63 genes in the genome of A.fuciphagus. The CDSs predicted from the genome of A. fuciphagus were used to construct a database for proteomic analysis of EBN. In total, 398 proteins have been identified in EBN. The proteome of EBN was significant enriched with extracellular proteins as well as proteins related to extracellular matrix (ECM) organization and immune response. A few proteins with Ca²⁺-binding EGF-like domains were found in the proteome of EBN, like fibrillin-1, protocadherin fat 4 and coagulation factor X. No standalone EGF protein was identified. This indicated that the proteins with EGF-like domains might be responsible for the EGF-like activity of EBN. In addition, acidic mammalian chitinase and lysyl oxidase in EBN were found to be active when extracting with distilled water at room temperature. The current study has not just revealed the species-specific genotype of the EBN-producing swiftlet, A. fuciphagus, but also revealed the proteome of EBN. This established an important foundation for subsequently studies on efficacies of EBN.
... The solidified salivary cement is collected and extracted by humans as a food supplement. 1 Because an EBN is a highly valued and exported agricultural commodity in Malaysia, the cleanliness of this product is incredibly paramount. The EBN must be free from any impurities or foreign matter unsafe for human consumption before being sold. ...
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There is a dire need for vision automation for edible bird’s nest (EBN) hygiene inspection. To date, an effective impurities detection method for EBNs has yet to be realized owing to the inhomogeneous optical properties, various types and sizes of impurities, and limited sample size. The impurities inspection was formulated as an anomaly detection task, and a hybrid autoencoder model that contains an autoencoder and a single layer convolutional network is proposed. The model was trained to reconstruct only nonimpurity regions of the EBN for impurities segmentation and detection as anomalies. The results showed that with only 50 EBN sample images, the hybrid model achieved a recall of 0.9282, a precision of 0.7718, and a 5.63% undetected rate for impurities. Furthermore, a misclassification rate of 21.53% was recorded due to artifacts mostly with sizes <0.20 mm that were detected as false positive. Nonetheless, the applicability of the proposed autoencoder model was confirmed, with >92 % of successful impurities detected. Therefore, the hybrid autoencoder model is further explored for improvement and practical application
... Firstly, EBN was reported to have a positive proliferative effect in in vitro study (Aswir and Wan Nazaimoon, 2011;Abidin et al., 2011;Roh et al., 2012). Second, EBN was also reported containing a few male reproductive hormones such as FSH, LH, and testosterone (Ma and Liu, 2012a) and showed potential as an alternative treatment for erectile dysfunction (Ma et al., 2012). These EBN characteristics align with the current study objective and therefore becomes the reason for this selection interest. ...
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Children are vulnerable to the radiofrequency radiation (RFR) emitted by Wi-Fi devices. Nevertheless, the severity of the Wi-Fi effect on their reproductive development has been sparsely available. Therefore, this study was conducted to evaluate the Wi-Fi exposure on spermatogonia proliferation in the testis. This study also incorporated an approach to attenuate the effect of Wi-Fi by giving concurrent edible bird’s nest (EBN) supplementation. It was predicted that Wi-Fi exposure reduces spermatogonia proliferation while EBN supplementation protects against it. A total of 30 (N = 30) 3-week-old Sprague Dawley weanlings were divided equally into five groups; Control, Control EBN, Wi-Fi, Sham Wi-Fi, and Wi-Fi + EBN. 2.45 GHz Wi-Fi exposure and 250 mg/kg EBN supplementation were conducted for 14 weeks. Findings showed that the Wi-Fi group had decreased in spermatogonia mitosis status. However, the mRNA and protein expression of c-Kit-SCF showed no significant decrease. Instead, the reproductive hormone showed a reduction in FSH and LH serum levels. Of these, LH serum level was decreased significantly in the Wi-Fi group. Otherwise, supplementing the Wi-Fi + EBN group with 250 mg/kg EBN resulted in a significant increase in spermatogonia mitotic status. Even though EBN supplementation improved c-Kit-SCF mRNA and protein expression, the effects were insignificant. The improvement of spermatogonia mitosis appeared to be associated with a significant increase in blood FSH levels following EBN supplementation. In conclusion, the long-term Wi-Fi exposure from pre-pubertal to adult age reduces spermatogonia proliferation in the testis. On the other hand, EBN supplementation protects spermatogonia proliferation against Wi-Fi exposure.
... Dai et al. (2021) reported that B nest had nutritional value as well as anti-ageing, immunomodulatory, and antioxidant activities. Ma & Liu (2012) also documented that B nest has numerous bioactivities with nutritional value. Epidermal growth factor-like activity, including the potential for mitogenic response, anti-influenza virus, lectin-binding activities, and haemagglutination-inhibitory activity have been documented. ...
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Edible bird’s nests (Bnest) collected from house and cave of eight provinces in the southern part of Thailand were characterised. Bnest from different locations had differences in Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectra and energy‐ dispersive X‐ray (EDX) spectroscopy patterns but there was no distinctive difference in protein patterns. Crystallinity values of cave‐Bnest from Phatthalung province (PL‐C) and house‐Bnest from Songkhla province (SK‐H) (38.79% and 35.52%, respectively) were higher than those of other samples. PL‐C and SK‐H samples had different thermal behaviours, as determined by the thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). Both samples were used for the production of Bnest beverage using the retort process (121 °C for 11 min). Colour, soluble solid content, drained weight, and sterility were determined in both beverages. Average L*‐value and soluble solid content of SK‐H were higher than those of PL‐C (P < 0.05). Higher a* and b*‐values and drained weight were found in the latter. However, aerobic/anaerobic mesophiles and thermophiles were not detected in both samples. The beverage containing PL‐C generally showed higher acceptability for all attributes, especially appearance, texture, and overall likeness (P < 0.05), than that with SK‐H. Therefore, the habitat, where bird’s nest was collected, had a marked influence on the characteristics of both dried nest and resulting sterilised bird’s nest beverages.
... These were also reported in previous studies. [7,45,[58][59][60] The raw ESN's protein, carbohydrate, moisture, fat, and ash content were determined as one of the crucial procedures for the hydrolysis process. In which, the hydrolysis of ESN was performed based on the protein content in ESN. ...
Article
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The swiftlet’s nest is an edible bird’s nest (EBN) produced from dried gelatinized saliva secreted by swiftlets during the breeding season. It is widely used in industries for its high nutritional values and health benefits. However, the utilization of ESN is restricted due to its physicochemical properties, such as insolubility. The recently invented bioactive ESN hydrolyzate is reported to improve the ESN’s solubility, functional and nutritional properties to broaden its application. This study has produced bioactive ESN hydrolyzates with different hydrolysis periods to investigate the optimum conditions to achieve maximized degree of hydrolysis (DH) and to compare the physicochemical differences. The result revealed that optimum ESN hydrolysis was at 90 minutes, in which the DH and enhanced solubility (three folds) indicated a complete breakdown of glycoprotein into bioactive glycopeptide. This result is in line with the physicochemical analyses result. The hydrolysis has significantly decreased (p ≤ .05) the ESN protein content, while the levels for peptide, glycopeptide, polysaccharides, and sialic acid showed the opposite. Interestingly, the amino acid from raw ESN and hydrolyzates in all incubation periods showed no significant difference (p ≤ .05). This result suggests that the ESN biological properties remained unchanged with alcalase hydrolysis. Therefore, the findings in this study confirm the feasibility of bioactive ESN hydrolyzate as a versatile product suitable for various industries in utilizing ESN in whole instead of as extracts.
... Edible bird's nest (EBN) is a traditional health food in China, which is a nest formed by mixing saliva and feather of Swiftlets [1]. The global EBN production is mainly concentrated in Southeast Asia, such as Indonesia, Thailand, Malaysia, with Indonesia's EBN accounting for more than 80% of the world's EBN production [2]. ...
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Edible bird’s nest (EBN) is an unusual mucin glycoprotein. In China, it is popular among consumers due to its skin whitening activity. However, the relationship between protein, sialic acid, and the whitening activity of EBN after digestion is still unclear. In the present work, the whitening activity (antioxidant activity and tyrosinase inhibitory activity) of digested EBN were studied by HepG2 and B16 cell models. The dissolution rate of protein and sialic acid was 49.59% and 46.45% after the simulated digestion, respectively. The contents of free sialic acid and glycan sialic acid in EBN digesta were 17.82% and 12.24%, respectively. HepG2 cell experiment showed that the digested EBN had significant antioxidant activity, with EC50 of 1.84 mg/mL, and had a protective effect on H2O2-induced oxidative damage cells. The results of H2O2-induced oxidative damage showed that the cell survival rate increased from 40% to 57.37% when the concentration of digested EBN was 1 mg/mL. The results of the B16 cell experiment showed that the digested EBN had a significant inhibitory effect on tyrosinase activity, and the EC50 value of tyrosinase activity was 7.22 mg/mL. Cell experiments showed that free sialic acid had stronger antioxidant activity and tyrosinase inhibitory activity than glycan sialic acid. The contribution rate analysis showed that protein component was the main antioxidant component in digestive products, and the contribution rate was 85.87%; free sialic acid was the main component that inhibited tyrosinase activity, accounting for 63.43%. The products of the complete digestion of EBN are suitable for the development of a new generation of whitening health products.
... Protein, which is the main source of immunomodulatory activity (Gao et al., 2019), is the main component of EBN, accounting for about 60% of the total mass, followed by carbohydrates, ash, and lipids (Ma & Liu, 2012). Previous studies have suggested that EBN's healthprompting functions are tightly associated with its insoluble fraction since most of EBN water-soluble components are in fact discarded during soaking and washing before stewing (Fan et al., 2020;Huang et al., 2018;Kong et al., 2016). ...
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Dynamic high-pressure microfluidization (DHPM) has been demonstrated as an effective method to increase the solubility of proteins in water-insoluble fraction of edible bird's nests (EBNIP). Here, we further explored the effects of DHPM treatment on the physicochemical and digestive properties of EBNIP. The results showed that DHPM treatment led to the increases in fat absorption capacities, foaming properties, and emulsifying properties of EBNIP with decreased water-holding capacity being observed. This might result from the mechanical force during DHPM treatment can unfold the protein molecular chain, destroy the hydrogen bonds and inter-linkage between protein molecules. In addition, the EBNIP samples with DHPM treatment exhibited increased in vitro digestibility, the degree of hydrolysis and free sialic acid release in in vitro gastrointestinal digestion assay. In conclusion, DHPM could be applied as a novel and effective processing method to modify protein macromolecules in production of edible bird's nest (EBN)-related food.
... Animals supplemented with EBN showed protection against degenerative changes by exhibiting a significant increase in the number of surviving follicles & CL and a decrease in the number of atretic follicles. This effect of EBN might be due to its potential bioactive components; the nutritional composition of EBN is protein, carbohydrate, ash, and lipids (Ma & Liu, 2012), while sialic acid is the major carbohydrate component found in EBN (Daud et al., 2019). Sialic acid-containing gangliosides have been demonstrated to efficiently protect oocytes and embryos from ROS produced injury, which is one of the major mechanisms of Cd toxicity (Kim et al., 2020;Wang et al., 2019). ...
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Cadmium (Cd), a toxic heavy metal, is often associated with the reproductive disorders of mammals. The edible bird’s nest (EBN) is a naturally occurring food product made from the saliva of swiftlet birds (Aerodramus fuciphagus & Aerodramus maximus) in the form of a nest, and it has been consumed as healthy food or tonic for decades. This research aimed to study the possible protective effects of EBN against Cd toxicity in ovaries of Sprague Dawley rats. Thirty (30) female Sprague Dawley rats were assigned into five groups as follows: group 1-Negative control (NC) received distilled water; group 2-positive control (PC) administered with CdCl2, 5mg/kg BW; while groups EBN 1, EBN 2, and EBN 3 received CdCl2 (5mg/kg BW) concurrently with graded concentrations of 60, 90 and 120 mg/kg BW of EBN, respectively. After four weeks of treatment, rats were euthanized to collect ovaries for histopathological studies using hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) stain. Expressions of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) were analyzed through immunohistochemistry, and levels of superoxidase dismutase (SOD) were assessed using a SOD assay kit. Oral administration of CdCl2 without EBN supplement resulted in significantly decreased (p<0.05) immunohistochemical expressions of VEGF in ovarian tissue and a decrease (p<0.05) in the activity of SOD. Moreover, ovarian histopathological changes, including follicular cysts and a significant increase (p<0.05) in the number of atretic follicles, while a decrease in the number of growing follicles was noted in Cd only treated group. Animals treated with CdCl2 and EBN at three different dosages resulted in significantly increased (p<0.05) expressions of VEGF in ovarian tissues, low degenerative changes with normal histomorphology as well as significantly increased (p<0.05) SOD activity as compared to the PC group. Overall, the findings revealed that oral exposure to Cd at a dose rate of 5 mg/kg BW resulted in significant alterations in ovaries, as evidenced by a lower degree of VEGF expression along with reduced antioxidant activity and histomorphological changes. Meanwhile, EBN proved to exhibit a significant protective role against Cd toxicity in ovaries, possibly through its antioxidant effect.
... The market has seen an increase in demand for EBN products and this has resulted in the addiction of economic counterfeits in order to make a greater profit. Therefore, several economic substitutes-among others, pork skin, plant-exude, fish skin, gum karaya, algae or albumen-have been commonly utilized [108]. Several analytical techniques were proposed to authenticate and assure the quality of EBN, exploiting gas chromatography, liquid chromatography, and mass spectrometry, as well as a PCR-based method [109][110][111][112][113]. ...
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Cosmetics analysis represents a rapidly expanding field of analytical chemistry as new cosmetic formulations are increasingly in demand on the market and the ingredients required for their production are constantly evolving. Each country applies strict legislation regarding substances in the final product that must be prohibited or regulated. To verify the compliance of cosmetics with current regulations, official analytical methods are available to reveal and quantitatively determine the analytes of interest. However, since ingredients, and the lists of regulated/prohibited substances, rapidly change, dedicated analytical methods must be developed ad hoc to fulfill the new requirements. Research focuses on finding innovative techniques that allow a rapid, inexpensive, and sensitive detection of the target analytes in cosmetics. Among the different methods proposed, immunological techniques are gaining interest, as they make it possible to carry out low-cost analyses on raw materials and finished products in a relatively short time. Indeed, immunoassays are based on the specific and selective antibody/antigen reaction, and they have been extensively applied for clinical diagnostic, alimentary quality control and environmental security purposes, and even for routine analysis. Since the complexity and variability of the matrices, as well as the great variety of compounds present in cosmetics, are analogous with those from food sources, immunological methods could also be applied successfully in this field. Indeed, this would provide a valid approach for the monitoring of industrial production chains even in developing countries, which are currently the greatest producers of cosmetics and the major exporters of raw materials. This review aims to highlight the immunological techniques proposed for cosmetics analysis, focusing on the detection of prohibited/regulated compounds, bacteria and toxins, and allergenic substances, and the identification of counterfeits.
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Edible bird’s nest (EBN) is composed of the solidified saliva of swiftlet birds. EBN has been extremely popular in Asian culture for centuries. They are often consumed as a delicacy in the form of bird’s nest soup and are believed to have numerous skin benefits. In light of EBN’s growing popularity and significant cultural importance, we aim provide a comprehensive review of EBN’s potential dermatologic benefits and role in photoaging, anti-inflammation, wound healing, skin barrier enhancement, and skin whitening. While in vitro, in vivo, and preliminary clinical trial results are promising, there is a need for future human clinical research to further validate these findings and establish EBN’s efficacy and safety for dermatologic applications.
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Metabolic dysfunction, which includes intra-abdominal adiposity, glucose intolerance, insulin resistance, dyslipidemia, and hypertension, manifests into metabolic syndrome and related diseases. Therefore, the discovery of new therapies in the fight against metabolic syndrome is very challenging. This study aims to reveal the existence of an edible bird nest (EBN) as a functional food candidate that may be a new alternative in fighting metabolic syndrome. The study included three approaches: in silico molecular docking simulation, in vitro, and in vivo in rats fed on cholesterol- and fat-enriched diets. Four terpenoids of Bakuchiol, Curculigosaponin A, Dehydrolindestrenolide, and 1-methyl-3-(1-methyl-ethyl)-benzene in EBN have been identified through LCMS/MS-QTOF. In molecular docking simulations, Bakuchiol and Dehydrolindestrenolide are considered very potent because they have higher inhibitory power on the four receptors (iNOS, ROS1 kinase, FTO, and lipase) than standard drugs. In vitro tests also provide insight into the antioxidant, antidiabetic, and antiobesity activities of EBN, which is quite feasible due to the smaller EC50 value of EBN compared to standard drugs. Interestingly, in vivo studies also showed significant improvements (p < 0.05) in the lipid profile, blood glucose, enzymatic levels, and inflammatory biomarkers in rats given high-dose dietary supplementation of EBN. More interestingly, high-dose dietary supplementation of EBN upregulates PGC-1α and downregulates HMG-CoA reductase. Comprehensively, it has been revealed that EBN can be novel functional foods for combating metabolic syndrome.
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Edible Birds Nest is the solidified saliva of the Swiftlets usually produced, consumed as food and medicine in south Asian countries. These EBNs are rich source of protein and considered for many health benefits in traditional scripts. However, Recent research is actively proving different benefits of EBNs on human health. Due to the higher demand in the market and lower availability EBNs reported for adulteration. Researchers are discovered modern techniques for determination of authenticity of EBNs. Finally, this article is composed the information on biological mechanism of edible nest formation, Location, distribution, and business, Harvesting and processing for food preparation, Nutritional composition, Medicinal benefits, and adulteration.
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The trend of increasing exports of Indonesian swallow's nests and the high market potential shown by increased consumption requires Indonesia as one of the main producers of swallow's nests to be able to seize the existing market opportunities. This study aims to determine the export performance of Indonesian swiftlet nests in the main destination countries. The method used in this research is Constant Market Share. The secondary data used is time series data collected from 2011 to 2020. Based on Constant Market Share analysis, it was stated that the commodity of swallow's nest tended to be in demand in the international market compared to other types of commodities. Export quantity is sufficient to meet market demand and market requirements in export destination countries. The results show that Indonesia has been able to market the swallow's nest commodity in countries with high demand, namely China, which is indeed the largest importer of swallow's nest in the world. The swallow's nest commodity has great potential to increase exports and Indonesia is a strong competitor as an exporter in three countries, China, the United States and Vietnam. This research material has practical value for the Indonesian government to increase trade cooperation in the context of market expansion to maintain Indonesia's position as a major exporter and the need for cooperation with domestic producers through efforts to expand market access, training and production assistance, increasing innovation and technology
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Edible bird’s nest (EBN) hydrolysates have been proven to exhibit enhanced bioactivities. However, being a macromolecule, fractions with different molecular weights would have different properties and bioactivities. Hence, this research was aimed to determine the chemical properties and antioxidant activities of freeze-dried (EBNFD) and spray-dried EBN (EBNSD) hydrolysates fractionated using gel permeation chromatography (GPC). Overall, two well-separated fractions were identified (EBNfFD1, EBNfFD2, EBNfSD1 and EBNfSD2). EBNFD demonstrated significantly higher (P ≤ 0.05) peptide (3.6%), total carbohydrate (27.7%) and sialic acid (18.2%) contents than that of EBNSD. Similar trend was observed in low molecular weight fractionates (EBNfFD2 and EBNfSD2). Meanwhile, the first fractionates (EBNfFD1 and EBNfSD1) exhibited significantly higher (P ≤ 0.05) hydroxyl radical (•OH) scavenging activity. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy demonstrated that all EBN fractionates have similar spectrum, except in the region of N—H (amide II) and C—H alkyl group. In conclusion, EBN fractionates with different molecular weights showed different chemical properties and antioxidant activities.
Article
Protein hydrolysates (P-HS) from edible bird's nest co-product prepared without and with ultrasound (US) pretreatment in combination with heating before hydrolysis using alcalase at different concentrations were characterized. US treatment of co-product in water at 60% amplitude for 20 min, followed by heating at 95 °C for 3 h was done before enzymatic hydrolysis. The degree of hydrolysis (DH), yield and sialic acid (SL) content of P-HS samples were not different (p > 0.05) when 1 or 2% alcalase was used for hydrolysis. The highest protein content and lightness (L * ) were observed in P-HS prepared from co-product subjected to US treatment (60% amplitude for 20 min) using 1% alcalase for hydrolysis. When antioxidant activities of dried P-HS were determined, P-HS from co-product subjected to US treatment had higher DPPH and ABTS radical scavenging activities, ferrous reducing antioxidant power and oxygen radical absorbance capacity, compared to those prepared from non-US treated co-product. P-HS with higher DH contained greater amount of small peptides having MW lower than 1,883 Da. The P-HS produced under optimum condition had major essential amino acids (EA-A) including leucine, threonine, lysine and valine of 4.28, 3.53, 3.30 and 3.08%, respectively. Therefore, P-HS from co-product could serve as both nutrients and functional ingredients. Supplementary information: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13197-022-05420-5.
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Edible bird nest (EBN) is a natural food substance derived from edible velvet nest saliva consisting of glycoproteins as one of its key components; these glycoproteins contain an excess of sialic acid. Dietary EBN supplementation has been documented to promote brain development in mammals. The bioactivity and nutritional benefit of EBN are significant during periods of rapid brain development, especially in preterm infants. However, the impact of EBN on learning and memory control remains unknown. This chapter aims to illustrate the benefits of EBN and its potential effects as a neuroprotective supplement for adults.KeywordsEdible Bird Nest (EBN)Herbal MedicineBrainNeuroprotectionAntioxidantOxidative stress
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Edible bird’s nest (E-BN) or “Caviar of the East” is a premium and expensive cuisine well-known for the Chinese. It is saliva secreted from two specific swiftlets (Aerodramus maximus and Aerodramus fuciphagus). Two types of E-BN, namely house nests, and cave nests, are abundant in the South-East Asia region. The constituents, especially nitrate and nitrite, can be varied, depending on habitat, or feed available, etc. Protein (e.g., glycoprotein) is the major component of E-BN, followed by carbohydrates. Sialic acid is another essential constituent related to health promotion. E-BN is commonly utilized for the manufacturing of beverages or instant soup. E-BN in other forms such as capsules can serve as a supplement in the future due to its health promoting impact. In addition, the selected technology for quality improvement of E-BN especially from broken nests or flakes or other co-products is still required, while maintaining the eating quality to meet consumer’s demand. Thus, E-BN can be fully exploited and is still considered a valuable bird’s product with health benefits.
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Sarang burung walet (SBW) merupakan sarang yang berasal dari saliva beberapa spesies burung walet keluarga Apodidae, terutama spesies Aerodramus fuciphagus dan A. maximus. Indonesia merupakan negara penghasil SBW terbesar dengan menyumbang 85% dari pasar dunia. Sarang burung walet sejak lama telah digunakan dalam pengobatan tradisional Tiongkok. Komponen utama dari SBW adalah glikoprotein, yang diyakini terlibat dalam jalur biologis yang beragam untuk meningkatkan kesehatan. Berbagai metode penelitian telah dilakukan untuk mengkarakterisasi peptida dan glikoprotein SBW sebagai bahan bioaktif makanan fungsional. Ulasan ini bertujuan untuk memberikan informasi mengenai potensi SBW sebagai produk makanan fungsional berdasarkan kandungan bahan bioaktif dan sifat fisikokimia yang dimilikinya. Sarang burung walet digunakan sebagai bahan makanan, baik dengan menyajikan dalam bentuk utama atau menggabungkan dengan bahan lain yang meningkatkan nilai tambah produk pangan seperti minuman siap saji, yoghurt, roti daging, es krim, mie dan cokelat. Potensi komponen bioaktif SBW sebagai pangan fungsional meliputi klaim penurunan risiko penyakit dan klaim fungsi lain. Klaim penurunan risiko penyakit antara lain anti inflamasi, aktifitas antivirus, meningkatkan kesehatan jantung dan pembuluh darah, meningkatkan imunitas, efek neuroprotektif, dan mencegah penyakit diabetes. Klaim fungsi lain meliputi ploriferasi sel, aktifitas epidermal growth factor (EGF) dan anti penuaan, memperbaiki fungsi saluran pencernaan, peningkatan kekuatan tulang, meningkatkan fungsi saluran reproduksi, dan antioksidan.
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Edible bird's nest (EBN) swiftlet existed naturally 48,000 years ago in caves as their natural dwellings. Nowadays, edible bird's nest has become a very important industry due to its high nutritional, medicinal and economic value. Additionally, edible bird's nest has a long quality guarantee period. Obviously, the nutritional components and medicinal functions vary depending on geographical origins. Recently, the global demand for edible bird's nest has markedly increased, accompanied by the increasing attention of all key players of the global food trade system, i.e., producers, consumers, traders and the authorities to obtain safe and high-quality edible bird's nest. Hence, this target can be accomplished via the enforcement of an efficient and universal geo-tracing technique. Current methods of the geo-tracking of edible bird's nest, i.e., automation, physical and analytical techniques have several limitations and all of them fail to discriminate different quality grades of edible bird's nest. Meanwhile, in many studies and applications, polymerase chain reaction-denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (PCR-DGGE) has proven to be a “cutting edge” technique for greatly enhance food traceability from field to fork through its ability in distinguishing the food products in terms of their quality and safety. This article provides an overview of (1) edible bird's nest as a multiuse strategic food product, (2) quality issues associated with edible bird’s nest including implications that the site of acquisition of the edible bird’s nest has food safety implications, (3) current regulations and geo-tracking approaches to ensure the safety and quality of edible bird’s nest with the special focus on polymerase chain reaction-denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis technique as a vigorous and universal geo-tracing tool to be suggested for edible bird's nest geo-traceability.
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A marked decline in some swiftlet populations has been attributed to the harvesting of their nests which are prized in Chinese cuisine and traditional medicines. Documentation is provided on the history and volume of the trade.
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The abilities of some cave-nesting swiftlets to echolocate has traditionally been used to separate the genus Aerodramus, which includes echolocating species, from the genus Collocalia, thought to lack echolocation. Here we report the discovery of echolocation in a member of the latter genus, the pygmy swiftlet Collocalia troglodytes. We also present a well-supported molecular phylogeny for the swiftlets and their relatives based on DNA sequence data from two mitochondrial genes, which we use to reconstruct the evolution of echolocation. Our data provide strong evidence that the swiftlets are a monophyletic group. This monophyly plus the presence of echolocation in C. troglodytes indicate that either (1) echolocation evolved much earlier in the swiftlets than previously thought and has since been lost in most Collocalia taxa, or (2) this ability evolved independently in Aerodramus and Collocalia. Based on our results, echolocation can no longer be considered a useful character for distinguishing these two genera.
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Due to the value of their nests, there is great pressure on the populations of black-nest swiftlets (Collocalia maximus) and white-nest swiftlets (Collocalia fuciphagus) in the Malaysian provinces of Sarawak and Sabah. The problems are particularly acute at Gunung Mulu National Park, in spite of a complete ban on collection there, and at Niah National Park, where every participant in a complex collection and trading system has an incentive to take more nests than permitted. More successful harvest systems function in Sabah''s Gomantong and Madai Caves. Recommendations for improved management of the nest harvest include addressing corruption, ensuring that local people with traditional rights to collect nests do not lose income to illegal immigrant labor and to traders, improving research and education about the swiftlets'' behavior and ecology, and moving value-added processing of the nests closer to the caves where they originate and to the people who collect them.
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Oral administration of edible bird's nest extract (EBNE) improved bone strength and calcium concentration in the femur of ovariectomized rats. Dermal thickness was also increased by EBNE supplementation, whereas EBNE administration did not affect the serum estradiol concentration. These results suggest that EBNE is effective for the improvement of bone loss and skin aging in postmenopause all women.
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Collocalia esculenta L. is called Yanwo in China. A rapid and non-destnictive method, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), for the classification of six yanwo, which are come from Indonesia, Vietnam, Malaysia, Thailand, Philippines and Hong Kong. They have their own characteristic infrared spectra. The six yanwo can be classified by the relative intensity of those absorption peaks. It is a very fast, simple, reliable method.
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OBJECTIVE: To determine the contents of four aldoses in edible bird's nest(EBN). METHODS: Firstly, the sample was hydrolyzed by 2 mol·L -1 HCl-methanol and neutralized by 2 mol·L-1 potassium hydroxide, then derivated by acetic anhydride in pyridine. Four aldoses were seperated completely using HP-5 capillary column and programablly increased temperature. RESULTS: The linear range of D-Mannose, D-Galactose, N-Acetyl-D-Galactosamine and N-Acetyl-D-Glucosamine were 0.032 2-0.161, 0.316-1.58, 0.104-0.520 and 0.212-1.06 mg·L-1, respectively. The average recovery was 95.7%, 96.1%, 95.1% and 97.0%, respectively. CONCLUSION: A validated GC method is established to determine four aldoses. The method is specific and sensitive.
Article
The five species of swiftlet known in Sarawak are the Giant Swiftlet, the White-bellied Swiftlet, the Mossy-nest Swiftlet, the Black-nest Swiftlet and the White- or Edible-nest Swiftlet. The distinguishing characters of each are described; only the last two species provide nests of commercial interest. There is a long history of exploitation of the nests of Black-nest and White-(Edible)-nest Swiftlets in Sarawak, with the first government regulations dating to the time of the second Rajah. Currently in force is the Miscellaneous Licenses Ordinance S 49 of 1963. An export duty of 10% is payable; but recent records from Customs do not show that any significant sums of duty are collected at Marudi or Miri, and evasion is suspected. Nevertheless, to the persons involved in the initial harvesting these nests represent a very considerable resource in relation to their rural-based economies. At present, in all nest-producing localities in Sarawak, harvested yields of nests have fallen far below previous levels, and the loss of potential income causes concern. The factors concerned are discussed. It is suggested that a major effort should be made to inform all persons with interests in the nest-rights of the relevant biological data. Stress is given to the importance of documentary evidence for useful monitoring of trends; modifications are suggested to the annual licence form. -from Author
Article
Six kinds of hormones in two types of edible bird's nests, the white nest built by Aerodramus fuciphagus and the black nest built by A. maximus, were detected for the first time. These six kinds of hormones are testosterone, estradiol, progesterone, luteinizing hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone and prolactin. The ultrasonically assisted extraction methods, the optimal solvent used and the optimal ratio of of solvent to sample (v/w) were determined. The contents of each of these six kind of hormones were significantly different in the white and black nests as determined by full-automated microparticle chemiluminescent immunoassay. The determination of these hormones in the edible bird's nests may explain part of the effects of the edible bird's nest and may serve as an useful analytical technique for differentiating between white and black nest or the grades of the edible bird's nest products and it may be a useful method to determine adulteration.
Article
13C NMR studies of several N-acylneuraminic acid derivatives have been made. Spin-lattice relaxation times (NT1DD = ca. 0.3 s) indicate that the pyranose ring carbons undergo isotropic rotation and that C-7 and C-8, but not C-9, are isotropic with the ring. A model involving an intramolecular hydrogen bond network is supported by the relaxation data. It is shown that calculated values of T1DD for nonprotonated carbons agree closely with experiment. The isolation of N-acetylneuraminic acid from Oriental birds' nest substance is shown to be a convenient source of this compound.
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Chemical composition of the Enso mucoid of Shokuyo-Anatsubame(Collocalia fuciphaga)were investigated, in particular saccharides and amino acids. (1) It contained moisture 14.3, saccharides 27.5, N9.3, ash 4.8, Ca 0.693, P 0.004 and S 0.70%. (2) A fraction(F-Ia)1.9g was obtained from 10g of the material by extraction with boiling-water and fractionation with gel filtration. Its molecular weight was estimated to be 10000O-500000. The ratio of the content of saccharides (reducing saccharides)and that of proteins was 1:2.4 in F-Ia. (3) PPC revealed that the saccharide components of the fraction(F)consisted of galactose, mannose and fucose; the composition of which analyzed by GLC was 84.7, 10.5 and 4.8%, respectively. (4)Amino acid analysis showed that the fraction(F-Ia)conntained aspartic acid 11.7, serine 10.7, valine 10.2 and threonine 10.1%.
Article
Edible bird’s nest (EBN) is a functional food constructed with swiftlets’ salivary glue. Counterfeit EBN products have been found in the market due to limited supply and high price of genuine EBN. In this article, a method for genetic identification of EBN was developed. The technique is based on sequence of cytochrome b gene in mitochondrial DNA. The sample sequences together with the sequences of swiftlets in GenBank were used to construct phylogenetic trees for genetic identification of samples. This method was applied to 11 EBN samples, one instant EBN soup product from Indonesia, and Huaiji EBN, a counterfeit EBN in some regions of China. Results showed that all the EBN samples and the instant EBN soup were from Aerodramus fuciphagus while the Huaiji EBN sample was from Apus nipalensis. This was consistent with identification based on morphology of the samples. Therefore, this method is a promising tool to identify the species of bird producing a given sample of EBN, and thus could be used to authenticate—that is, distinguish authentic from counterfeit—EBN.
Article
Une glycoprotéine a été purifiée par électrophorèse préparative en film liquide de l'extrait aqueux de « nids d'hirondelles(Collocalia). Cette glycoprotéine qui représente la fraction majeure des glycoprotéides de Collocalia, est homogène en électrophorèse en agarose mais légèrement polydispersée en ultracentrifugation (So20 w = 3,0). La partie glycannique de cette glycoprotéine se caractérise par sa richesse en galactose, glucosamine et galactosamine. Elle possède, d'autre part, des résidus d'acide sialique complètement libérés par les neuraminidases de Diplococcus pneumoniae et de Clostridium perfringens et qui, en chromatographie, se comportent essentiellement comme l'acide N-acétylneuraminique. La partie polypeptidique de cette glycoprotéine comprend principalement des résidus de sérine, thréonine et proline. Environ 40 p. cent des résidus d'acides aminés hydroxylés sont impliqués dans des liaisons glycanneprotéine alcali-labiles.
Article
1.1. Neuraminic acid-β-methylglycoside was prepared from the products obtained by methanolysis of edible bird nest substance (yield, 80%). The methylglycoside was converted to the corresponding methylester hydrochloride by methanolHCl treatment and crystallized from dioxan-light petroleum (yield, 50%). Its properties including mass spectrometry are described.2.2. A simple procedure for snythesis of N-[1-14C] acetylneuraminic acid and acetylneuraminic acid (yields, 75–85%) with high specific radioactivities from the methylester from neuraminic acid-β-methylglycoside and 1-14C- or 3H-labelled acetic anhydride in absolute methanol is described. By this acetylation in water-free solution up to 85% of the theoretically expected amount of radioactivity was found in the N-acetyl groups of neuraminic acid.
Article
N-Acetyl-mannosamin, N-Acetyl-glucosamin und 4.6-Benzyliden-N-acetylglucosamin kondensieren mit dem Kaliumsalz des Oxalessigsäure-di-tert.-butylesters zu Lactonen, die durch Erhitzen mit Wasser in Lactaminsäure-γ-lacton übergehen. Aus 22.1 g N-Acetyl-glucosamin sind über die Benzyliden-Verbindung 6.0 g reine Lactaminsäure (N-Acetyl-neuraminsäure) erhältlich. – Auf die Bildung epimerer Verbindungen wird an Hand chromatographischer Beobachtungen eingegangen.
Article
The influence of nest harvesting upon nest construction and egg-laying was studied in the White-nest Swiftlet Aerodramus fuciphagus and the Black-nest Swiftlet A. maximus in Singapore. A study of nestling energetics allowed an estimate to be made of adult foraging abilities. The energy and nutrients required for nest construction are easily acquired by foraging but the females may face a shortage of energy or depletion of stored lipids during egg formation. Removal of nests did not affect the size or quality of replacement nests or clutches, but may aggravate the lipid shortage. Nest removal did reduce breeding success in replacement nests and, in the White-nest Swiftlet, disturbance to the colony resulted in an increased laying interval between first and second eggs. Our results indicated that commercially exploited colonies should be left unharvested for the middle part of the breeding season to allow a period of successful reproduction.
Article
The N-linked asialo carbohydrate, released by digestion treatment of the glycoprotein of the edible bird's nest of Collocalia fuciphaga, was identified as l-asparagine-linked fucose-containing triantennary oligosaccharide, composed of Galβ1→4GlcNAcβ1→4(Galβ1→4GlcNAcβ1→2)Manα1→3(Galβ1→4GlcNAcβ1→2Manα1→6)Manβ1→4GlcNAcβ1→4(Fucα1→6)GlcNAcβ1, on the basis of chemical and spectroscopic methods, in addition to GLC and HPLC analyses on achiral columns. Keywords: Collocalia fuciphaga; edible bird's nest; nest-cementing substance; pronase digestion; desialylation; N-linked fucose-containing triantennary oligosaccharide
Article
Six collections of adult Collocalio maxima Hume, including both sexes, were taken at the nest sites in Niah cave, Sarawak (113° 46' E. 60' N). Changes in the gonads and accessory reproductive organs of these specimens indicate a prolonged breeding season of eight months, September to April annually, after which the gonads regress to nonbreeding condition. The moult is also a seasonal event, but the progress of moulting in individual birds is not directly related to breeding condition. The sublingual glands of a fledgling and of certain adults were minute and nonsecretory. It is concluded that the secretion of these glands has no digestive function, but is related solely to periodic nest building. No correlation is found between the reproductive state of individual birds and activity in the sublingual glands. Some females in breeding condition had totally inactive sublingual glands, whereas all males in breeding condition had active sublingual glands. It is suggested that these glands may be responsive to teaticular hormone. The most important external environmental factor controlling the activity of the sublingual glands appears to be the presence or absence of the nest itself.
Article
Edible bird's nest (EBN) as a special kind of food tonic has been highly esteemed in Chinese cuisine and medicinal culture. Particularly with the discovery of its healthy function by modern science, consumption of EBN food gained greater popularity within Chinese community and outside. Authentication of this precious and expensive food material became an urgent task facing the increasing occurrence of adulteration in the market. Herein we reported the combination of DNA based PCR and protein based two dimensional gel electrophoresis (2DGE) methods for rapid and reliable identification of genuine EBN product. Fourteen EBN samples from different countries were studied. PCR method was proved to be able to differentiate EBN and the other biological materials and it could detect EBN ingredient from 0.5% EBN/Tremella fungus mixture. 2DGE method was proved to be feasible and versatile in EBN identification because of the simple and unique protein pattern of EBN. The method could detect 10% Tremella fungus from EBN.
Article
A few species of swiflets (genus Aerodramus) build edible nests that are consumed by humans worldwide, as a delicacy known as the “Caviar of the East” or as a medicinal food. This study reports on the compositional properties of two types of nest, the white nest and the red “blood” nest. The order of composition (from lowest to highest) was found to be identical for both types of nests, i.e., lipid (0.14–1.28%), ash (2.1%), carbohydrate (25.62–27.26%) and protein (62–63%). It was also found that both nests share a common 77 KDa protein that has properties similar to those of the ovotransferrin protein in eggs. This protein may be partially responsible for the severe allergic reactions that sometimes occur among young children who consume edible bird’s nest products. It was found that SDS–PAGE electrophoretic fingerprinting might serve as a useful analytical technique for differentiating between white and red nests and for determining if the more expensive “blood” nest was adulterated with the less expensive white nest. Also evaluated were different analytical methodologies for detecting adulterants. Three of the most common adulterants found in retail bird’s nests are karaya gum, red seaweed, and tremella fungus, and they are routinely incorporated during commercial processing prior to final sale. Using crude protein determination, it was found that these adulterants (which typically accounted for 2–10% of the finished nest), reduce the overall crude protein content of the genuine white bird’s nest by as much as 1.1–6.2%. A modified xanthoproteic nitric acid test for proteins proved to be a rapid, and simple test to detect adulteration in both whole and finely ground nests, and would be suitable in the field where analytical facilities are not readily available.
Article
A potent inhibitor of myxovirus hemagglutination has been derived by aqueous extraction from the nest-cementing substance (salivary secretions) of the Oriental swiftlet (genus Collocalia). The active material contains about 50% carbohydrate, is susceptible to the neuraminidase of influenza virus of all strains thus far tested, and lacks detectable blood group antigens.Observations on the relation between viral hemagglutinin, neuraminidase activity, and the conversion of myxoviruses to “indicators” are presented and discussed. Evidence is presented to indicate that the enzymic and hemagglutinative properties of myxovirus may be separate and dissociable functions.
Article
The nests of the Edible-nest Swiftlet (Collocalia fuciphaga) rank amongst the world's most expensive animal products, which has resulted in high levels of exploitation of its nests in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, India. The population of the Edible-nest Swiftlet was assessed through nest counts, and declines in population were estimated through changes in nest yields. The minimum breeding population of C. fuciphaga was estimated to be 13,260 birds, and the species currently bred in 291 caves, and had abandoned 31 caves. Nest collection in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands had taken place in 95% of breeding sites. Less than 2% of the nests counted had either eggs or chicks in them. The decline in swiftlet nest yields in the Andaman islands, between the present and 5–8 years ago (195 caves) has been 61%, and between the present and over 10 years ago (45 caves) has been 83%. Depending on the patterns of nest collection, declines in yield in the Nicobar Islands range between 40 and 95%, with only one cave apparently not having undergone a significant loss. The Edible-nest Swiftlet is critically threatened (IUCN criteria A1c) in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, as it has undergone a reduction in numbers greater than 80% over the last 10 years. To arrest continuing declines, protective measures need to be urgently implemented. Concomitantly, the house farming of the Edible-nest Swiftlet, as has been established in Indonesia, needs to be developed as an ex-situ conservation measure in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Article
5-Acetamido-4,7,8,9-tetra-O-acetyl-2,3,5-trideoxy-2-fluoro-d-glycero-α- and -β-d-galacto-2-nonulosonic acid methyl esters and the β-chloro analog were synthesized from N-acetylneuraminic acid. Their 1H- and 13C-n.m.r. spectra were completely assigned by using single-frequency decoupling, off-resonance decoupling, and spin-simulation programs. Bond angles estimated from the 1H coupling-constants indicate that all of the compounds adopt the 2C5(l) conformation with minor conformational differences in the C3 side chain. 5-Acetamido-2,3,5-tri-deoxy-2-fluoro-d-glycero-α- and -β-d-galacto-2-nonulosonic acid and their methyl esters were also prepared.
Article
1. An epidermal growth factor (EGF)-like activity was detected and partially purified from swiftlet's nest extract. 2. The partially purified EGF-like activity was able to (a) generate competitive binding curves parallel to the standard curves in radioreceptor assay and (b) stimulate thymidine incorporation in quiescent culture of 3T3 fibroblasts and the latter activity can be suppressed by mouse EGF antibody. 3. Partial characterization of the EGF-like activity in terms of pI, molecular weight and its behavior on gel filtration column suggest that it bears similar physical properties to the EGFs isolated from the mouse and the shrew.
Article
To study the digestion of Bird's nest extract (BNE) in simulated gastric fluid (SGF) and simulated intestinal fluid (SIF). BNE were prepared and digested at 37 degrees C in SGF/SIF. At intervals of 0, 1, 5, 10, 15, 30, 60 min,the samples were taken out. Protein contents were determined by the method of Bradford, and digestion of BNE in SGF/SIF was observed according to the results of polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE). On SDS-PAGE,the crude BNE and the BNE in SGF/SIF gave different patterns, but all being rich in high molecular weight protein. After digestion in vitro, most of protein degraded to 40 kD below, but part of high molecular weight protein was stable, and a protein of 70 kD added. Most protein degraded to polypeptide, but there was anti-digest protein in the BNE, all being the high molecular weight protein. This suggested that the active component from BNE was probably exerted directly on human body.