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Effects of marinating on the formation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (benzo[a]pyrene, benzo[b]fluoranthene and fluoranthene) in grilled beef meat
Abstract
The study was conducted to investigate the effect of marinating on the generation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (benzo[a]pyrene, benzo[b]fluoranthene and fluoranthene) in grilled beef meat. Seven marinade treatments containing 1) basic marinade, which include sugar, water, onion, turmeric, lemon grass, salt, garlic, coriander and cinnamon, 2) basic–oil, 3) Commercial marinade. 4) basic–oil–lemon juice, 5) basic–lemon juice, 6) basic–oil–tamarind and 7) commercial–tamarind at four time intervals (0, 4, 8 and 12 h) were applied on meat samples before charcoal grilling. Tandem solid-phase extraction (SPE) was used to clean up the samples. A high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with fluorescence detector was used for PAHs analysis. The study showed significant (p < 0.05) reduction (70%) of PAH in beef samples treated with the acidic marinade (containing 1.2% lemon juice). The basic–lemon > basic > basic–oil–lemon > basic–oil was the best order of marinade treatment. The duration of marinating was not a significant (p > 0.05) factor in PAH reduction.
... Biological marinades can be classified into herb/spice, dairy products/probiotics, and seed/oil-based marinades (Table 1). Onion, turmeric, lemon grass, garlic, coriander, cinnamon, oregano, parsley, mustard, pepper, rosemary, and lemon juice are the most common herbs/spices used in marination traditionally and in the present day (Farhadian et al., 2012;Kumar et al., 2015;Manful, et al., 2021;Siroli et al., 2020). To improve sensory properties (tenderness, juiciness, flavor) and nutritional components (protein, fat, ash, cholesterol content), one of the important functions that herbs/spices marination fulfills is the reduction of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and heterocyclic amines (HCAs). ...
... PAHs and HCAs are carcinogenic and mutagenic compounds produced by traditional cooking methods, such as smoking, frying/roasting, and grilling/barbecuing, owing to the presence of organic matter. The pathways of producing PAHs and HCAs are not sufficiently clear, but some experiments have shown that they occur mainly because of the pyrolysis action of amino acids or proteins when meat and meat products are cooked at > 300 °C combustion (Farhadian et al., 2012;S, Iqbal et al., 2016). Studies on reducing HCAs and PAHs by marinating meat and meat products are limited. ...
... Using optimum amounts of the chosen spices, such as 10 g/100 g torch ginger, 4 g/100 g turmeric, lemon grass, and curry leaves, HCAs were reduced from 40 to 85 ng/100 g. In addition, 1.2% lemon juice in the marinating process was also found to reduce PAHs in grilled beef (Farhadian et al., 2012). The researchers did not clearly understand how the marinades inhibited HCAs formation in the samples, but they thought that the antioxidants present in the spices were the possible reasons for preventing the formation of HCAs. ...
The practice of utilizing various categories of ingredients for marination has been prevalent in both home cooking and the meat industry for an extended period. Meat and meat products treated with various marination ingredients either alone or in combination with multiple marination processes can enhance color, flavor, and tenderness, while also improving their shelf life by reducing the growth of pathogenic microorganisms and lipid oxidation. This narrative review aims to examine all recent scientific literature on various meat and meat products subjected to marination. Through Google Scholar, PubMed and Web of Science, the review summarizes all recent marinated and marination research articles, including types of marination ingredients, marination method, marinade mechanism, effect on sensory and nutritional quality, safety, shelf life, and health implications, resulting in a comprehensive overview of all information under marinades and marination for all scientists and food sectors concerned. The highlighted information will indicate future directions for the development of marination ingredients in the meat industry.
... µg/kg). Farhadian et al. [24] studied PAH content in beef satay marinated in a basic marinade (B) and a basic marinade with oil (B-O), as well as modified marinades: basic with lemon juice (B-L), basic with oil and lemon juice (B-O-L) and basic with oil and tamarind juice (B-O-T). Raw and unmarinated grilled beef satay were also analysed, but did not show any evidence of PAHs. ...
... Beef satay in B-O-L marinade had a PAH content of 59.6 µg/kg, while the B-O-T marinade had a PAH content of 86.9 µg/kg. The addition of juices lowered the pH and, thus, inhibited PAH formation reactions [24]. ...
... Numerous studies have reported the effects of marinades on PAH levels in grilled meat. Farhadian et al. [24] investigated the effect of adding oil, lemon juice or TA to a base marinade on PAH levels in grilled beef. The base marinade included sugar, water, onion, TU, lemongrass, salt, garlic, coriander and cinnamon. ...
Marinating is one of the most common methods of pre-processing meat. Appropriate selection of marinade ingredients can influence the physicochemical properties of the meat and can reduce the level of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the final product. The effects of the inclusion of natural plant extracts such as bay leaf (BL), black pepper (BP), turmeric (TU), jalapeno pepper (JP) and tamarind paste (TA) in marinades on the physicochemical properties of grilled pork neck were studied. The addition of spice extracts to marinades increased the proportion of colour components L* and b*. The use of TU, TA, JP, MX and C marinades lowered the hardness and pH of the meat. The highest phenolic compound levels were observed in the case of the mixture of all extracts (MX) and JP marinades, and the highest total antioxidant capacity was exhibited by the BL and MX marinades. The highest PAH content was recorded in the CON marinade (Σ12PAH 98.48 ± 0.81 µg/kg and the lowest in the JP marinade (4.76 ± 0.08 µg/kg), which had the strongest, statistically significant reducing effect (95% reduction) on PAH levels. Analysis of correlation coefficients showed a relationship between the total antioxidant capacity of the marinades and the PAH content in grilled pork.
... o C and the distance between the flame and meat ranged 0.5-2 cm were the main precursors for the formation of PAHs in goat satay. Direct contact between beef satay and open flame during gas grilling encourages the formation of PAHs [27]. The PAHs compounds are produced through the pyrolysis process (incomplete combustion) as long as the meat is grilled by charcoal and when the fat from the meat drips onto the flame, it will produce significant levels of PAHs during direct heating of the meat with charcoal. ...
... Through lipid oxidation, the fat in beef satay reacts with protein and other amino compounds to form a brown substance. The color is similar to the melanoidin produced in the reaction of Maillard [27]. The PAHs levels are higher in grilled meat at high temperatures due to the pyrolysis of fat [39]. ...
... Garlic which is used as a marination seasoning before grilling the satay has antioxidant capacity due to the sulfhydryl and phenolic compounds it contains. The sulfhydryl compounds in garlic and onions act as free radical scavengers and hydrogen peroxide, which can capture electrophilic compounds that inhibit the formation of PAHs [27]. The main antioxidant bioactive compounds of phytochemicals are carotenoids, phenolic, and essential oils compounds. ...
This study aimed to investigate the carcinogen content of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in commercial charcoal grilled goat satay. Twenty-one portions of commercial raw goat satay and charcoal grilled goat satay samples were obtained from 4 restaurants which are the largest, well-known, and 15-55 years old goat satay restaurant in Batu Municipality, East Java. Sampling of 2 goat satay types (goat satay without sliced fat and goat satay with sliced fat) was carried out 3 replications in 3 consecutive weekends where many tourists visited. The results showed that the temperature of wood charcoal for grilling commercial raw goat satay in various satay restaurants ranged 486.833-548.300 o C with a grilling duration of 2-5.5 minutes and grilling distance of 0.5-2 cm. The weight of raw goat satay for a serving (10 skewers) ranged 144.000-194.000 g and after grilling the weight ranged 97.333-148.000 g. Total natural antioxidant activity (Dipheny-picrylhydrazyl, DPPH), fat content and moisture content of raw goat satay with sliced fat and without sliced fat reached up to 36.661 and 34.124%; 13.440-26.100% and 1.5-6.305%; 57.940-66.385% and 71.530-76.810%, respectively. Benzo(a)pyrene (BaP), the only type of PAHs that is carcinogenic, for charcoal grilled goat satay with sliced fat and without sliced fat in various satay restaurants, ranged from not detected to 6.330 mg/kg and not detected to 0.773 mg/kg, respectively. The levels of BaP in charcoal grilled goat satay in several satay restaurants exceeded the safety limit by National Agency of Drug and Food Control (NA-DFC) of Republic Indonesia. Benzo(a)antharacene (BaA) and pyrene (Pyr) were detected in all grilled goat satay samples in various satay restaurants. Whereas, phenanthrene (Phe), acenaphthene (Acp) and naphthalene (Nap) were not detected in all grilled goat satay samples in various satay restaurants. The conclusion of our study was that the commercial charcoal grilled goat satay that are sold in Batu municipality contains PAH, especially the carcinogenic B(a)P. Therefore practical mitigation efforts are needed for producers to reduce and prevent the formation of carcinogenic B(a)P in commercial charcoal grilled goat satay.
... Some PAHs naturally emit fluorescence. Exploring this characteristic, several studies have quantified PAHs using liquid chromatography with fluorescence detector [47,60,74,97,106,129,130,143,144]. Furthermore, liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry is a promising technique, with studies using triple quadrupole, and Orbitrap, as well as ionization methods compatible with nonpolar compounds such as atmospheric pressure ionization photoionization [116,145]. ...
... Marinating meat in a mixture of condiments before cooking is a common practice to improve its flavor, aroma, and/or texture [129]. This pretreatment can influence the formation of PAHs during cooking according to the type of ingredients used: while some compounds present in these condiments can inhibit the formation of carcinogenic compounds, others can accelerate this process instead [46]. ...
... In contrast, the addition of acidic ingredients in marinades reduced the formation of PAHs. Farhadian et al. [129] reported that treatment with oil containing lemon juice or tamarind decreased PAHs formation. The authors also observed that the pretreatment duration (4-12 h) did not influence the formation of these compounds, with 4 h already considered adequate for PAHs formation mitigation. ...
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are chemical compounds comprised of carbon and hydrogen molecules in a cyclic arrangement. PAHs are associated with risks to human health, especially carcinogenesis. One form of exposure to these compounds is through ingestion of contaminated food, which can occur during preparation and processing involving high temperatures (e.g., grilling, smoking, toasting, roasting, and frying) as well as through PAHs present in the soil, air, and water (i.e., environmental pollution). Differently from changes caused by microbiological characteristics and lipid oxidation, consumers cannot sensorially perceive PAH contamination in food products, thereby hindering their ability to reject these foods. Herein, the occurrence and biological effects of PAHs were comprehensively explored, as well as analytical methods to monitor their levels, legislations, and strategies to reduce their generation in food products. This review updates the current knowledge and addresses recent regulation changes concerning the widespread PAHs contamination in several types of food, often surpassing the concentration limits deemed acceptable by current legislations. Therefore, effective measures involving different food processing strategies are needed to prevent and reduce PAHs contamination, thereby decreasing human exposure and detrimental health effects. Furthermore, gaps in literature have been addressed to provide a basis for future studies.
... The key antioxidant-rich ingredients were onions and garlic (Janoszka 2011 (Park et al. 2017;Wang et al. 2018), and lemon (Farhadian et al. 2012). ...
... Seven marinade treatments were applied in four time intervals to the beef before charcoal barbecuing in Farhadian et al. 2012. The marinades contained the following ingredients: 1) "basic" marinade (sugar, water, onion, turmeric, lemongrass, salt, garlic, coriander, and cinnamon); 2) "basic" with oil; 3) commercial marinade; 4) "basic" with oil and lemon juice; 5) "basic" with lemon juice; 6) "basic" with oil and tamarind; 7) commercial tamarind, and the four time intervals were of 0, 4, 8, and 12 h. ...
... The marinades contained the following ingredients: 1) "basic" marinade (sugar, water, onion, turmeric, lemongrass, salt, garlic, coriander, and cinnamon); 2) "basic" with oil; 3) commercial marinade; 4) "basic" with oil and lemon juice; 5) "basic" with lemon juice; 6) "basic" with oil and tamarind; 7) commercial tamarind, and the four time intervals were of 0, 4, 8, and 12 h. The duration of marinating did not show a significant factor in BaP or PAH reduction (Farhadian et al. 2012). However, a considerable reduction (70%) was shown for beef treated with acidic marinade (5) with lemon juice pH 5.2 compared to "basic" marinade (1) pH of 5.7, followed by the "basic" marinade (1) (Figure 1). ...
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) are chemicals, which can occur in barbecued or grilled foods, and particularly in meats. They originate from incomplete combustion of the heat source, pyrolysis of organic compounds, or fat-induced flame formation. This review therefore summarizes relevant parameters for mitigation of especially carcinogenic PAHs in barbecued meat. Consumption of PAHs increases the risk of cancer, and thus the relevance for the mitigation of PAHs formation is very high for barbecued meat products. Parameters such as heat source, barbecue geometry, and meat type as well as marinating, adding spices, and other antioxidants reduce the final benzo[a]pyrene and PAHs concentrations and minimize the exposure. Overall, mitigation of carcinogenic PAHs from barbecuing includes removal of visual charring, reducing fat pyrolysis by minimizing dripping from the meat onto the heat source, the use of acidic marinades or choosing leaner cuts of meat. Estimation of human exposure to barbecued meat, includes several challenges such as substantial differences in barbecuing frequencies and practices, heat sources and meat types used for grilling.
... 20 The presence of selective PAHs and HCAs in grilled satay was reported separately in several studies. 11,14,22 However, the simultaneous formation of PAHs and HCAs in beef satay is recently investigated. 3 Therefore, the potential effects of honey-spices marination on the formation of both, PAHs and HCAs simultaneously is definitely worthy as concerns are raised on consumers' health risks on grilled meat. ...
... The marinating recipe with slight modifications was used in this study. 11,22 The marinating ingredients (Table 1) were homogenously pulverized for 5 min (at maximum speed) using a clean Waring Blender (model MX337, Panasonic Corp, Osaka, Japan). The Apis-mellifera honey and Trigona sp. ...
... External calibration curve method was used in quantification of all 15 PAHs. 3,22 Analysis of HCAs ...
The effects of honey-spices marination on simultaneous formation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and heterocyclic amines (HCAs) in gas-grilled beef satay were investigated at different grilling temperatures (150 °C, 250 °C, and 350 °C). Beef satay samples used in this study were prepared using two types of honey-spices marination (Apis mellifera-spices and Trigona sp.-spices). Quantifications of fifteen PAHs using high performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection (HPLC-FLD) and nine HCAs using liquid chromatography tandem-mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS) were performed with gradient programme. Results on PAHs and HCAs in marinated samples were compared with control. Highest concentrations (p < 0.05) of PAHs (marinated beef satay) and HCAs (control) were detected at 350 °C. The most prominent PAH and HCA were phenanthrene (24.61–84.36 ng/g) and 9H-pyrido-[4,3-b]indole (Norharman) (2.67–393.89 ng/g). Marination significantly (p < 0.05) reduced naphthalene, fluorene, pyrene, 2-amino-9H-pyrido[2,3-b]indole (AαC), 1-methyl-9H-pyrido-[4,3-b]indole (Harman), and Norharman in gas-grilled beef satay across all temperatures. Overall, inverse quantitative profiles of PAHs and HCAs formation were observed in marinated gas-grilled beef satay.
... Many studies showed the carcinogen power of certain PAH whose limits are set for human consumption. Thus, studies are being performed in order to assess and to reduce PAH formation in chicken meat products by different cooking processes (El Badry, 2010;Farhadian et al., 2011Farhadian et al., , 2012Purcaro et al., 2013;Onwukeme et al., 2015). Heavy metals and trans fatty acids are also of concern as their high level above tolerated limits may cause health troubles to consumers (Mozaffarian et al., 2006;Jaishankar et al., 2014). ...
... Moreover, fluoranthene reduced by 81% in preheated chicken meat before grilling. Avoiding direct contact of meat with cooking flame prevents oil dripping onto the heat source and this strongly lead to the prevention of PAH formation during grilling (Farhadian et al., 2012). ...
... PAHs in roasted and grilled meat products are attributed to the pyrolysis of fat under high temperatures (Duedahl-Olesen & Ionas, 2020;Hu et al., 2022). Fat was postulated to be the main precursors of PAHs (Farhadian et al., 2012). Hu et al. (2022) implied that fat played a key role in the formation of PAHs in roasted meat. ...
... Fluorene, fluoranthene, pyrene, chrysene, and benzo[a]pyrene were detected in charcoal roasted mutton, but not detected in heat-induced intramuscular fat model system, which suggested that some PAHs may originate from proteins and carbohydrates (Onopiuk et al., 2021). However, these PAHs content as a percentage of total PAHs is lower in charcoal roasted mutton, which supported the fact that fat was the main precursor of PAHs in roasted mutton (Farhadian et al., 2012). ...
This study investigated the formation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in a mutton intramuscular fat model system containing epicatechin under various reaction conditions using multivariate statistical analysis, and established the optimal equations for PAHs prediction. Results indicated that at 100−180 °C for 10−60 min, epicatechin inhibited the formation of naphthalene, acenaphthylene, phenanthrene, anthracene, benz[a]anthracene and benzo[g,h,i]perylene by 10−37%, 11−32%, 9−100%, 27−56%, 100% and 6−18%, respectively. Polynomial equation third-order model with R² at 0.87−0.98 and R² at 0.80−0.95 well fitted for the formation of PAHs under various temperatures and times, respectively. The correlation coefficients of calibration set (R²c) and validation set (R²v) were 0.92 and 0.81 for naphthalene, 0.84 and 0.84 for acenaphthylene, 0.99 and 0.98 for phenanthrene, 0.97 and 0.95 for anthracene, 0.91 and 0.80 for benzo[g,h,i]perylene, respectively, which suggested good mathematical models for the PAHs formation rules. These results provide theoretical support to develop technologies for PAHs real-time monitoring during roasted mutton processing.
... Marinating meat before cooking is a typical cooking practice to enhance flavor, fragrance, and texture (Farhadian et al., 2012). Furthermore, many marination methods are beneficial in the preparation of healthy-cooked meat, including the inhibition of PAH formation and prevention of its carcinogenic effects ( Table 1). ...
... Furthermore, many marination methods are beneficial in the preparation of healthy-cooked meat, including the inhibition of PAH formation and prevention of its carcinogenic effects ( Table 1). Marination of beef satay by using basic-lemon juice (80%), basic-oil-lemon juice (57%), basic-oil-tamarind (47%), commercial-tamarind (48%) was successful in reducing PAHs formation in cooked meat (Farhadian et al., 2012). Moreover, marinating chicken with tomato juice, garlic paste, onion, sodium chloride, cumin, coriander, and black pepper inhibits (84-92%) PAH formation when cooked in a microwave oven, pan-fried, and over a direct and indirect flame (El-Badry, 2010). ...
According to recent research, human exposures to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are mainly through the food route. Food such as meat and fish are two primary sources of dietary protein. However, a certain level of unawareness and poor cooking education leads to the formation of PAHs in cooked meat and fish meals. PAHs are classified as human carcinogens that poses a risk of cancer and related diseases. This review studied high-quality published articles on cooked meat and fish, emphasizing the level of PAHs contaminations, cooking methods, and related parameters. Additionally, verities of easy-feasible PAHs avoidance strategies for meat and fish cooking are summarized. Meat and fish cooking methods such as smoking, grilling, barbecuing, roasting, and frying amalgamated with the risk of PAHs contamination. In accordance with expectations, there are some strategies to avoid PAHs contamination in cooked meat and fish up to 100%, including low-fat content, fuel/wood types, smoking filters, and different types of marination. This study comprehensively identified the manner in which PAHs avoidance strategies aligned with present safety guidelines.
... According to Farhadian et al. (2012), fat is more associated with the formation of PAHs because the lipophilic component is the main precursor for PAHs. Lipid oxidation causes fat to react with amino compounds. ...
... According to Farhadian et al. (2012), fat droplets from the meat onto the flames cannot be avoided because the heat source is horizontal so that the BaP concentration formed is higher. The surface of the meat is less likely to be contaminated with PAHs compounds than the inside. ...
This study aimed to mitigate the carcinogen formation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in charcoal-grilled goat satay by marinating raw goat-satay with shallots (Allium cepa var. Ascalonicum) juices. The experiment used a 2 x 4 split-plot factorial randomized block design. The experiment consisted of 2 treatments of 2 goat satay types (without and with sliced fat) and 4 treatments of marination with shallots juice at concentrations of 0%, 10%, 20%, and 30% (gmL-1 of fresh shallots in distilled water) for 60 minutes at 4 °C. A total of 24 samples of raw and grilled goat-satay were used for 3 replication groups. The marination with 10% and 20% shallots juices significantly reduced the BaP and BaA until they were not detected even though they increased the non-carcinogenic Pyr levels in the grilled goat-satay with and without sliced fat. The marination with 10%, 20%, and 30% shallots juice significantly prevented the formation of Phe, Ace, and Nap so that they were not detected in the grilled goat-satay with and without sliced fat. The marination with 30% shallots juice of raw goat-satay without sliced fat resulted in the highest antioxidant activities and detectable BaP levels (3.88 mg kg⁻¹). © 2022. by Authors, published by Tropical Animal Science Journal. This is an open-access article distributed under the CC BY-SA 4.0 License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
... Marinating meat is a pre-cooking method widely used to improve the taste and texture of foods in different cuisines and, today, it is known that it can also reduce the generation of harmful substances [98]. Marinades made up of spices such as onion, garlic, herbs, teas, and lemon have been shown to inhibit PAH generation due to their antioxidant behavior [90,[99][100][101][102][103]. ...
... The use of natural products such as mixtures of spices, drinks, and plant extracts has been proposed as effective reducing strategies of PAHs [98,102,103], as well as the use of different types of vinegar, wine, and fruit derivatives, a source of several active compounds such as phenolic compounds, which can be an alternative even for the use of marinade, which sometimes require time and different ingredients for preparation [106]. ...
... Researchers have emphasized that fats increase the PAH levels as they are the main precursors of PAHs. [25][26][27][28] Thus, the association of PAHs with fat content in meat may ensure meat safety. ...
... Nevertheless, some researchers revealed findings similar to this study. 17,25,55,69 Another point to consider is that the use of the charcoal cooking method resulted in increased PAH formation. In addition, it is common practice to use petroleum or other similar chemicals to start a fire, and as noted in previous studies, these fuels contribute to the formation of PAHs. ...
This study aimed to determine the effect of different fat contents (low-fat/LF or high-fat/HF), cooking methods (gas, charcoal, or electric), and various degrees of doneness (medium and well-done) on polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) formation in beef doner kebabs. Liquid– liquid extraction and solid- phase extraction (SPE) were used to determine the PAH levels in doner kebabs. In addition, PAHs were determined and identified via HPLC/UV–Vis method. Among the 16 PAHs analyzed, only seven common PAHs were detected in doner samples (Benzo[c]fluorene (BcFE), Cyclopenta[cd]pyrene (CPcdP), Benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]P), Benzo[a]anthracene (B[a]A), Chrysene (Chry), Benzo [ghi] perylene (B[ghi]P) and Dibenzo(a,h)anthracene (DB[a,h]A). The two most abundant PAHs were BaA and CPcdP, with concentrations ranging from 43.05-143.10 μg/kg and 13.90-80.44 μg/kg, respectively. BaP, one of the main indicators for the presence of PAHs in food, was observed in all samples concentrations ranging from nd-7.38 μg/kg. Other PAHs were found in particularly well-done and high-fat doner samples. Additionally, the total PAH4 and total PAH8 concentrations were in the range of 43.05-150.40 μg/kg and 43.05-198.10 μg/kg, respectively. The results revealed that in both types of doner samples (low-fat/LF or high-fat/HF), the highest PAH concentration was noted when the charcoal cooking method was used, while the lowest PAH concentration was detected when the electric cooking method was employed. In addition, PAH compounds were found to be more abundant in high-fat doner samples (HF) than in low-fat groups (LF) (p < 0.05). In conclusion, the diversity and amount of each PAH compound in beef doner kebab samples varied depending on doneness degree, doner kebab type (low- fat/LF or high- fat/HF), and cooking methods (p < 0.05).
... This may be caused by the activities of the household residents which included both cooking (BBF) and incense burning (AT). The main source of BBF came from the traditional cooking stove that contained the large amounts of PAHs [28]. In view of the AT concentrations, the houses of the residents who burn incense inside exhibited the greater levels of this chemical than those of the houses of residents who do not burn incense in their own units. ...
... Res. 43(2) (2021):[15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29] ...
The ambient and indoor air concentrations of PM10 and PM10-bound PAHs (16 priority PAHs) were investigated in Rayong Province, Thailand. The locations of the selected study areas were Map Ta Phut Industrial Estate and its vicinity comprising six sampling sites (four industrial areas and two vicinity areas). The indoor and ambient air samples of were collected in March 2017. The sampling sites located close to the road were detected the greatest ambient average concentrations of PM10, with an average value of 56.06 µg m-3 (Map Chalut Area or MC). The levels of indoor PM10 were mostly dependent on the resident activities and the highest mean level of PM10 was 31.29 µg m-3 detected at Huai Pong. The Benzo(b)fluoranthene and acenaphthylene were the major PAHs found to have the highest 24-h average concentrations for both indoor and ambient air. The highest mean ambient and indoor air levels of benzo(b)fluoranthene were 49.18 and 30.88 ng m-3, respectively, found at MC. In terms of 16 total PAHs, MC was found to have the greatest level. Analysis of the diagnostic ratios determined that the traffic density was the major source of influence on particle-bound PAH concentrations for both ambient and indoor air samples, which indicated that the greater the traffic volume, the higher the level of PAHs.
... Marinating meat is a pre-cooking method widely used to improve the taste and texture of foods in different cuisines and, today, it is known that it can also reduce the generation of harmful substances [98]. Marinades made up of spices such as onion, garlic, herbs, teas, and lemon have been shown to inhibit PAH generation due to their antioxidant behavior [90,[99][100][101][102][103]. ...
... The use of natural products such as mixtures of spices, drinks, and plant extracts has been proposed as effective reducing strategies of PAHs [98,102,103], as well as the use of different types of vinegar, wine, and fruit derivatives, a source of several active compounds such as phenolic compounds, which can be an alternative even for the use of marinade, which sometimes require time and different ingredients for preparation [106]. ...
... Marinating meat is a pre-cooking method widely used to improve the taste and texture of foods in different cuisines and, today, it is known that it can also reduce the generation of harmful substances [98]. Marinades made up of spices such as onion, garlic, herbs, teas, and lemon have been shown to inhibit PAH generation due to their antioxidant behavior [90,[99][100][101][102][103]. ...
... The use of natural products such as mixtures of spices, drinks, and plant extracts has been proposed as effective reducing strategies of PAHs [98,102,103], as well as the use of different types of vinegar, wine, and fruit derivatives, a source of several active compounds such as phenolic compounds, which can be an alternative even for the use of marinade, which sometimes require time and different ingredients for preparation [106]. ...
... 12 Marinating meat with a mixture of different condiments before cooking is used to increase flavor and texture of food. 13 Such pretreatment strategies can influence the formation of different PAHs depending upon the type of condiment being used. Condiments can increase or decrease the formation of PAHs. ...
The current study aimed to evaluate the impact of charcoal grilling in the generation of various polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the tissues of 5 different organs (leg, chest, wings, liver, and heart) of falcated ducks ( Mareca falcata) before and after pasting them with different condiment recipes (R1, R2, R3, and R4). All condiment-pasted and control samples before/after charcoal grilling were pursued in RP-HPLC for quantification of unknown PAHs. Tissues from grilled raw leg meat of the control sample showed significantly higher ( P ≤ .05) concentration (42.40 ng/g) of overall PAHs as compared to all other grilled samples. However, overall PAHs concentration (9.99 ng/g) in charcoal grilled tissues of leg meat pasted with R4 condiment recipe was decreased 76.43% significantly ( P ≤ .05) as compared to all other recipes of pasted charcoal grilled samples. All PAHs, particularly naphthalene, fluorene, phenanthrene, and acenaphthalene were decreased significantly ( P ≤ .05) to none detectable level in all tissue samples when grilled after treating with R4 condiment recipe. All condiment recipes reduced total PAHs level below MRL’s set by the international guidelines. Recipe R4, a rich source of antioxidants, significantly neutralized and reduced the generation of PAHs in duck leg meat tissue sample during wood charcoal grilling.
... Garlic contains phenolic compounds considered to draw significant attention as antioxidants (Awuchi & Okpala, 2022). Numerous scientists have used garlic-based marinades to enhance the quality and/or safety of meat products (Farhadian et al., 2012;Nurwantoro et al., 2015;Tkacz et al., 2021). Ginger is a significant root spice that is extensively utilized in the meat industry and in the culinary arts (Awuchi & Okpala, 2022;He et al., 2015). ...
Nowadays, natural preservatives, specifically involving marinades, are being applied to meat products to enhance various quality attributes. The need for food preservation has continually strengthened the processing of meat products. Besides the global production of bovine, porcine, ovine, and caprine animals, including poultry, that varies across continents, meeting the demands/needs of ever-increasing (global) population remains the focus. The growing consumer health awareness alongside intensifying global competition by meat producers cumulatively strengthens the call for healthier products, including preservation strategies. However, as published experimental/synthesized literature involving animal meat products, plant-based marination, and thermal processes continues to grow, there is a need to supplement existing information. Therefore, this treatise aims to discuss how the quality of animal meat products has been enhanced through plant-based marinations and thermal processes, drawing from plant-based marination: some key examples and usefulness; marination/marinades: briefs on preparation and applications; major thermal processes applied to marinated meat products; as well as quality implications of thermally processed marinated meat products. In certain instances, either marination would aid heat processing or vice versa, while in others, thermal processing may well be detrimental to marination.
... This situation plays an important role in providing the body with nutrients (essential amino acids, essential fatty acids, vitamins, especially B group vitamins, and mineral substances, such as Fe and Zn) that benefit human health in many ways through meat consumption. In addition, meat consumption contributes to keeping cooking conditions (method, temperature, time, equipment used, etc.), the type of fuel used, proximity to the heat source, and direct contact of food with fire [12,17,19,20,29]. ...
Herein, the effect of direct and indirect barbecue cooking processes, including different cooking degrees (medium and well done), on the formation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and on certain quality parameters (water content, cooking loss, pH, lipid oxidation) of beef meat was examined. While no significant effect (p > 0.05) of the cooking method was detected on the water content, cooking loss, ∑PAH4 [the sum of benzo[a]pyrene (BaP), benzo[a]anthracene (BaA), chrysen (Chry), and benzo[b]fluoranthene (BbF)], and ∑PAH8 [the sum of BaP, BaA, Chry, benzo[k]fluoranthene (BkF), dibenzo[a,h]anthracene (DahA), benzo[g,h,i]perylene (Bghip), and indeno [1,2,3-cd]pyrene (IncdP)] content, it was determined that it had a significant effect on pH (p < 0.05) and lipid oxidation (TBARS, p < 0.01). While the cooking degree did not have a significant effect (p > 0.05) on the TBARS value, it had a significant effect (p < 0.05) on the water content and pH value, and a very significant effect (p < 0.01) on the cooking loss. While BaA and BaP compounds were detected in all barbecued samples, the DahA compound could not be detected in any of the samples. Varying levels of BaA (up to 5.62 ng/g), Chry (up to 0.43 ng/g), BbF (LOD-..-LOQ), BkF (LOD-..-LOQ), BaP (up to 0.49 ng/g), BghiP (up to 0.82 ng/g), and IncdP (up to 4.99 ng/g) compounds were determined in the samples. While the ∑PAH4 contents varied between 0.71 and 6.35 ng/g, the ∑PAH8 contents varied between 1.12 and 11.34 ng/g. While the increase in cooking level did not affect the ∑PAH4 content, it caused a significant increase in the ∑PAH8 content. The highest BaP (0.49 ng/g), ∑PAH4 (6.35 ng/g), and ∑PAH8 (11.34 ng/g) contents were detected in the meat samples that were well cooked on the barbecue by the direct method. The results have proven that PAHs are formed at varying levels in both meat samples cooked on the barbecue by the direct method and the indirect method. On the other hand, it has been determined that even if 100 g of the meat with the highest BaP and ∑PAH4 content is eaten, the exposure amount remains far below the limit values specified for PAHs. However, paying close attention to the barbecue cooking process is still recommended.
... Studies on the effect of the marination on the formation of PAH in meat reveal that the effect varies depending on a type of marinade used. Farhadian et al. [56] reported that the PAH content in grilled beef marinated with basic marinades varied between 45.19-56.09 µg/kg, while this value varied between 74.0-80.6 µg/kg in the unmarinated control samples. ...
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are widespread environmental contaminants posing a great risk to human health due to their mutagenic and/or carcinogenic properties. They are produced from incomplete combustion of a heat source, pyrolysis of organic components, and fat-induced flame formation. Meat and meat products are one of the major sources of PAH exposure. Since PAH intake increases the risk of cancer, understanding the factors affecting PAH formation in meat and meat products is very important within the scope of PAH exposure reduction strategies. In this study, the features and formation of PAHs, the factors affecting the formation of PAH compounds and their reduction/inhibition pathways were reviewed in order to provide a perspective on the presence of PAHs in meat and meat products.
... The results illustrated that the BaP content in the pickled pepper and control groups were 295 μg/kg and 787 μg/kg, respectively, indicating a 2.6-fold BaP reduction in roast ducks. Farhadian, Jinap, Faridah, and Zaidul (2012) showed that using lemon juice to marinate beef could reduce the BaP content in roast beef by 70%. Viegas, Yebra-Pimentel, Martínez-Carballo, Simal-Gandara, and Ferreira (2014) studied three types of beer (Pilsner beer, non-alcoholic Pilsner beer, and dark beer) to marinate pork before roasting and observed that, compared with the control group (2 μg/kg), dark beer marinated significantly reduced BaP content in the barbecue (1.1 μg/kg). ...
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are aromatic compounds with two or more benzene rings composed of carbon and hydrogen, which are potential hazard substances produced by food thermal processing. However, the toxicological effects differ due to their varieties, causing many countries to have inconsistent standards. Also, the formation mechanism of PAHs in meat products is still controversial, and the detection methods and influencing factors are diverse, resulting in food control challenges. Therefore, this work reviewed PAHs in food, especially meat products from the perspectives of their classification, toxicological evaluation, formation mechanism, methods for extraction and detection, influencing factors, and control strategies. This paper provides some perspectives on the control of food PAHs in research and industrial production.
... The SPE columns used for purification include Florisil, EUPAH SPE (styrene-divinylbenzene polymer), n-propyl ethylenediamine (PSA), SDB (styrene-divinylbenzene copolymer), silica, aminopropyl, C 18 SPE columns, and others [8,9,11,[17][18][19][20][21]. Usually, the columns alone were used for PAHs purification after liquid solvent extraction, but there are also combinations using GPC and SPE clean-up for cleaning impurities before analysis of vegetable oil samples [22], or other clean-up combinations of PRS (propylsulphonic acid) SPE and silica cartridge for beef meat [23], C 18 and PSA for dry fermented sausage [24], animal-based smoked foods [25], salmon, shrimps and other samples [26]. According to the complexity of CMRMs compositions, it is necessary to establish a feasible method for purifying the PAHs in the samples. ...
The four polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon markers (PAH4) of benzo[a]anthracene (BaA), chrysene (Chr), benzo[b]fluoranthene (BbF), and benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) are indicators showing polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) contamination levels in Chinese medicine raw materials (CMRMs), extracts and health food products; Samples of herbal medicine, herbal extracts, and food supplements were extracted with n-hexane, then cleaned up sequentially on Florisil and EUPAH solid-phase extraction (SPE) columns. A gas chromatography–mass spectrometry method for the determination of four polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon markers in Chinese medicine raw material, extracts, and health food products was established; In spiked-recovery experiments, the average recovery was about 78.6–107.6% with a precision of 2.3–10.5%. The limit of quantification (LOQ) and limit of detection (LOD) of the PAH4 markers in this method were 2.0 μg/kg and 0.7 μg/kg, respectively. When the developed method was utilized to determine PAH4 contents in 12 locally available health food products, 3 samples contained over 10.0 μg/kg BaP, and 5 samples contained over 50.0 μg/kg PAH4. The European Union (EU) limits for BaP and PAH4 are 10 and 50.0 μg/kg, respectively; therefore, more attention must be drawn to the exposure risk of BaP and PAH4 in CMRMs, their extracts, and health food products. According to the risk assessment based on the Margin of Exposure (MOE) method, it is recognized that the products mentioned in this study pose a low risk.
... According to the studies on PAHs exposure, food is the main source of human exposure to PAHs. Food contaminated with PAHs generally arises from environmental contamination (including Polluted water and soil, agricultural burning and Post-harvest), food processing, contaminated packaging, and direct contact with non-food grade mineral oil (5)(6)(7)(8)(9)(10). ...
This research reports a validated multi-residue method based on gas chromatography coupled mass spectrometry technique for analysis of 24 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in traditional and semi-industrial Taftoon bread using QuEChERS sample preparation.
Matrix effect studies were performed by comparing the slopes of solvent based standard calibration curves and spiked calibration curves. Due to enhancement or suppression effects of matrix, validation of the method was performed using spiked calibration curves. In the concentration range of 10-500 ng/g, the calibration curves for each analyte was linear with a determination coefficient (R²) of 0.991-0.999. The Detection and quantitation limits for the studied PAHs were calculated 0.14-1.49 ng/g and 0.46-4.91 ng/g. The average recoveries for three spiked levels (25, 50 and 200 ng/g), were in the range 77-103% (n = 27), with a satisfactory precision (RSD < 20%).
Analysis of Taftoon bread samples using the validated method showed that three compounds; NPH, PHE and ANT were found in 37 (35.2%) samples and in the term of traditional and semi- industrial samples the occurrence of mentioned PAHs were 36.1% and 33.3%, respectively. According to the findings, we proposed that direct flame exposure in gas oven during baking of Taftoon bread could produce PAHs in bread samples.
... Results indicated that the addition of additives causes a decrease of naphthalene concentration in seekh and reshmi kebab (Janoszka, 2011). By comparing both the recipes, naphthalene concentration was significantly (p ≤ 0.05) lower in rabbit samples from recipe I. Results showed that marination effect is responsible for the lowest PAH generation (Alomirah et al., 2011;Farhadian et al., 2012). The meat of recipe I marinated with highly antioxidant spices and herbs including garlic, ginger, pepper, onion, turmeric, and the mustard powder was possessed low PAH levels (El-Badry, 2010). ...
Rabbit meat is a good source of protein as compared to beef and chicken. The processing of rabbit meat gives attractive texture with a strong flavor. Charcoal grilling is a well-known cooking method which results in the formation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Therefore, to determine the concentration of PAHs, rabbit meat samples were prepared with and without additives and analyzed for six PAHs (naphthalene, fluorene, phenanthrene, anthracene, fluoranthene, and pyrene) using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Naphthalene was dominant in all the samples and the highest naphthalene
concentration (2.61 μg/g) was found in the foreleg sample (without additives) due to the presence of higher fat molecules. PAHs concentration was found to be significantly (p ≤ 0.05) lower by the addition of antioxidants. Lowest naphthalene concentration was observed in the back sample of seekh kebab (0.77 μg/g) with 1 h marinating duration. The content of pyrene was only noticed in foreleg (0.01 μg/g) and hind leg (0.03 μg/g) samples from reshmi kebab. The content of fluorene was not observed in all the samples.
... Farhadian et al. [4] found that if the fat loss of meat products was prevented, the formation of PAHs was effectively reduced, and similar findings were published by Farhadian et al. [40]. According to Garcia-Lomillo et al. [5], ingredients like salt, phosphate, and starch incorporation in beef patties formulation reduced the cooking loss of samples and thus decreased the formation of mutagenic compounds. ...
The effects of wheat fiber (1 and 2%) and the mixture of xanthan and guar gums (0.5%; 4:1) incorporations in beef patties on the levels of formed polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and heterocyclic aromatic amines (HCAs) were evaluated. In this regard, the samples were stored at -18 °C during different storage times (days 0, 45, and 90) and then were grilled at 175 °C for 5 min. At day 0, a significant (P<0.05) difference in the formation of PAHs and HCAs among treated beef patties and control samples was noted. The formation of carcinogenic compounds at day 0 was reduced while fiber and gums together were added. The highest reduction in PAHs and HCAs levels among treatments was related to benzo [b] fluorantene (36-42%) and 2-amino-3-methyl-imidazo [4, 5-f] quinoline (60-74%), respectively. Also, the frozen storage of samples for 45 and 90 days significantly (P<0.05) caused an increase and decrease in the PAHs and in HCAs levels, respectively. Therefore, the incorporation the combination of wheat fiber (2%), xanthan and guar gums (0.5%) can be suggested as a promising strategy to reduce the levels of PAHs and HCAs in beef patties.
... Marinating can reduce the formation of some carcinogen compounds such as heterocyclic aromatic amines (HCA) which occur during the cooking process. Addition of compounds, having antioxidant properties during meat marinating was claimed to be an effective method to reduce HCA in foods [5]. Marinades can act as a barrier to avoid the direct contact of flame with the meat and substantial reductions in the concentrations of MeIQ, PhIP, Di-MeIQx, IQ, IQx, and Norharman were reported in grilled chicken, grilled beef, and deep fried lamb meat [6]. ...
... However, with the gas grill, the grilling flame was closer to the meat than with charcoal grills. Factors promoting the formation of PAHs in meat include meat fat content, method and duration of cooking, fuel type, proximity and direct contact with the heat source (Farhadian et al., 2012;Purcaro et al., 2013). Therefore, the equipments met in this study for chicken meat grilling are susceptible to promote PAHs formation in the grilled chicken meat. ...
Marinating is a traditional method of improving the quality of meat, but it has been modified in response to consumer demand for “clean label” products. The aim of this review is to present scientific literature on the natural ingredients contained in marinades, the parameters of the marinating process, and certain mechanisms that bring about changes in meat. A review was carried out of publications from 2000 to 2023 available in Web of Science on the natural ingredients of meat marinades: fruit and vegetables, seasonings, fermented dairy products, wine, and beer. The review showed that natural marinades improve the sensory quality of meat and its culinary properties; they also extend its shelf life. They affect the safety of meat products by limiting the oxidation of fats and proteins. They also reduce biogenic amines and the formation of heterocyclic aromatic amines (HAAs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). This is possible due to the presence of biologically active substances and competitive microflora from dairy products. However, some marinades, especially those that are acidic, cause a slightly acidic flavour and an unfavourable colour change. Natural compounds in the ingredients of marinades are accepted by consumers. There are no results in the literature on the impact of natural marinades on the nutritional value and health-promoting potential of meat products, so it can be assumed that this is a future direction for scientific research.
Chicken doner kebab is a meat product widely consumed worldwide and has a significant market share. However, this substance is very vulnerable to contamination with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), which may threaten human health. This study detected eight PAHs (BcFE, CPcdP, BaP, BaA, Chry, 5 MC, BghiP, and DahA) in doner samples, and a methodology for the evaluation of these contaminants by high-performance liquid chromatography was validated. In chicken doner samples made with various cooking techniques (gas, charcoal, or electric), variable fat concentrations (low-fat/ LF or high-fat/ HF), and varied doneness degrees, the presence of 16 PAHs and probability health concerns were studied (medium and well-done). According to the results, the most abundant PAH compound in chicken doner samples was benzo[a]anthracene (BaA), measured in the range of 54.50-158.70 μg/kg. BaP and PAH 4 concentrations varied between nd-5.92 and 54.50-145.90 μg/kg, respectively. The results revealed that especially high-fat doner samples were hazardous regarding PAH compounds diversity and concentrations. In addition, the estimated dietary exposure (EDI) of BaP was 0.9 to 3.00 ng/kg, and the EDI for PAH4 was 8.15 and 81.84 ng/kg. In all chicken doner kebabs, MOE was>10 000, indicating a common concern for the population. The MOEs were >10 000 in all chicken doner groups and all age groups (female and male), indicating a low concern for the Turkish population.
Boiling, roasting, baking and frying are all food preparation methods that can have a significant impact on food quality. Frying and baking are popular methods of preparing finger food in Ghana. It is common among Ghanaians to use the same batch of oil to fry food multiple times. In this study, the effect of multiple frying on the composition and concentration of PAHs in three commonly used cooking oils—soybean, mixed vegetable, and sunflower—was examined. PAH levels were measured in fresh (unused) as well as used oil samples. Bean cake, doughnuts, and plantain chips were fried alternately using the three types of oil, and PAH levels were quantified. Gas chromatography and mass spectrometry were used to determine the PAH content of the oils and finger foods. PAHs, mostly low-ring were found in the unused (fresh) oil. The total concentration of the PAHs in the fresh oil was 223 µg/kg. A total of 15 individual PAHs congeners were recorded in the oils after repeated fries. The sum concentrations of the 15 PAHs was 15612µg/kg. It was also discovered that the PAH composition differed depending on the type of oil, finger food, and number of frying cycles. The percentage increase for high molecular PAH (HM-PAH) in the second and third fry sessions was, on average, 22% and 40%, respectively. The PAHs levels recorded in the edible oils after repeated fries were above the recommended guideline limit. It is therefore recommended that repeated use of edible oil in frying should be avoided to protect public health.
Organic macromolecules form carcinogenic and toxic substances such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) under high temperature baking. Thus, this study investigated the effects and inhibition pathways of different curcumin concentrations (0.01, 0.05, 0.25, 0.3 mg/g) on seven PAHs in grilled chicken wings. The results demonstrated that curcumin concentrations displayed positive effects in inhibiting the formation of PAHs (16%-72%), increasing the total phenolic content (397.5-1934.4 mg/g) and free radical scavenging activity, and reducing TBARS values (31.15%-47.76%) and fatty acid content. Additionally, PCA and Pearson correlation analyses indicated that lipid oxidation (r = 0.42) and unsaturated fatty acids (r = 0.55) could promote the production of PAHs, while DPPH, ABTS and TPC could counteract their facilitation of PAHs. In conclusion, the addition of appropriate amounts of curcumin before grilling is a feasible strategy to reduce fat oxidation levels and the number of free radicals for the purpose of limiting PAHs content.
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and heterocyclic aromatic amines (HCAs) are carcinogenic compounds formed while beef patties are cooked. The current study aimed to evaluate the effects of wheat fiber (1% and 2%), and the mixture of xanthan and guar gums (0.5%) on the PAHs and HCAs formation in the grilled beef patties. According to results, the application of wheat fiber, xanthan and guar gums in the formulation of beef patties significantly decreased moisture, fat and protein content,
compared to the control. The pH values of treatments significantly increased compared to the control as a result of the application of wheat fiber and xanthan and guar gums. PAHs and HCAs levels in all treatments significantly decreased compared to the control. The highest reduction in these compounds was related to BkFA (42%) and IQ (74%). Generally speaking, the treatments consist of wheat fiber with xanthan and guar mixture selected as the best samples.
Polisiklik aromatik hidrokarbonlar (PAH) et ve et ürünlerinin yüksek sıcaklıklarda pişirilmesi sonucu oluşan mutajenik ve kanserojenik bileşikler olup, bu bileşiklere maruz kalmanın en yaygın yolu diyet alımıdır. Et ve et ürünlerinde yüksek miktarda oluşan bu PAH bileşiklerinin oluşumuna pişirme yöntemi, pişirme sıcaklığı, pişirme süresi, etin yağ içeriği gibi birçok faktör etkilidir. PAH bileşiklerinin oluşumu kaçınılmaz olmakla birlikte, oluşum mekanizmalarının bilinmesi oluşan PAH seviyelerinin azaltılması ve engellenmesi açısından önemlidir. Bu organik kirleticilerin sağlık üzerine olumsuz etkilerinin bulunması, gıdalarda bu bileşiklerin oluşumunun azaltılmasına veya engellenmesine dair stratejiler uygulanmasına neden olmaktadır. PAH oluşumunu azaltıcı yaklaşımlar ısıl işlem sıcaklığının ve süresinin mümkün olduğunca düşürülmesi, alternatif pişirme yöntemlerinin kullanımı, pişirme yöntemlerinin modifikasyonu, marinasyon uygulaması, et ve et ürünlerinin kimyasal kompozisyonundaki değişiklikler gibi önlemleri kapsamaktadır. Bu çalışmada et ve et ürünlerinde PAH oluşum mekanizmaları ve oluşum düzeyinin azaltılmasına dair stratejilerin detaylı olarak açıklanması amaçlanmıştır.
This study aimed to investigate the effect of ethanolic extracts from perilla leaves (PLE) on the quality attributes and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in charcoal-barbecued pork patties. The PLE addition and doneness had no significant effect on the pH of pork patties (p>0.05). Regardless of the concentration, the PLE significantly lower malondialdehyde concentrations and reduced the CIE L*, CIE a*, and CIE b* when compared to control. The addition of 0.2% of PLE did not adversely affect the organoleptic properties of doneness of medium and well-done pork patties. Addition of PLE at 0.4% to medium-cooked pork patties had stronger suppressing effect on the formation of light PAHs compare to control (p<0.05), also adding it to well-done pork patties had the lowest concentration of 4 PAHs and 8 PAHs, and a total of 16 PAHs (p<0.05). Therefore, PLE at 0.4% can be used for suppressing the formation of PAHs and lipid oxidation in well-cooked pork patty.
Coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.) is recognized for its antioxidant property, as a kind of natural phenolic-rich ingredient. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) present a class of heat-driven hazards in foods, especially the processed meat. In this study, the effect of coriander root and leaf extract on the formation and inhibition of PAH8 in roasted duck wings was firstly investigated. Coriander root extract (CRE) and coriander leaf extract (CLE) with five concentration groups (200, 400, 600, 800, 1000 mg/L) were prepared respectively to marinate the duck wings. CRE marinade exhibited greater inhibitory effect on PAH8 formation in roasted duck wings that ranged from 65.0 %–87.4 %. The electron spin resonance study indicated a significantly positive correlation between PAH8 and free radical level, suggesting the participation of radicals in PAHs formation. Also, it was speculated that the inhibitory effect on PAH8 was related to the phenolic compounds identified in coriander marinades. CRE made greater inhibitory effect on the formation of PAH8 and could be considered as a kind of natural source to mitigate PAHs in heat-processed meat products.
Benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) is a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) that has been found in barbecued meat products and has shown carcinogenic properties in humans. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of vinegar (fermented vinegars and distilled vinegar) on the generation of BaP in barbecued pork sausages. The results showed that fermented vinegars and distilled vinegar could significantly (P < 0.05) inhibit the formation of BaP (26.8%–82.3%) in barbecued pork sausages. Furthermore, fermented vinegar could enhance the sensory evaluation of barbecued pork sausages(tenderness, flavor, juiciness and overall acceptability). Additionally, an intermediate of the Maillard reaction (hydroxymethylfurfural) (0.14–2.34 mg/kg), which is possibly associated with BaP generation, was inhibited because of the decrease in pH. The fermented vinegars, which were rich in phenols (1787.09–3089.60 mg GRE/L) and flavonoid (622.54–2167.97 mg RE/L) compounds, inhibited the formation of BaP by scavenging reactive oxide species (1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazine (DPPH) radical (85.50–96.73%) and hydroxy free radical (34.56–66.30%) scavenging activities) in pork sausages. Therefore, the vinegars inhibited the content of BaP in barbecued pork sausages by decreasing the pH and scavenging free radicals. In addition, ten phenolic compounds in sun vinegar were confirmed to be critical in inhibiting the content of BaP in barbecued pork sausages. This study provides a more affordable and feasible strategy for the inhibition of BaP in meat processing.
Background: Amount of PAHs can be reduced by various methods, such as food additives. The effects of different flavors were investigated on the formation of carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic poly aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the shell and kernel of roasted sunflower seeds.
Methods: Samples were prepared in the shell and kernel of 10 types of sunflowers with flavors of lemon, golpar (hogweed), salt, ketchup and raw samples was performed with conventional solvent extraction by Soxhlet. Measuring and determining the amount of PAHs was analyzed by GC/MS.
Results: The PAHs of sunflower seeds were in the range of 0.4_3.2 ppm. The lowest amount was related to hogweed kernel and the highest amount was related to lemon shell.
Conclusion: Roasting process could result in contamination of sunflower seeds, especially the shell of seeds. Also, various flavors such as hogweed due to their antioxidant properties can affect the amount of PAHs. In addition, the excessive reduction of pH due to the oxidation of fats does not have a decreasing effect on the amount of PAHs. As a result, this amount was observed in lemon juice more than other flavors in shell.
Beef is an important red meat that contains essential nutrients for human growth and development. Baking is a popular beef cooking method. Temperature and time play key roles in the final quality of beef. How temperature and time affect the changes of nutrients and the formation of harmful products in beef is not clear. The purpose of this study was to measure the content of water, fat, protein, ash, nitrite, total volatile base nitrogen, advanced glycation end products (AGEs) and their precursors, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) at different temperatures (150, 190, 230, 270, and 310°C) for 20 min and at 190°C for different times (10, 20, and 30 min), so as to discuss the effect of different temperatures and times on beef nutrients and harmful products. The results showed that the moisture content of beef decreased with increased baking temperature and time, resulting in the increase of the relative content of fat, protein, and ash. The content of total volatile base nitrogen increased continuously. Compared with the control group, the content of glyoxal in beef decreased, whereas the content of methylglyoxal, pentosidine, and fluorescent AGEs increased, indicating the continuous accumulation of AGEs in beef. A total of 13 PAHs were identified by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The concentrations of 13 PAHs in beef increased with increases in baking temperature and time. The concentrations of BkP and BaP, which are the most carcinogenic to humans, were 0.36 and 0.35 μg/kg in raw meat, respectively; these were increased by high temperature and long baking times. After beef was baked at 270 and 310°C for 20 min, the concentration of BkP increased to 9.49 and 5.66 μg/kg, respectively, and the concentration of BaP increased to 5.45 and 4.42 μg/kg, respectively. After baking at 190°C for 30 and 40 min, the concentration of BkP increased to 4.81 and 24.20 μg/kg, respectively, and the concentration of BaP increased to 3.85 and 17.79 μg/kg, respectively.
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) widely exist in food, which potentially harm human health. This study compared the effect of apple polyphenol (AP) and three antioxidants – ascorbic acid, tert-butyl hydroquinone and butylated hydroxytoluene on barbecued pork. The inhibition pathway of PAHs in barbecued pork were investigated by measuring DPPH radical scavenging rate, peroxide value (POV), and thiobarbituric acid value (TBARs). The results indicated that AP and antioxidants showed positive effects in inhibiting of PAHs formation (20.03–37.36%), scavenging DPPH radical activity (48.56–64.37%), reducing POV value (45.08–64.89%), and TBARs value (13.74–32.72%). Based on strong correlation between the PAHs content and the POV (r = 0.844, p = 0.017) and TBARs values (r = 0.825, p = 0.022) analyzed by Pearson correlation, AP can be used to control the formation of PAHs. The inhibition effect of AP on PAHs showed concentration-dependent. OPLS-DA analysis revealed that 0.20% AP had the best inhibition on PAH in barbecued pork, and elasticity, cohesiveness, adhesion, chewiness, and recovery of barbecued pork were improved significantly.
The exposure of benzo [a]pyrene (BaP) in recent times is rather unavoidable than ever before. BaP emissions are sourced majorly from anthropogenic rather than natural provenance from wildfires and volcanic eruptions. A major under-looked source is via the consumption of foods that are deep-fried, grilled, and charcoal smoked foods (meats in particular). BaP being a component of poly aromatic hydrocarbons has been classified as a Group I carcinogenic agent, which has been shown to cause both systemic and localized effects in animal models as well as in humans; has been known to cause various forms of cancer, accelerate neurological disorders, invoke DNA and cellular damage due to the generation of reactive oxygen species and involve in multi-generational phenotypic and genotypic defects. BaP's short and accumulated exposure has been shown in disrupting the fertility of gamete cells. In this review, we have discussed an in-depth and capacious run-through of the various origins of BaP, its economic distribution, and its impact as well as toxicological effects on the environment and human health. It also deals with a mechanism as a single compound and its ability to synergize with other chemicals/materials, novel detection methods, and remediation approaches held in our environment.
In-package cold plasma (ICP) pretreatment is an emerging non-thermal food processing methods. In the current study, ICP on the formation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in grilled beef steaks with different oils and fats was evaluated, the influence of prolonged storage periods (1 d, 2 d) of raw meat after ICP pretreatment on the PAH inhibitory effect was investigated. The results showed that sunflower seed oil had an inhibitory effect on PAH formation; the groups with ICP pretreatment showed a significant decrease in PAH content (p < 0.05) according to the UHPLC results, inhibitory rates were dependent on the original contents in each group without ICP pretreatment, ranging from 35% to 96%. The optimal condition was grilling immediately after ICP pretreatment, and the results indicated that the nonpolar radical scavenging activity (RSA) of ungrilled meat was negatively correlated with PAH8 contents according the DPPH assay, while ICP pretreatment enhanced the RSAoil of raw meat.
Human exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) is known as a carcinogen risk factor. In this study, a gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) technique combined with the QuEChERS extraction method was developed for concurrent analysis of 10 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Iranian traditional Sangak bread samples. The method was validated by determining different parameters, including; linearity, accuracy, precision, limit of detection (LOD) and limit of quantitation (LOQ). Calibration curves showed a linear relationship in the concentration range of 10-500 ng/g with a coefficient of determination (R2) ranged between 0.994 and 0.999. The obtained mean recoveries were 92-106% with the relative standard deviations (RSDs) in the range of 3-7% with an acceptable precision (RSD < 20%). The Limit of detections (LODs) for different PAHs were between 0.14-0.78 ng/g, while the limit of quantitation (LOQ) was 0.46-2.60 ng/g. Matrix effect studies showed that the analytes concluded signal suppressions or enhancements. Therefore, spiked calibration curves were used for overcoming this issue. The result of Sangak bread samples analysis using the validated method showed that 9 (19.4%) out of 47 Sangak bread samples were contaminated with phenanthrene (PHE) and anthracene (ANT) at the mean level of 10.08 ± 6.38 ng/g which were higher than the permissible limit of European Commission regulatory control value for BaP (1 μg/kg of wet weight) in processed cereal-based foods and baby foods for infants and young children.
Charcoal-grilling is a popular cooking method but causes the formation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), which can be harmful to human health. Gochujang marinade is commonly used for flavoring meats during charcoal-grilling. However, the effects of this marinade on PAHs formation during charcoal-grilling are unclear. Here, we evaluated the effects of Gochujang marinade on the formation of 16 PAHs and inhibition rate of major PAHs (benzo[a]anthracene, benzo[b]fluoranthene, and benzo[a]pyrene) in charcoal-grilled pork belly. Pork belly without marinade (PBW) and marinated with Gochujang (PBG) were stored for 10 days at 9°C under vacuum conditions and then charcoal-grilled to different doneness (internal temperatures of 71°C and 81°C). Among 16 PAHs evaluated in this study, 14 PAHs were detected in charcoal-grilled pork belly, regardless of doneness. PAH formation in charcoal-grilled pork belly was higher at an internal temperature of 81°C than at 71°C (p<0.05). Initially, PBG showed reduced total PAH formation and lower percentages of three major PAHs compared with PBW. Storage increased the inhibitory effects of PBG on the 16 PAHs, and the maximum reduction in total 16 PAHs (63.06%) was observed with moderate cooking (71°C) on day 10 (p<0.05). Moreover, marinade and doneness showed a high interaction with regard to PAH contents in charcoal-grilled pork belly (p<0.05-p<0.0001). Therefore, our findings suggested that marinating pork belly with Gochujang and grilling at 71°C could reduce the formation of 16 PAHs in charcoal-grilled pork belly.
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are ubiquitous in the air, oils, water, and food products we encounter every day. Among these exposures, food consumption is a major route of PAH exposure for nonsmokers. The PAH dietary exposure levels vary among different countries; however, many studies have shown PAH exposure to be highly concerning to human health. The levels of PAH contamination in food are mainly influenced by processing procedures and cooking methods, and they could be attenuated by modifying cooking procedures and adding antioxidant‐rich marinades. Several PAHs have toxic, mutagenic, and carcinogenic properties. The PAH benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) is particularly regarded as carcinogenic. There are three major metabolism pathways for PAHs, and the final products can bind to DNA, thus exerting mutagenic effects. Biological monitoring through the use of biomarkers is necessary for comprehensive and accurate risk assessments of human PAH exposure. It is important to reduce dietary PAH exposure and to implement reasonable and effective risk management strategies to reduce PAH levels in food to improve public health.
The effects of fat content and charcoal types on the formation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and heterocyclic aromatic amines (HAAs) in various barbecued fish (trout, seabream, seabass, salmon, and shad) were investigated. Fish samples were also analyzed in terms of fat content and fatty acid profile. Total saturated fatty acids (∑SFA) contents reduced while the total polyunsaturated fatty acids (∑PUFA) contents increased after barbecuing. Both fat content and charcoal type had an effect on the amount of PAHs and HAAs. The amounts of ∑PAHs ranged between 6.95 to 99.03 ng/g in barbecued fish. Notably, the highest amount of ∑PAHs was found in shad as well. The amounts of ∑HAAs ranged from non‐detectable levels to 2.29 ng/g. The amounts of ∑PAHs and ∑HAAs were higher in samples barbecued with charcoal briquette compared to those barbecued with wood charcoal. Hence, we would suggest the use of wood charcoal in barbecuing.
This paper presents methods of reduction of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in grilled or smoked meat and fishery products. Using keywords such as “smoking”, “grilling”, “processing”, “roasting”, “barbecue”, “curing”, “reduction”, “decrease”, “polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon”, “benzo(a)pyrene”, “removal”, 1191 references were collected from databases. After sorting, only 37 appeared to be relevant to the topic of the review. These 37 papers were coded with one or two keywords representing methods of PAHs reduction using R-based Qualitative Data Analysis library. The results showed that PAHs reduction strategies can be applied either before (or during) grilling or smoking (barrier methods) or after grilling or smoking (removal methods). Before grilling or smoking, use of marinade, preheating of products, appropriate fuel (poor in lignin), filter, collection system of juice and fat (to avoid them dripping into embers) are the main strategies which can be applied. After grilling or smoking, the methods consist of washing the surface of smoked or grilled products with hot water (60 °C) or storing smoked products packed into low density or high density polyethylene. A flowchart regrouping methods which can be used individually or in combination for PAHs reduction in smoked meat and fishery products is suggested.
A reliable and efficient ultrasound assisted-liquid–liquid microextraction method-solidification of floating organic drop method (UA-LLME-SFOD) coupled with HPLC-UV was developed based on using low density organic solvents for extraction/determination of benzo(a)pyrene in exhaled breath condensate (EBC) as an alternative biological sample. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report on the analysis of a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon in EBC samples. The effect of different experimental parameters on the extraction efficiency of the analyte was investigated in detail and the optimal conditions were established. Under these conditions, the proposed method provided a good linearity in the range of 5–100 ng mL⁻¹, low limit of detection (0.48 ng mL⁻¹), and good repeatability with % RSD below 2.1%, n = 5. The developed method was successfully used to determine benzo(a)pyrene in the EBC samples of some cigarette smokers.
This work concerns the use of analytical procedures to determine polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) in heat-treated meat dishes prepa-red under household cooking conditions. These compounds have not yet been analysed in food in Poland. Application of tandem solid-phase extrac-tion (SPE) with columns filled with Extrelut diatomaceous earth and C 18 phase, and column chromatography on silica gel enabled selective isolation of PAH fractions from the meat sample matrix. Identification and quanti-tative analysis of the individual compounds were achieved by HPLC and GC–MS. Five PAH were identified and quantified in nine meat (beef, pork, and poultry) dishes prepared according to recipes used for cooking in Upper Silesia (roasted, fried) and in grilled dishes. The total PAH content was within the range 2.43–16.10 ng g −1 meat.
The contamination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons PAHs by thermally treated high-protein foods, such as charcoal-grilled meat products, is due to the generation by direct pyrolysis of food nutrients and the direct deposition of PAHs from smoke produced through incomplete combustion of the thermal agents. This study investigated the effects on the PAH (BaP, BbFln and Fln) contents by using two different types of treatments, preheating (steam and microwave) and wrapping (aluminium and banana leaf) of the meat samples prior to charcoal grilling. PAHs were extracted through tandem solid-phase extraction. The results showed that the applied preheating and wrapping treatments on the samples strongly affect the PAHs levels in the charcoal-grilled meat. No carcinogenic PAHs (BaP and BbFln) were detected in the samples after steam and microwave preheating or aluminium wrapping treatments. Significant reductions of Fln content, of up to 46% and 81% in beef and chicken samples, respectively, were observed in the study.
This review deals with the implications of meat and meat products for human health. It analyses the effect of the presence or absence of various factors: fat, fatty acid composition, cholesterol, calorific value, salt, nitrite or lipid oxidation products that can cause health problems. Bearing in mind these considerations, it then describes the strategies used in animal production, treatment of meat raw material and reformulation of meat products to obtain healthier meat and meat products. Functional ingredients are responsible for making functional foods work, and this review therefore discusses the scope of current meat technology to favour the presence of various active-food components, and provide an additional physiological benefit beyond that of meeting basic nutritional needs.
This study was performed to evaluate the antioxidative potential and quality of the breast meat of broiler chickens fed a dietary medicinal herb extract mix (MHEM, consisting of mulberry leaf, Japanese honeysuckle, and goldthread at a ratio of 48.5:48.5:3.0). A total of 480 one-day-old male Cobb broiler chicks were randomly allotted to 12 pens, with 40 birds per pen (replicate), and reared for 35 d. Dietary treatments consisted of a corn-soybean meal basal diet (control); a basal diet with 0.3% MHEM (T1); and a basal diet with 1% (T2) MHEM. At the end of the feeding trial, breast meat samples were excised and stored in a refrigerator at 4 degrees C to be analyzed at d 0, 3, and 7. The MHEM did not affect proximate composition of the breast meat. Total phenols content of the breast meats in the T1 and T2 diets was approximately 2 times greater than that of the control diet (P < 0.05). 1,1-Diphenyl-2-picrylhy-drazyl radical-scavenging activity and 2,2-azinobis-(3 ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) cation-reduction activity were greater in the T2 diet at d 0 and in the T1 diet at d 3 compared with the control diet (P < 0.05). 2-Thiobarbituric acid-reactive substance values in the T1 and T2 diets were lower than in the control diet at d 3 and 7 and did not increase during storage, whereas the value in the control diet increased significantly. The pH of the T1 diet was significantly greater than that of the control diet at d 0 and 3. In a sensory test, panelists preferred the T1 breast meat throughout the 7-d storage period. This research indicates that dietary MHEM could increase the antioxidative potential and overall preference of breast meat during cold storage.
In the food industry, the role of flavour and colour both desirable and undesirable, is key in the manufacture of products of consistent organoleptic quality. The generation of flavour and colour in a variety of processes, especially those utilizing heat, owes much to the Maillard reaction.
In this study the 13 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) identified as being genotoxic and carcinogenic by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) were determined in different brands of soybean oils available on the Brazilian market, totalling 42 samples. A solid-phase extraction (SPE) method for sample clean-up with a C18 cartridge, followed by reversed-phase HPLC with fluorescence detection, was used for determination. The method showed good recoveries for most PAHs studied with values between 74% and 111%. Good intra- and inter-day precisions (0.5 < RSD < 11.9) and high correlation coefficients (r (2 )> 0.999) were obtained. The presence of PAHs was detected in all 42 samples with mean summed PAH levels ranging from 10.4 to 112.0 µg kg(-1). The mean and maximum dietary exposures for total PAHs were estimated as 12.4 and 19.1 ng kg bw(-1 )day(-1), respectively.
Airborne particulate matter containing polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons derived from burning natural vegetation and paper products in a variety of ways was collected and analyzed by HPLC. Similar profiles of compounds resulted from most of the combustion sources that do not involve fossil fuels and that are likely to contribute to Sydney's atmospheric particulates. In addition, the profiles did not change markedly as a result of reactions occurring in the atmosphere or from reactions occurring on the filter after collection. Concentrations of benzo(a)pyrene and coronene were higher in the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons derived from bush fires than from other sources. Bush fires are likely to be a significant source of exposure of the Sydney population to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.
Some polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), particularly those with a high molecular weight, have been classified as probably carcinogens to humans by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). The significance of the determination of PAHs is reflected by the special attention of the European Union, which is paying to regulate the maximum allowed levels of PAHs in foodstuffs such as smoked foods. Like other thermally processed foodstuffs, toasted bread can contain these carcinogenic chemicals, not only due to a contamination at source but also during toasting. In order to check PAHs generated from toasting in sandwich bread, several treatment conditions were evaluated: direct toasting (flame-toasting, coal-grilling or gas oven-toasting) or indirect toasting (electric oven-toasting). PAHs were extracted by solid-liquid extraction (SLE) and determined by liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection (LC-FD). Based on the results, the used toasted technique would strongly affect in PAH levels in the final product. No samples obtained by electric oven and toaster were polluted; otherwise the samples toasted by charcoal and flame grilling presented very important levels. Up to 350μg/kg of total PAHs were detected in toasted samples by wood flame. Differences between different ways of toasting could be ascribed to deposition of PAHs from smoke. Finally, several commercial toasted samples of bread were tested to determine PAHs. Overall, the PAH levels were very low. Benzo[a]pyrene ranged from no detectable to 0.23μg/kg.
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The effects of various processing methods, steaming, roasting, smoking, charcoal grilling, and liquid smoke flavoring (LSF), on the formation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in duck breast steak were studied. The various PAHs in the duck samples were analyzed by gas chromatography with ion-trap detection. Results showed that with processing time from 0.5 to 1.5 h, charcoal grilling of duck samples with skin contained the highest amount of total PAHs, followed by charcoal grilling of duck samples without skin, smoking, roasting, steaming, and LSF. For carcinogenic PAHs, smoking contained the highest amount, followed by charcoal grilling and roasting. No carcinogenic PAHs were observed for steaming and LSF-treated duck samples. Also, the highest amounts of both total and carcinogenic PAHs were found after smoking duck samples for 3 h. Keywords: Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons; formation; processing; duck meat; GC−MS
ABSTRACT3,4-benzopyrene, found in smoked products, serves as an indicator of the possible presence of other polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) and has been used repeatedly as a quantitative index of chemical carcinogens in foods. The purpose of this study was to determine the presence of BP in charcoal grilled meats and to observe the influence of fat concentration on the accumulation of BP in charcoal cooked meats. TLC showed a distinct blue fluorescence both for samples with BP additions, and for grilled samples, except for turkey with no added fat; no fluorescent spots were observed for controls. BP standards, regardless of concentration, showed a major peak at a constant retention time. Meat extracts for which BP is reported and samples with added BP also gave characteristic peaks.
The gas-phase pyrolysis of proline, glucose, 1-[(2′-carboxy)pyrrolidinyl]-1-deoxy-d-fructose (the proline Amadori compound), and a 1:1 mixture by weight of proline and glucose was investigated at high temperatures (600–840 °C) and short residence time (i.e. 1.0 s) in an inert atmosphere to determine if glucose or Maillard reaction products enhance the formation of nitrogen containing polycyclic aromatic compounds (N-PACs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the pyrolysis of proline. To study the gas-phase formation of N-PACs and PAHs, the substrates were sublimed into the pyrolysis furnace at 460 °C. Thermogravimetric analysis showed that glucose, the proline/glucose mixture, and the proline Amadori compound undergo solid-state decomposition reactions before subliming. Thus, the substrates were pyrolyzed in two stages: at 460 °C during the sublimation and at 600–840 °C. At 800 °C with a residence time of 1.0 s, proline produced low yields of N-PACs, such as quinoline, isoquinoline, indole, acridine, and carbazole, and PAHs, such as phenanthrene, pyrene, benz[a]anthracene, benzofluoranthene isomers, and benzo[a]pyrene. Increasing the temperature and residence time increased the yield of these products. Under similar pyrolysis conditions, the proline Amadori compound produced 2–8 fold more N-PACs and PAHs than proline. A 1:1 mixture of proline and glucose produced a similar slate of pyrolysis products as the proline Amadori compound, but it is unclear whether the proline Amadori compound was an intermediate in the reaction. In general, the proline Amadori compound produced a higher yield of N-PACs and PAHs than the proline/glucose mixture, but glucose clearly enhances the low temperature gas-phase formation of N-PACs and PAHs from the pyrolysis of proline. For example, a 1:1 mixture of proline and glucose was found to produce low yields of quinoline, isoquinoline, and indole at 600 °C while proline alone does not produce these compounds until 800 °C. Thus, glucose provides a low temperature pathway for the decomposition of proline, which leads to formation of N-PACs and PAHs.
The formation of polycyclic-aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) from the pyrolysis of cellulose, pectin, and chlorogenic acid was studied. The primary product, mostly primary volatile tar, was exposed to a higher thermal severity, i.e. high temperatures and long residence times. The reactor setup consisted of a quartz tube with two zones, zone I and II, each heated and controlled separately. Zone I was used to first pyrolyze the substrate at 300°C to produce a low temperature tar (LTT) as well as to pyrolyze the product char at 600°C to produce a high temperature tar (HTT). The LTT and HTT were then subjected to a high thermal severity in the second zone (zone II) where the temperature was varied between 700 and 850°C. The residence time of the volatiles in zone II was varied between ca. 90 and 1400 ms (calculated at 800°C). The results showed that the yield of most PAHs increased with temperature, except in a few cases where the yield of two- and three-ring PAHs exhibited a maximum. PAHs yields also generally increased as the residence time was increased from 90 to 1400 ms at 800°C.
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are environmental carcinogenic compounds that may contaminate vegetable oils and their levels can be reduced by refining. In order to understand the influence of the refining steps, the content of 15 PAHs was assessed throughout alkaline refining in soybean, sunflower and olive oil samples. Eight commercial brands of these oils were also analysed. The analytical method involved a liquid–liquid extraction, a solid-phase clean up (C18 and Florisil) followed by RP-HPLC with fluorimetric detection. The total PAHs content in the studied samples can be considered generally low. The light PAHs (2–4 rings) were predominant. Virgin olive oils showed the highest values (max. 26 μg/kg). An evident decrease of PAHs contents during alkaline refining was observed (71%, 88% and 85% in sunflower, soybean and olive oils, respectively) being more pronounced in light PAHs. Neutralization and, particularly, deodorization were the more effective steps contributing to the PAHs decrease. Bleaching was responsible for a slight increase in the PAHs content in soybean and olive oils.
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are primarily formed as a result of thermal treatment of food, especially grilling or barbecuing. In this study nine types of Malaysian popular grilled meat dishes were analyzed for toxic PAHs, i.e. fluoranthene, benzo(b)fluoranthene and benzo(a)pyrene using HPLC-FD. The differences in PAH concentrations among (charcoal, gas and oven grilling) were found to be significant (p < 0.05), ranging from 3.51 to 106 ng/g. Fluoranthene was found in all samples; the highest concentration of total PAHs was 132 ng/g found in beef satay and the lowest was 3.51 ng/g in oven grilled chicken.
The occurrence of aflatoxins (AFs) in dried fruits and nuts available in Rabat-Salé area (Morocco) was surveyed in this study. One hundred samples of dried fruits and nuts, purchased from retail shops and local markets from January to October 2006, were analyzed for AFs content by immunoaffinity (IAC) clean-up with liquid chromatography and fluorescence detection. Results showed that the incidences of total aflatoxins (AFT) and aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) in peanut, dried raisins, dried figs, walnut, and pistachio were 5%, 20%, 30%, 30% and 45% and 5%, 20%, 5%, 30% and 45%, respectively. The highest contamination levels of AFB1 were found in one walnut sample (2500 μg/kg) and one pistachio sample (1430 μg/kg). 5%, 20% and 20% of samples of pistachio, walnut and dried raisins exceeded the maximum tolerable limit (2 μg/kg) set for AFB1 by EU regulations. While 15% of dried figs samples were above the maximum limit (4 μg/kg) set by EU regulations for AFT. The present paper is the first report on the natural occurrence of AFs in dried fruits and nuts available in Rabat-Salé area in Morocco.
Isomeric polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) with two to six rings in coal-derived products and in a carbon black were separated, identified, and quantified by using capillary column gas chromatography and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. A newly synthesized smectic liquid-crystalline polysiloxane and a conventional polymethylsiloxane were utilized as stationary phases. Many previously difficult to separate isomeric PAH (i.e., methylphenanthrenes/methylanthracenes, triphenylene/chrysene, methylchrysenes, benzofluoranthenes, and pentaphene/benzo(b)chrysene) were identified). The relative abundances of the PAH in these samples were compared and correlated to the reaction conditions during their production. The relationship between abundance and structure for the identified PAH was also discussed. 26 references, 5 figures, 1 table.
A rapid extraction method involving microwave assisted extraction (MAE), followed by sample clean-up on a silica cartridge, reversed-phase high performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC) and spectrofluorimetric detection, was optimised for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) determination in smoked meat. Compared to solvent extraction assisted by sonication, MAE, carried out with n-hexane on 2g of lyophilised sample at 115°C for 15min, allowed to obtain better extraction efficiencies. Limits of quantification (LOQ, s/n=10) lower than 0.2μg/kg wet weight were found for all PAHs, except for Fl (0.3μg/kg), P (0.6μg/kg) and IP (0.4μg/kg). The optimised procedure, that presented good analytical performances (with recoveries ranging from 77% to 103%, and precision within 10% for most of the PAHs), was applied to determine PAH content in different smoked meat products from the Italian market.
The still-marinating process is a simplified technology used to tenderize and to improve the flavor and succulence of meat to satisfy consumer demand. The objective of this study was to obtain still-marinated chicken breast meat and legs of good quality. To attain this aim, the effects of salt concentration, polyphosphates concentration and marinating time were optimized to increase weight gain, reduce loss of weight during storage and reduce cooking loss, making use of the surface response methodology. The results of this study indicate that marinating times ranging from 8-12 hours, salt concentrations ranging from 3-4% and polyphosphates concentration ranging from 2-3% are recommended for the still-marinating process of chicken breast meat. In additon, marinating times ranging from 4-8 hours, salt concentration ranging from 3-4% and polyphosphates concentration of about 2% can be suggested for the still-marinating process of chicken legs. ©
Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons are common contaminants of processed food, usually at trace levels. These hydrocarbons are products of combustion and pyrolysis, and are present in petroleum and coal, and in products derived from them. Most polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons are not carcinogenic, but some of them are, and a few are potent inducers of skin and lung tumors in mice. Their carcinogenic properties have not been fully explored, but they seem to be less potent by ingestion or inhalation, and they are known as a group to produce cancer in humans. The most effective carcinogens among them are those with 5 or 6 fused rings, and these tend to be less prevalent in mixtures than the 3- and 4-ring hydrocarbons, most of which are not carcinogenic. Sophisticated analytical methods, using solvent extraction and chromatography have been developed to detect and measure polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons at levels of 1 in 10(9) (1 part per billion) or less, and these have been applied to the measurement of individual compounds in foods, as well as in products of combustion and pyrolysis. Wood smoke and smoked foods contain the carcinogenic benzo[a]pyrene at levels of 1 ppb, and other hydrocarbons; liquid smoke has lower levels. Crude vegetable oils have higher concentrations, but purified 'deodorized' oils have benzo[a]pyrene levels near 1 ppb. Sausages cooked over burning logs had as much as 200 ppb benzo[a]pyrene. Charcoal-broiled steaks and ground meat had benzo[a]pyrene concentrations up to 50 micrograms/kg, while less fatty pork and chicken had lower concentrations (up to 10 micrograms/kg). It was probable that the rendered fat dripped on to the hot charcoal and pyrolyzed to form quantities of polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons, which rose with the smoke to deposit on the meat. Therefore, oven cooking or cooking with a heat source above the meat, or segregation of the meat from the smoke resulted in food containing negligible amounts of polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons. Modifications of cookings practices accordingly would greatly reduce exposure to this group of carcinogens.
The effect of variation in methods of cooking meat on the content of benzo[a]pyrene and other polynuclear hydrocarbons in the cooked food has been studied. A benzo[a]pyrene content as high as 50 μg/kg was found in one instance. The hydrocarbons seemed to arise from pyrolysis of fat, the amount produced increasing with increased fat content, longer exposure of the food to the flames and closeness to the heat source. None of the higher hydrocarbons, including benzo[a]pyrene, was produced when the heat source was above the food or when the dripping of the melted fat onto the heat source was prevented. The results suggested measures which could be taken to reduce or eliminate contamination of food by these hydrocarbons.
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), of which benzo[a]pyrene is the most commonly studied and measured, are formed by the incomplete combustion of organic matter. They are widely distributed in the environment and human exposure to them is unavoidable. A number of them, such as benzo[a]pyrene, are carcinogenic and mutagenic, and they are widely believed to make a substantial contribution to the overall burden of cancer in humans. Their presence in the environment is reflected in their presence at detectable levels in many types of uncooked food. In addition, cooking processes can generate PAHs in food. PAHs can also be formed during the curing and processing of raw food prior to cooking. Several studies have been carried out to determine the levels of exposure to PAHs from representative human diets, and the proportion of the overall burden of environmental exposure to PAHs that is attributable to the diet. In most cases, it is concluded that diet is the major source of human exposure to PAHs. The major dietary sources of PAHs are cereals and vegetables, rather than meat, except where there is high consumption of meat cooked over an open flame. More recently, biomonitoring procedures have been developed to assess human exposure to PAHs and these have also indicated that diet is a major source of exposure. Exposure to nitro-PAHs through food consumption appears to be very low.
Heterocyclic amines (HAAs) and polycyclic hydrocarbons are suspected colorectal cancer (CRC) carcinogens that are found in well-done meat. They require metabolic activation by phase I enzymes, such as the smoking-inducible CYP1A isoenzymes. N-acetyltransferase 2 (NAT2) also play a role in the further activation of HAAs. We conducted a population-based case-control study in Hawaii to test the associations of preference for well-done red meat and HAA intake with colon and rectal cancers, as well as the modifying effects of NAT2 and CYP1A2. We interviewed 727 Japanese, Caucasian or Native Hawaiian cases and 727 controls matched on sex, age, and ethnicity. HAA intake was estimated based on consumption of meat and fish for each of several cooking methods and doneness levels. A subgroup of 349 cases and 467 controls was phenotyped for CYP1A2 by a caffeine test. We found that preference for well-done red meat was associated with a 8.8-fold increased risk of CRC (95% CI: 1.7-44.9) among ever-smokers with the NAT2 and CYP1A2 rapid phenotypes, compared to ever-smokers with low NAT2 and CYP1A2 activities and who preferred their red meat rare or medium. A dose-dependent association was also found between the HAA intake estimates and male rectal cancer, with a two- to three-fold increase in risk from the low (T(1)) to high (T(3)) tertile of intake for each HAA. This association was strongest for MeIQx. HAA intake was not associated with male colon cancer or colon or rectal cancer in women. These data provide support to the hypothesis that exposure to pyrolysis products through consumption of well-done meat increases the risk of CRC, particularly in individuals who smoke and are genetically susceptible (as determined by a rapid phenotype for both NAT2 and CYP1A2). An attempt to examine the risk associated with specific HAAs suggested that the main HAAs increase risk of rectal cancer in men and that they do not appreciably affect risk of rectal cancer in women or of colon cancer in either sex.
The possible production of carcinogenic polynuclear hydrocarbons in the charcoal broiling of food has been investigated. Fifteen
steaks were cooked and the polynuclear compounds were extracted, separated by chromatography, and identified spectrometrically.
Many polynuclear hydrocarbons were identified, but no nitrogen heterocyclic compounds were detected. The carcinogen benzo(a)pyrene
was present in the average amount of 8 micrograms per kilogram of steak.
The formation of condensed ring polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) from the pyrolysis of ground tobacco in helium over the temperature range of 350-600 degrees C was investigated. PAH yields in the ng/g range were detected and the maximum yields of all PAHs studied including benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]P) and benzo[a]anthracene (B[a]A) occurred between 500 and 550 degrees C. The pathway to PAH formation in the 350-600 degrees C temperature range is believed to proceed via a carbonization process where the residual solid (char) undergoes a chemical transformation and rearrangement to give a more condensed polycyclic aromatic structure that upon further heating evolves PAH moieties. Extraction of tobacco with water led to a two fold increase in the yields of most PAHs studied. The extraction process removed low temperature non-PAH-forming components, such as alkaloids, organic acids and inorganic salts, and concentrated instead (on a per unit weight basis) tobacco components such as cell wall bio-polymers and lipids. Hexane extraction of the tobacco removed lipophilic components, previously identified as the main source of PAH precursors, but no change in PAH yields was observed from the hexane-extracted tobacco. Tobacco cell wall components such as cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin are identified as major low temperature PAH precursors. A link between the formation of a low temperature char that evolves PAHs upon heating is established and the observed ng/g yields of PAHs from tobacco highlights a low temperature solid phase formation mechanism that may be operable in a burning cigarette.
Effects of the application of oil marinades with garlic, onion, and lemon juice on the formation of heterocyclic aromatic amines (HAAs) in fried beef patties were investigated. Two different statistical design models were used. In the screening experiment, a significant inhibition of formation of MeIQx was determined only by addition of garlic (p < 0.05). When the amount of garlic was changed from 2 to 20 g/100 g of marinade, the estimated MeIQx content in patties was reduced about 70%. MeIQx (0.38-1.22 ng/g), 4,8-DiMeIQx (n.d.-0.45 ng/g), PhIP (n.d.-0.09 ng/g), norharman (0.76-13.5 ng/g), and harman (2.9-21.5 ng/g) were found in fried patties. The results of two-level and three-level fractional factorial design experiments confirmed the first investigation. They showed a stronger reduction in MeIQx in patties with the addition of increasing amounts of garlic (p < 0.01) and onion (p < 0.05) in marinades. A higher content of lemon juice in marinades led to only a marginal reduction in MeIQx (p > 0.05). The optimum amounts of onion, garlic, and lemon juice that achieved a maximum reduction of HAAs were calculated as 31.2%, 28.6%, and 14.6% in marinade.
The beneficial effects of red, yellow and white onion extracts have been assessed by antioxidant activity and antimutagenic activity. And the effects compared to BHT and ascorbic acid. Total phenolic compounds and flavonoids in onion extracts were determined. Yellow onion extract had more organic acid and free sugar than those detected in the white and red onion extract. The scavenging activity of DPPH radical and H(2)O(2) were increased depending on the concentration. The antioxidant activities using beta-carotene-linoleate system and reducing power were increased but the effect was small to that of BHT and ascorbic acid. After digested, extracts showed antimutagenic activities, and it seems that they inhibit the mutagenicity for digesting. This study demonstrated that the antimutagenicities and antioxidant properties of ethyl acetate extract against mutagens were related to their phenols and flavonoids, which are heat stable and losses digestive juices are relatively low.
Antimutagenic, antioxidant and free radical scavenging activity of ethyl acetate extracts from white, yellow and red onions PAHs content in sunflower, soybean and virgin olive oils: evaluation in commercial samples and during refining process
- M Y Shon
- S D Choi
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Shon, M. Y., Choi, S. D., Kahng, G. G., Nam, S. H., & Sung, N. J. (2004). Antimutagenic, antioxidant and free radical scavenging activity of ethyl acetate extracts from white, yellow and red onions. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 42, 659e666. Teixeira, V. H., Casal, S., & Oliveira, M. B. P. P. (2007). PAHs content in sunflower, soybean and virgin olive oils: evaluation in commercial samples and during refining process. Food Chemistry, 104, 106e112.
Effect of oil marinades with garlic, onion, and lemon juice on the formation of heterocyclic aromatic amines in fried beef patties Monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risk to humans. Some non-heterocyclic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and some related exposures
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Gibis, M. (2007). Effect of oil marinades with garlic, onion, and lemon juice on the formation of heterocyclic aromatic amines in fried beef patties. Journal of Agriculture and Food Chemistry, 55(25), 10240e10247. International Agency Research for Cancer (IARC). (2010). Monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risk to humans. Some non-heterocyclic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and some related exposures, Vol. 92. Lyon, France: IARC, 36e37.
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the diet Optimization of microwave assisted-pure extraction (MAE) for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) determination in smoked meat Effects of toasting procedures on the levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in toasted bread
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The Maillard reaction, chemistry, biochemistry and implications (pp. 151e152) The University of Reading. Reading, UK: The Loyal Society of Chemistry Thermally generated flavors
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Nursten, H. (2005). The Maillard reaction, chemistry, biochemistry and implications (pp. 151e152). The University of Reading. Reading, UK: The Loyal Society of Chemistry. Parliament, T. H., Morello, M. J., & McGorrin, R. J. (1994). Thermally generated flavors:
The Maillard reaction in food and medicine. University of Reading. UK: The Royal Society of Chemistry. aromatic hydrocarbons in grilled meat
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Brien, J. O., Nursten, H. E., Crabbl, M. J. C., & Ames, J. M. (1998). The Maillard reaction in food and medicine. University of Reading. UK: The Royal Society of Chemistry. aromatic hydrocarbons in grilled meat. Food Control, 21, 606e610.
Optimization of the still-marinating process of chicken parts The formation and occurrence of polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons associated with food Production of carcinogenic polynuclear. Hydrocarbons in the cooking of food Benzo(a)pyrene and other polynuclear hydrocarbons in charcoal-broiled
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Anti-oxidative potential of raw breast meat from broiler chicks fed a dietary medicinal herb extract mix Organic compounds formed in thermally treated high-protein food, part 1: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons Healthier meat and meat products: their role as functional foods
- A Jang
- X D Liu
- M H Shin
- B D Lee
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- J H Lee
Jang, A., Liu, X. D., Shin, M. H., Lee, B. D., Lee, S. K., Lee, J. H., et al. (2008). Anti-oxidative potential of raw breast meat from broiler chicks fed a dietary medicinal herb extract mix. Poultry Science, 87, 2382e2389. Janoszka, B., Warzecha, L., Blasz czyk, U., & Bodzek, D. (2004). Organic compounds formed in thermally treated high-protein food, part 1: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Acta Chromatographica, 14. Jiménez-Colmenero, F., Carballo, J., & Cofrades, S. (2001). Healthier meat and meat products: their role as functional foods. Meat Science, 59, 5e13.