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Home Range Size and Activity Patterns of Bobcats
(Lynx rufus) in the Southern Part of their Range in
the Chihuahuan Desert, Mexico
Author(s): Cynthia Elizalde-Arellano, Juan Carlos López-Vidal,
Lucina Hernández, John W. Laundré, Fernando A. Cervantes, and
María Alonso-Spilsbury
Source: The American Midland Naturalist, 168(2):247-264. 2012.
Published By: University of Notre Dame
URL: http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.1674/0003-0031-168.2.247
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Home Range Size and Activity Patterns of Bobcats (Lynx rufus) in
the Southern Part of their Range in the Chihuahuan Desert, Mexico
CYNTHIA ELIZALDE-ARELLANO
1
Doctorado en Ciencias Biolo´gicas y de la Salud, Universidad Auto´ noma Metropolitana, Calzada del Hueso no. 1100,
Col Villa Quietud, Coyoaca´n 04960, Me´xico D.F.
JUAN CARLOS LO
´PEZ-VIDAL
Laboratorio de Cordados Terrestres, Departamento de Zoologı
´a, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biolo´gicas, IPN.
Carpio y Plan de Ayala s/n, Col. Santo Toma´s 11340, Me´xico D.F.
LUCINA HERNA
´NDEZ
2
AND JOHN W. LAUNDRE
´
3
Instituto de Ecologı
´a, A.C, Xalapa, Veracruz 91070, Mexico
FERNANDO A. CERVANTES
Departamento de Zoologı
´a, Instituto de Biologı
´a, Universidad Nacional Auto´noma de Me´xico,
Coyoaca´n 04510, Me´xico D.F.
AND
MARI
´A ALONSO-SPILSBURY
Laboratorio de Etologı
´a. Dpto. Produccio´n Agrı
´cola y Animal. Universidad Auto´noma Metropolitana, Xochimilco.
Calz. del Hueso 1100, Col. Villa Quietud 04960, Me´xico D.F.
ABSTRACT.—Home range size, daily travel distances, and diel activity patterns are important
characteristics of how an animal uses its home range area. In species, such as the bobcat (Lynx
rufus), with large geographical ranges, it is necessary to gather data on diverse populations across
the range to better understand what might be factors influencing these home range parameters.
Although there are many studies of bobcats in more northern areas of its range in the United
States, few data exist from its extensive southern range in Mexico. To fill this gap in information,
we collected data on home range size, daily travel distances, and diel activity patterns of bobcats
from the center of the Chihuahuan Desert in Mexico. We compared our findings with available
data from more northern studies and tested for any latitudinal trends in home range size. We
trapped eight adult bobcats (four females and four males) between 2006 and 2008 at the Mapimi
Biosphere Reserve in the Chihuahuan Desert. Each bobcat was equipped with a GPS radio collar
that estimated their location and ambient temperature every half hour at night (1900 to 800 h),
and every hour during the day (800 to 1900 h). These data were used to estimate total daily
distance traveled, average speed, home range size, activity pattern, and to test for an association
between hourly travel and ambient temperature. For bobcats in Mapimi, mean distances traveled
daily (4.9 60.7 km), mean speed (0.3 60.4 km/h) and average home range size (25.9 km
2
6
3.7) did not differ from other places in U.S. (distance traveled daily 5.7 61.4 km, mean speed 0.4
60.4 km/h and home range size 34.0 65.4 km
2
). Bobcats are most active from 1700 to 2300 h
and from 0500 to 1200 h and showed a minimum activity period from 1300 to 1600 h. These
1
Corresponding author’s present address: Laboratorio de Cordados Terrestres, Departamento de
Zoologı´a, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biolo´gicas, IPN. Carpio y Plan de Ayala s/n, Col. Santo Toma´s,
11340, Me´xico D.F.; Telephone/FAX: (5255) 5729-6000 ext. 62421; e-mail: thiadeno@hotmail.com
2
Present address: Rice Creek Field Station, Department of Biological Sciences, 225a Snygg Hall,
SUNY Oswego, Oswego, New York 13126; Telephone: (315) 312-3633
3
Present address: Department of Biological Sciences, 126 Snygg Hall, SUNY Oswego, Oswego, New
York 13126; Telephone: (315) 312-3633
Am. Midl. Nat. (2012) 168:247–264
247
patterns did not differ from what other studies found. Distance traveled was inversely correlated
with environmental temperature (r
2
50.506, P ,0.05). Our data demonstrate that most
behaviors of bobcats in this hot desert environment did not differ in general from their more
northern populations. Although our home range estimates were similar to other studies, our
analysis did support a latitudinal decreasing trend that indicates factors other than those related
to latitude are affecting home range size in bobcats. We suggest investigating other independent
factors not related with latitude such as primary production and rainfall might help identify
which, if any, of these factors contribute to home range size in bobcats.
INTRODUCTION
Most terrestrial mammals are known to maintain their activity within a relatively specific
area, commonly referred to as the home range, or if defended, the territory (Burt, 1943).
Though the home range can change seasonally and over the lifetime of the animal, it is the
area where animals spend most of their time and make their daily movements for foraging
and other fitness related activities. General patterns regarding the size and use of this area
are that larger mammals have larger home ranges and travel longer distances than small
mammals (McNab, 1963; Schmidt-Nielsen, 1984). Within a given species, however, there is
often a high amount of variability in the size of home ranges, the amount they travel per day
within the area, and the timing of these periods of activity (McNab, 1963; Gompper and
Gittleman, 1991). Common factors that seem to contribute to this variation are the sex of
individuals, their age, time of year, habitat type, food type, prey density, and lastly latitude of
occurrence (Harestad and Bunnell, 1979).
Among the different trophic groups, members of the order Carnivora seem to have a high
amount of latitudinal variability within species. The general pattern appears to be smaller
home range sizes in lower, more equatorial latitudes, which has been explained by the
variation of quantities of food resources with latitude (Gittleman and Harvey, 1982;
Gompper and Gittleman, 1991). Within this group, the bobcat (Lynx rufus) appears to be
one of the more variable.
Bobcats are widely distributed latitudinally (Larivie´re and Walton, 1997; Sunquist and
Sunquist, 2002; Hansen, 2007) and show ample geographic differences not only in their
home range size but also in their daily movements (daily travel distance and speed), and
activity patterns within United States (McCord and Cardoza, 1982; Larivie´re and Walton,
1997; Hansen, 2007).
Daily travel distances ranged from 1.1 to 4.9 km in Montana and Oregon and 6.2 to 9.9 km
in South Carolina. (Buie et al., 1979; Knowles, 1985; Witmer and DeCalesta, 1986; Sunquist
and Sunquist, 2002). In all instances, males traveled longer distances (6.2 km 61.5 SE) than
females (3.8 km 61.4 SE) based on data in Larivie`re and Walton (1997). The average speed
bobcats travel appears to be higher in the north (Illinois: 0.601 km/h for males and
0.30 km/h for females) than the south (Louisiana: males; 0.36 to 0.45 km/h and females;
0.19 to 0.22 km/h; (Hall and Newsom, 1976; Woolf and Nielsen, 2002). In all areas there
were differences in speed of travel between the sexes.
Home range sizes of bobcats are highly variable even within the same geographical
region, e.g., 0.6 to 95 km
2
in California and 13 to 201 km
2
in Minnesota (McCord and
Cardoza, 1982), making latitudinal comparisons difficult. Females appear to have smaller
home ranges than males and in most studies female ranges do not overlap (Bailey, 1974;
Larivie´re and Walton, 1997; Hansen, 2007). Conversely, male home ranges will overlap with
females and other males (Larivie´re and Walton, 1997).
The activity pattern of bobcats suggests they are mainly crepuscular predators, being most
active before and after sunset and sunrise with their lowest activity at midday hours
248 THE AMERICAN MIDLAND NATURALIST 168(2)
(Larivie´re and Walton, 1997; Sunquist and Sunquist, 2002; Chamberlain et al., 2003). In
northern areas in winter, bobcats are more active during daytime hours, whereas in more
southern areas where daytime temperatures are higher than 26 C, bobcats are mainly
nocturnal (Sunquist and Sunquist, 2002).
Though these studies have added significantly to our understanding of geographical and
latitudinal differences in home range and activity characteristics of bobcats, most studies
have been conducted in more northern areas of their range. Though bobcats have been
studied as far south as southern New Mexico (Harrison, 2010), they extend further
southward to the central-southern part of Mexico (Hall, 1981; McCord and Cardoza, 1982).
Although data exist on a variety of aspects of bobcats from this region (Delibes et al., 1986;
Delibes and Hiraldo, 1987; Romero, 1993; Delibes et al., 1997; Jime´nez et al., 1997; Cha´vez
and Ceballos, 1998; Moreno-Valde´z, 1998; Pacheco et al., 1999–2000; Aranda et al., 2002;
Burton et al., 2003; Romero and Ceballos, 2004; Ba´rcenas and Medellı´n, 2007; Rodriguez-
Martı´nez et al., 2007) across this vast range, we have no information on how or if home range
and activity characteristics vary from more northern populations. Having data on home
range and activity characteristics from this more southern region would help fill the gap in
our knowledge on this species and provide a valuable comparison regarding possible
latitudinal variation in these parameters.
To fill the gap in our data on bobcats from more southern regions of their range and
provide data for comparisons with more northern populations, we investigated the home
range size, daily travel distances, and activity patterns of bobcats in mid-northern Mexico. In
particular we conducted our study in the central part of the Chihuahuan Desert (Fig. 1). Our
objective was to estimate home range size, daily activity patterns, and daily travel distances,
then compare those data with data from more northern populations. In addition, we
regressed our data with those of other studies against latitude of the study sites to test if there
was any support for predictable latitudinal changes in these parameters. The results of these
comparisons and regression analyses should help increase our understanding of how and
possibly why these home range and activity characteristics vary over the range of bobcats.
STUDY AREA
This study was conducted at the Mapimi Biosphere Reserve (MBR), (26u119–27u009N,
103u239–104u079W) in the Chihuahuan desert. The Reserve is 342,388 ha in size and is in the
states of Durango, Coahuila and Chihuahua in Mexico (Fig. 1). The climate is hot and
semiarid, with a mean annual temperature of 11 C in winter and 28 C in summer. Mean
annual precipitation is 264 mm, with a rainy season from Jul. to Sep. when 71%of the rainfall
occurs (Cornet, 1988). The area is surrounded by mountains that reach 1400 m above sea
level, but most of the terrain in the Reserve is flat. The dominant vegetation types are creosote
bush (Larrea tridentata), mesquite (Prosopis glandulosa), prickly-pear cacti (Opuntia rastrera),
agave (Agave rastrera), and tobosa grass (Pleuraphis mutica; Montan˜a, 1988). Mapimi is a Man
and Biosphere (MAB) site and as such the wildlife, including bobcats are protected from
hunting. There is extensive cattle grazing on the Reserve, but overall human use is low.
METHODS
ANIMAL CAPTURES
Between 2006 and 2008, we trapped eight adult bobcats (four females and four males)
with no. 2 victor soft catch leg-hold traps, following guidelines for the use of wild mammals
for scientific research (Gannon et al., 2007) and with the authorization of Secretaria de
2012 ELIZALDE-ARELLANO ET AL.: BOBCAT ACTIVITY IN CHIHUAHUAN DESERT,MEXICO 249
FIG. 1.—Mapimi Biosphere Reserve at Chihuahuan Desert, Mexico
250 THE AMERICAN MIDLAND NATURALIST 168(2)
Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales (SEMARNAT, no. permission 04008). Each animal
was immobilized with a mixture of ketamine and xylazine hydrochlorides (Beltra´n and
Tewes, 1995), measured, weighed, sexed, ear-marked, and radiocollared. We used model
Lotek GPS 3300s radiocollars with, temperature sensor, and a 9 wk timed drop-off. Collars
were programmed (software Lotek wireless ver. V1.970) to estimate animal coordinates
every half hour at night (1900 to 0800 h) and every hour during the day (0800 to 1900 h).
Temperature sensors provided ambient temperature (C) every 5 min, but we only used
temperatures recorded for when time locations were recorded. After the collars fell off we
recovered them with the use of a portable three elements yagi antenna (Wildlife Materials)
and a VHF receiver (TR4 Telonics).
MOVEMENTS AND HOME RANGE SIZE
For each animal we obtained more than 2000 pairs of X,Y UTM coordinates, equivalent to
63 blocks of 24 h each. Because of the open nature of the area, periods of lost fixes never
exceeded more than 9%of the total data sets. These data were arranged in a spreadsheet
data base, distances traveled (km) between two consecutive coordinate points were
estimated using the Pythagorean Theorem. We then summed appropriate distances over the
time intervals desired. Speed of travel (km/h) was estimated using distances traveled
between two consecutive coordinates divided by the time that it took the animals to travel
that distance.
To estimate home range size, we superimposed all localizations obtained for each bobcat
(previously eliminating outliers) on a satellite image (LANDSAT ETM +Mar. 2003) in
ArcView GIS (ver 3.2) and calculated their size with the Minimum Convex Polygon method
included in the menu of Home Range tools of Arc View GIS (ver 3.2).
ACTIVITY PATTERNS
All distances at the same hour of every 24 h period were arranged in columns of a
worksheet for all 63 d (rows) for each bobcat. We then obtained total distance traveled per
each day by summing up each row and then averaging (6SE,n563 d) the data of the
column for each bobcat. For each hour, distance traveled a given hour for an animal was the
mean (6SE) of the appropriate columns. This provided us an estimate of travel speed for
each hour block. Traveled distances during the day (0600 to 1700 h) and night (1800 to
0530 h) periods were sums within each row across the appropriate columns (e.g., 0600 to
1700 h). Again, for each animal, the 63 estimates of daily or nightly travel were averaged. For
statistical comparisons, we only used these means of the 63 d for all data to avoid pseudo-
replication. To estimate distances traveled in wet and dry seasons, data from bobcats
captured and radiocollared from Jan. to Jun. (n 54) were considered as the dry season, and
data from different bobcats captured and radiocollared from Jul. to Dec. (n 54) were
considered as the wet season.
DISTANCE TRAVELED AND AMBIENT TEMPERATURE
To test if there is a correlation between distance traveled and ambient temperature (C),
mean temperature of each hour of the day was obtained from the collars of four different
bobcats equipped with that function, two trapped in the dry season (Mar.–May) and two in
the wet season (Jun.–Aug. and Oct.–Dec.). Temperatures were plotted against mean travel
distances for each hour of a 24 h period. Average temperature of each month in Mapimi
were compared with other places where bobcats were studied.
2012 ELIZALDE-ARELLANO ET AL.: BOBCAT ACTIVITY IN CHIHUAHUAN DESERT,MEXICO 251
DATA FROM LITERATURE
To compare our data with other published data, we reviewed 42 articles (Table 1) where
data of daily traveled distances (total, for each sex, for night and day periods), speed, home
range sizes (total and for each sex), or activity patterns were clearly provided.
STATISTICAL TREATMENT
Distances and velocities traveled daily among bobcats within our study were compared
among individuals with a one-way ANOVA. Distances and daily travel speeds between sexes
and between wet and dry seasons were compared with a two group t-test design. Mean
distances traveled in day-night periods were compared with a non-parametric Wilcoxon
signed rank test for non-independent tracking data. A simple correlation was used to
investigate the relationship between activity patterns and environmental temperature. The
statistically significant rejection level was P ,0.05 (Zar, 1984).
To compare the data of our study with other publications, we calculated a mean value with
data obtained from the literature for the following criteria, daily travel distances, speed,
home range sizes, and activity patterns. We then compared the mean value of our study with
those from the literature using a one sample t-test (Zar, 1984). To test if there was any
latitudinal pattern in home range size we conducted a simple linear regression where home
range size estimates of each study were regressed against latitudinal distance from the
Equator as obtained from Google EarthEimages. We did not have sufficient data on daily
travel distance or daily travel speeds to conduct similar analyses.
RESULTS
MOVEMENTS AND HOME RANGE SIZE
Mean distances traveled daily by bobcats varied from 1.9 to 8.9 km and averaged 4.8 6
0.72 km. One female (F3) traveled the longest daily distance of 27.8 km. The outlier data of
this female were excluded from analyses. When compared to other studies, our results did
not differ (Table 1).
When grouped by sex, the mean daily distance of females and males (n 54, 5.9 61.04 km
and n 54, 3.6 60.67 km, respectively) did not statistically differ (t51.860, 6 d.f., P 5
0.112). Distances traveled by males were not statistically different from data reported in
other studies of bobcats (Table 1), but the distances traveled by females were statistically
different from other studies (Table 1). This difference is notable because most other studies
reported males traveling significantly more than females (Fig. 2A).
All bobcats traveled significantly longer distances at night (3.4 60.51, n 58) than during
the daytime (1.4 60.28, n 58, z 52.521, P 50.012, Fig. 2B). When compared to other
studies our results did not differ (Table 1).
Distances traveled by bobcats during the dry season (Feb. to Jun.) tended to be shorter
than during the wet season (Oct. to Jan.), 3.7 km 61.5, than vs. 5.8 62.1 km but were not
statistically different (t51.545, 6 d.f., P 50.173). We did not find comparable data in other
studies regarding this type of seasonal activity of bobcats because traditionally seasons in
more northern areas were divided differently than in Mapimi. In a comparison between
spring/summer and autumn/winter in Idaho (Bailey, 1974), bobcats traveled longer
distances than 1.6 km more often in spring/summer and distances from 0 to 1.6 km in
autumn/winter. However, we cannot make direct comparisons between our seasonal
divisions and these because of the differences in how seasons were divided.
Mean speed of bobcats was 0.3 60.04 km/h and ranged from 0.01 to 1.6 km/h. Female
travel rates tended to be higher (0.3 km/h 60.06, n 54) than males (0.2 km/h 60.04, n 5
252 THE AMERICAN MIDLAND NATURALIST 168(2)
3) but were not statistically different (t50.969, 5 d.f., P 50.377). Mean speeds estimated
for females and males in Mapimi are similar to others reported in different areas of United
States (Table 1).
Average home range size for bobcats in Mapimi was 25.9 km
2
63.72, n 58. This size is not
statistically different from the mean obtained from the literature in northern latitudes in
United States (Table 1). The average size of the home ranges between sexes in Mapimi was
not statistically different, females: 27.1 km
2
66.41, n 54 and males: 24.7 km
2
64.74, n 54.
Home range sizes of females do not differ from their counterparts for other study areas found
in the literature, but the home range size of males did (t52.954, 28 d.f., P 50.006; Table 1).
For the regression of home range size against latitude, we had sufficient cross-study data
from 35 studies (Fig. 3A). When we regressed home-range size estimates there was a
significant (P ,0.001) positive relationship (Fig. 3B). However, the variance explained by
the regression was only 29%. When arranged with increasing latitude (Fig. 3B), the amount
of variation in the data can be seen and it can be noted that our estimate of home range size
was greater than for studies of similar latitude.
ACTIVITY PATTERNS
Over the 24 h period, the lowest average distance traveled per hour for males and females
combined was between 1300 to 1600 h (Fig. 4A). During this time the average hourly distance
traveled was 0.06 60.007 km, n 57. After1600 h, activity increased and peaked at around 2100
h. From 2200 to 2400 activity decreased and from 2400 to 0400 h activity remained relatively
constant at an average of 0.15 60.002 km (n 57). Bobcats increase their activity and showed a
peak around 0700 h and then gradually declined again into the day (Fig. 4A). Females and
males showed distinct differences in their patterns of activity. First, females peaked in activity
sooner than males in the evening (1800–1900 h vs. 2000–2100 h) and later in the morning
(0900–1100 h vs. 0600–0700 h; Fig. 4A). Females also remained more active during most of the
night than males (Fig. 4A). Periods of high and low activity of bobcats in Mapimi occur at
similar or the same hours to most of those previously reported, indicating a mainly crepuscular
pattern (Fig. 4B). The differences between studies are the time bobcats remain active and the
length of time they are active, e.g., in Mapimi and South Carolina (Fig. 4B, studies 1 and 5)
bobcats are active for longer periods of time in contrast with the ones of Alabama and Illinois
(studies 4 and 6). Also, in Mapimi, bobcats seemed to have the shortest low activity period at
midday in comparison to northern areas, even in a locality in New Mexico within the
Chihuahuan Desert (Fig. 4B). The distances bobcats traveled in each period of time
mentioned by McCord and Cardoza (1982) are higher than the ones we found in Mapimi.
However, because theirs was just one sample, we could not make a statistical comparison.
Activity patterns of dry and wet seasons appeared similar to the general pattern previously
described. Bobcats in the wet season traveled longer distances than the ones in dry season. There
aretwomainactivitypeaks,onefrom1800to2300 h and the other from 0600 to 1100 h, and one
period with minimum activity from 1300 to 1600 h (Fig. 5). As was the case with daily distance
traveled between wet and dry seasons, we did not find data regarding this type of seasonal
differences in activity of bobcats to compare with the activity pattern of the seasons in Mapimi.
DISTANCE TRAVELED AND AMBIENT TEMPERATURE
Mean ambient temperature of the microhabitat that bobcats inhabit in Mapimi was from
28.0 C at 1100 h with a maximum of 34.2 C at 1700 h and decreased to 25 C at 2100 h. At
night, the temperature was from 23.3 C at 2200 h to the lowest of 17.3 C at 0700 h (Fig. 6A).
Activity levels of bobcats increased when temperature decreased between 1900 and 2000 h.
After this period, activity of bobcats was constant and increased again into the morning until
2012 ELIZALDE-ARELLANO ET AL.: BOBCAT ACTIVITY IN CHIHUAHUAN DESERT,MEXICO 253
TABLE 1.—Mean and SE estimates of distances (km), velocities traveled (km/h) and home range size
(km
2
) of bobcats in Chihuahuan Desert and the means obtained from data in the literature in more
northern areas of their distribution. Statistical test results are from the comparison between mean values
of Mapimi and northern areas with the one sample t-test, Significant differences were with a P value of
,0.05. Every publication with data used for comparison is mentioned as a number in the last column
and below the table are the numbers related with the authors
Mean 6SE for
Chihuahuan Desert,
Mexico. This study
Mean 6SE from
literature for other
localities.
n value from
literature, and t-test
statistical result
Literature
Reference Number
shown below
1
Total distance
traveled (km)
4.8 60.72 5.7 61.38 n 57, t50.674,
6 df, P 50.525
2, 3, 5, 6, 9, 17, 21
Female travel
distance (km)
5.9 61.04 2.5 60.85 n 55, t523.335,
4 df, P 50.028
5, 7, 9, 17, 21
Males travel
distance (km)
3.7 60.67 4.4 61.00 n 55, t50.639,
4 df, P 50.557
5, 7, 9, 17, 21
Daytime travel
distance (km)
1.4 60.28 1.5 60.15 n 52, t51.133,
1 df, P 50.460
12, 29
Nightime travel
distance (km)
3.4 60.51 4.2 61.26 n 54, t50.651,
3 df, P 50.561
2, 12, 26, 29
Total travel
speed (km/h)
0.3 60.40 0.4 60.40 n 53, t52.213,
2 df, P 50.157
7, 34, 35
Female travel
speed (km/h)
0.3 60.06 0.3 60.04 n 53, t520.832,
2 df, P 50.493
7, 34, 35
Males travel
speed (km/h)
0.2 60.04 0.5 60.07 n 53, t53.232,
2 df, P 50.084
7, 34, 35
Home range
size (km
2
)
25.9 63.72 34.0 65.37 n 534, t51.515,
33 df, P 50.139
1, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11,
13, 14, 15, 16, 18, 19,
20, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26,
27, 28, 30, 31, 32, 33,
35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40,
41, 42.
Female home
range size (km
2
)
27.1 66.41 23.9 64.15 n 529, t520.760,
28 df, P 50.454
5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13,
14, 15, 16, 18, 19, 20,
22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27,
28, 30, 31, 33, 35, 37,
38, 39, 41, 42.
Male home range
size (km
2
)
24.7 64.74 47.1 67.58 n 529, t52.954,
28 df, P 50.006
5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13,
14, 15, 16, 18, 19, 20,
22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27,
28, 30, 31, 33, 35, 37,
38, 39, 41, 42.
1
Number of references used for comparisons: (1) Marston, 1942; (2) Rollings, 1945 (cited by Bailey,
1974 and by McCord and Cardoza, 1982); (3) Erickson, 1955 (cited by Bailey, 1974); (4) Provost et al.,
1973 (cited by Bailey, 1974); (5) Bailey, 1974; (6) McCord, 1974; (7) Hall and Newsom, 1976 (cited by
Cochrane et al., 2006); (8) Berg, 1979; (9) Buie et al., 1979; (10) Kitchings and Story, 1979; (11) Miller
and Speake, 1979; (12) Zezulak, 1981 (cited by McCord and Cardoza, 1982); (13) Hamilton, 1982 (cited
by Cochrane et al., 2006); (14) Kitchings and Story, 1984; (15) Shiflet, 1984 (cited by Cochrane et al., 2006);
(16) Fuller et al., 1985; (17) Knowles, 1985; (18) Fendley and Buie, 1986 (cited by Cochrane et al., 2006); (19)
Lancia et al.,1986(citedbyCochraneet al., 2006); (20) Litvaitis et al., 1986; (21) Witmer and DeCalesta, 1986;
(22) Litvaitis et al., 1987; (23) Major and Sherburne, 1987; (24) Litvaitis and Harrison, 1989; (25) Rucker et al.,
1989 (cited by Cochrane et al., 2006); (26) Knick, 1990; (27) Conner et al.,1992(citedbyCochraneet al.,
2006); (28) Lovallo and Anderson, 1996; (29) Larivie´re and Walton, 1997; (30) Conner et al., 2001; (31)
254 THE AMERICAN MIDLAND NATURALIST 168(2)
noon, when the temperature was again high and the activity of bobcats was the lowest.
Environmental temperature and activity were significantly but negatively correlated (r
2
5
0.506, n 524, P ,0.05; Fig. 6B).
We did not find similar data of this relationship between distance traveled and
temperature in other studies to statistically compare with our results, but we compared the
average temperatures of low and high activity periods in Mapimi with the ones from more
northern areas where activity patterns were recorded. In all studies, low activity periods
corresponded to higher environmental temperatures and high activity periods correspond-
ed to lower temperatures (Fig. 7).
DISCUSSION
HOME RANGE SIZE AND MOVEMENTS
Home range size is one of the most studied ecological characteristics of bobcats and its
size varies widely across their geographic range (Larivie´re and Walton, 1997; Hansen, 2007).
One of the consistent observations made is that male home ranges are up to twice the size of
those of females (Bailey, 1974; Kitchings and Story, 1984; Litvaitis et al., 1986). In contrast to
these previous studies, we found that in Mapimi males and females did not differ
significantly in their home range sizes. The consequences of these results relative to the
proposed explanations for differences between the sexes is unclear at this time. It has been
suggested that the difference between genders is a response to habitat quality. Though
Conner et al. (2001) dismissed this idea, it may require re-analysis considering the
differences in habitat quality between our study area and more northern ones. It also has
been mentioned that females use their home range more intensively than males (Sunquist
and Sunquist, 2002).
With the GPS location schedule we used, it was possible to analyze intensity of home range
use by our study animals to test this hypothesis; however, we did not included it because it
was not one of the objectives of this current analysis. Litvaitis et al. (1986) showed that home
range size was correlated with bobcat mass and males had a 28%greater energy requirement
than females if reproductive costs are ignored. However, this energetic difference may not
be enough to explain the extent of the differences found in home range sizes. The
relationship of energetic needs and size of the home range is under further study in Mapimi
and may provide further tests of this hypothesis. Also, it is possible that our limited sample
size of four each of males and females did not allow us to detect differences between sexes.
However, because of the large number of relocations per animal (.2000) we compared to
other studies, our data set should include the more accurate estimates of home range size. It
is more possible that home range estimates of other studies, based usually on less than 100
relocations, had more biased estimates. As more GPS studies of bobcats are conducted, we
should be able to clarify if the number of relocations per animal affects comparisons of male
and female home range sizes.
In addition to home range size, it is also widely accepted that males travel further and at
higher velocities than females on a daily basis (Sunquist and Sunquist, 2002; Hansen, 2007).
Again, our data contradict both of these trends in that we found no statistical difference
between sexes, with females averaging slightly more traveling than males. In fact, females in
Griffin, 2001; (32) Neale and Sacks, 2001; (33) Nielsen and Woolf, 2001; (34) Woolf and Nielsen, 2002; (35)
Chamberlain et al., 2003; (36) Godbois et al., 2004; (37) Benson et al., 2006; (38) Cochrane et al., 2006; (39)
Diefenbach et al., 2006; (40) Janecka et al., 2006; (41) Plowman et al., 2006, (42) Riddley, 2006
TABLE 1.—Continued
2012 ELIZALDE-ARELLANO ET AL.: BOBCAT ACTIVITY IN CHIHUAHUAN DESERT,MEXICO 255
Mapimi traveled longer distances than they do in northern areas, which had not been
recorded before and it was an adult resident female that traveled the longest distance
recorded (27.8 km in one day). This was also the longest distance traveled by a resident female
bobcat yet to be recorded (Larivie`re and Walton, 1997). We also found no difference in travel
speeds, although females tended to travel at higher speeds than males. Again, though limited
sample sizes, the accuracy and higher frequency of GPS relocations of our study provides a
much more detailed analysis of travel distances and speeds than possible in the past.
The one area where we did find differences between males and females was in their
activity over the 24 h period. Females in Mapimi were active for longer periods than males,
FIG. 2.—(A) Mean distances (km/day) traveled daily by females and males bobcats (Lynx rufus) from
previous published studies compared with the results of this study. Letters shown on x - axis correspond
to the results mentioned on the follow publications arranged from south to north latitudes: (A) This
study; (B) Louisiana – Hall and Newsom, 1976; (C) South Carolina – Buie et al., 1979; (D) South
Carolina – Marshall and Jenkins, 1966; (E) Idaho – Bailey, 1974; (F) Oregon – Witmer and DeCalesta,
1986 and G. Montana – Knowles, 1985. (B) Mean day and night distances traveled, with 95%confidence
intervals, of each bobcat from Mapimi. Each animal is identified as to sex (F and M)
256 THE AMERICAN MIDLAND NATURALIST 168(2)
starting their activities earlier at sunset, and finishing them later after sunrise. They also
maintained higher levels of activity throughout the night. These differences in timing and
levels of activity actually contributed to longer distances females traveled each day compared
to males and possibly explain why female home ranges were not smaller than those of males.
Why females would show these differences in activity patterns is unclear at this time. Possibly
the longer periods and higher levels of activity may be related to increased energy demands
when females have kittens. The finding that in general bobcats had higher levels of activity
during the night in the wet season (reproductive season for bobcats) than the dry season
supports this idea. However, we did not have sufficient data or knowledge on reproductive
status of females to specifically test this hypothesis.
Apart from the gender differences previously noted, in general we found that most of the
characteristics of bobcats in Chihuahuan Desert in Mexico showed no differences with those
FIG. 3.—(A) Comparison of the home range size (km
2
) estimated in Mapimi with previous published
studies where home range size was recorded. (B) Regression of home range sizes of bobcats from various
studies with the distances these studies are from the Equator (latitude). The estimate for our study site is
indicated with an arrow
2012 ELIZALDE-ARELLANO ET AL.: BOBCAT ACTIVITY IN CHIHUAHUAN DESERT,MEXICO 257
recorded in northern areas. Bobcats in our study area traveled the same total daily distance,
at similar velocities, and were active at similar times as their more northern populations. The
only difference we found was that male home range sizes in our study area were smaller than
the average for all other sites. Alternatively, female and combined home range sizes did not
differ with other studies.
FIG. 4.—(A) Activity pattern of female and male bobcats separately and combined based on mean
distances traveled by bobcats of each sex at each hour of the day averaged over 9 wk for each animal.
Arrows indicate the hours of sunset and sunrise. (B) Periods of activity patterns of bobcats recorded in
previous published studies compared with the results of this study. Numbers shown on y-axis correspond
to the results from the follow publications: (1) Mapimi – this study; (2) New Mexico – Harrison 2010;
(3) California – Zezulak and Schwab, 1980 (summer data only); (4) Alabama – Miller and Speake, 1979;
(5) South Carolina – Buie et al., 1979; and (6) Illinois – Kennedy, 1995
258 THE AMERICAN MIDLAND NATURALIST 168(2)
Although we did not find significant differences between our home range estimates and
other studies, our regression analysis did support a latitudinal decreasing trend. However,
there was a high amount of variability and many home range estimates did not fit the trend.
This included our home range estimate that was a factor of 10 times larger than estimates
from similar latitudes. The high amount of variability, including within the same studies,
indicates that other factors than those related to latitude are affecting home range size in
bobcats. For example, the idea of smaller home range sizes in lower latitudes is related to
the perception that more equatorial ecosystems are more productive (Gompper and
Gitleman, 1991). Given our study area was a relatively low-productive hot desert, this general
trend of productivity and latitude is not consistent and may explain why our estimates were
higher than more productive ecosystems in the southern U.S. If home range size is related
to ecosystem productivity, regardless of latitude, this hypothesis could be tested by
comparing home range sizes of bobcats with measures of ecosystem productivity. The fact
that our home range estimate was smaller than those of Harrison (2010) from another
Chihuahuan Desert site in New Mexico, indicates that productivity alone may not be the
only explanatory factor. Perhaps a multiple regression analysis with latitude, primary
productivity, and possibly rainfall as independent factors might help identify which, if any,
of these factors contribute to home range size in bobcats.
Relative to the timing of activity, even in the more extreme temperature conditions in
Mapimi, bobcats showed similar crepuscular activity patterns in more northern areas (Buie
et al., 1979; Miller and Speake, 1979; Witmer and DeCalesta, 1986). This similarity indicates
that extreme conditions, regardless of geographic location, would force bobcats to adjust
the timing of their movements. As with distance traveled, the timing of activity also is
probably related to changes in energetic needs, prey abundance and behavior,
environmental conditions, or other possible changes affecting a bobcat’s hunting strategies.
In summary, our results provide the first detailed analysis of home range size, daily travel
distances, and activity patterns of bobcats from the more southern part of their range in the
FIG. 5.—Activity pattern of bobcats in the dry (Feb. to Jun.) and wet (Oct. to Jan.) seasons at Mapimi
Biosphere Reserve, Durango, Me´xico. Values are based on mean distances traveled by bobcats trapped
on each season. Arrows indicate the hours of sunset and sunrise
2012 ELIZALDE-ARELLANO ET AL.: BOBCAT ACTIVITY IN CHIHUAHUAN DESERT,MEXICO 259
Chihuahuan Desert, Mexico. Most data demonstrated these behaviors of bobcats in this hot
desert environment do not differ in general from those in more northern populations.
Other data indicated particular differences in this population that did not follow the
general patterns described for the species in previous literature. As we learn more about
bobcat behavior across its large geographic range, we may more fully understand which
FIG. 6.—(A) General activity pattern of bobcats (line) and ambient temperatures (C) recorded by the
GPS radiocollars (bars) in the microhabitat used by bobcats at the Mapimi Biosphere Reserve. Arrows
indicate the hours of sunset and sunrise. (B) Relationship between activity patterns of bobcats and
ambient temperatures (C) with 95%confidence bands. The equation of the regression line is:
temperature 50.2742 20.0054*activity
260 THE AMERICAN MIDLAND NATURALIST 168(2)
factors, e.g., prey type, energetic demands, habitat type, environmental conditions, etc.,
affect this species behavior and possibly survival.
Acknowledgments.—This study is part of the Ph.D. studies of CEA, Doctorado en Ciencias Biolo´gicas y
de la Salud, Universidad Autonoma Metropolitana. It was funded by Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y
Tecnologı´a (CONACyT), Fondo Mixto for Durango State (Project no. DGO-2006-C01-4383) to LH.
CONACyT provided two Ph.D. grants, one to C. Elizalde-Arellano (no. 167852), and one to J. C. Lo´pez-
Vidal (no. 167853). The authors wish to thank the many undergraduate students for their field
assistance in bobcat trapping and recovering GPS collars. We specially want to thank Karina Grajales-
Tamm, Lupita Diaz, Efrain Rodriguez, Antonio Guerra, Francisco and Tina Herrera for their special
support during different activities related with this project. We give thanks also to the Instituto de
Ecologı´a A.C., Durango Regional Center and Xalapa Center for their logistics assistance and for
providing the accommodations at the Mapimi Field Laboratory. We are grateful to Dr. Leslie Carraway
and three anonymous referees for their valuable comments that improved this manuscript.
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SUBMITTED 12 JULY 2011 ACCEPTED 2MARCH 2012
264 THE AMERICAN MIDLAND NATURALIST 168(2)
