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Mass mortality of the sea urchin Diadema mexicanum in La Entrega at Bahias de Huatulco, Western Mexico

Authors:
Francisco Benitez Villalobos at Universidad del Mar
Francisco Benitez Villalobos
Julia Patricia Díaz-Martínez at Universidad del Mar
Julia Patricia Díaz-Martínez
Maritza Martinez at Instituto Nacional de Pesca Mexico
Maritza Martinez
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Abstract and Figures

The sea urchin species Diadema mexicanum is a common inhabitant of the Bahias de Huatulco, an important reef area on the Pacific coast of Mexico (Reyes-Bonilla 2003). Until May 2009 the density of the sea urchins remained relatively constant through time since monitoring began in the 1990s, the highest being found at La Entrega (4–7 ind. m–2) (Benitez-Villalobos et al. 2008) where up to 100 aggregated individuals were observed. During the last monitoring (13 May 2009), ten 10 m · 2 m belt transects were laid over the reef (4–12 m deep), and numbers of sea urchins were recorded. Not a single individual was observed in the entire reef area (around 320 · 230 m) and surrounding rocky bottom. However, there were a high number of loose spines and hundreds of bare tests scattered over the reef, there was evidence of a mass mortality event in the sea urchin population. Observations during further monitoring suggested disease as the cause; individuals of Diadema mexicanum possessing spines with mucous attached, showing injuries around the peristomial area and ‘‘bald’’ areas on the test were recorded in other reef communities as far as 80 km away. The observed signs are similar to those described by Bak et al. (1984) during the mass mortality event of D.antillarum that occurred in the 1980s throughout the geographical range of this species in the western Atlantic (Lessios et al. 1984).
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Mass mortality of the sea urchin Diadema mexicanum
in La Entrega at Bahias de Huatulco, Western Mexico
Received: 10 June 2009 / Accepted: 4 August 2009 / Published online: 19 August 2009
Springer-Verlag 2009
The sea urchin species Diadema mexicanum is a com-
mon inhabitant of the Bahias de Huatulco, an important
reef area on the Pacific coast of Mexico (Reyes-Bonilla
2003). Until May 2009 the density of the sea urchins
remained relatively constant through time since moni-
toring began in the 1990s, the highest being found at La
Entrega (4–7 ind. m
–2
) (Benitez-Villalobos et al. 2008)
where up to 100 aggregated individuals were observed
(Fig. 1a). During the last monitoring (13 May 2009),
ten 10 m · 2 m belt transects were laid over the reef
(4–12 m deep), and numbers of sea urchins were
recorded. Not a single individual was observed in the
entire reef area (around 320 · 230 m) and surrounding
rocky bottom. However, there were a high number of
loose spines and hundreds of bare tests scattered over
the reef (Fig. 1b), there was evidence of a mass mor-
tality event in the sea urchin population. Observations
during further monitoring suggested disease as the
cause; individuals of Diadema mexicanum possessing
spines with mucous attached, showing injuries around
the peristomial area and ‘‘bald’’ areas on the test were
recorded in other reef communities as far as 80 km
away. The observed signs are similar to those described
by Bak et al. (1984) during the mass mortality event of
D.antillarum that occurred in the 1980s throughout the
geographical range of this species in the western
Atlantic (Lessios et al. 1984).
References
Bak RPM, Carpay MJE, Van Steveninck R (1984)
Densities of the sea urchin Diadema antillarum
before and after mass mortalities on the coral reefs
of Curacao. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 17:105–108
Benı
´
tez–Villalobos F, Domı
´
nguez y Go
´
mez MT, Lo
´
pez–
Pe
´
rez RA (2008) Changes in population densities of
Diadema mexicanum at Bahias de Huatulco,
Western Mexico. Rev Biol Trop 56:255–263
Lessios HA, Robertson DR, Cubit JD (1984) Spread of Diadema mass mortality through the Caribbean. Science 226:335–337
Reyes-Bonilla H (2003) Coral reefs of the Pacific coast of Mexico. In: Corte
´
s J (ed) Latin American Coral Reefs. Elsevier,
Amsterdam, pp 387–418
F. Benı
´
tez-Villalobos (&) J. P. Dı
´
az Martı
´
nez M. Martı
´
nez-Garcı
´
a
Instituto de Recursos, Universidad del Mar, Carretera a Zipolite Km 1.5, Puerto A
´
ngel, Oaxaca, Mexico
e-mail: fbv@angel.umar.mx
Fig. 1 Underwater pictures showing (a) an aggregation of Diadema mexicanum
in La Entrega and (b) loose spines and bare tests after the mass mortality event at
the same site
123
Coral Reefs (2009) 28:1017
DOI 10.1007/s00338-009-0541-5
Reef sites
... Nonetheless, Huatulco populations were reduced during the 2009-2010 and 2023 El Niño events (average density: non-bleaching = 0.03 ind·m 2 vs. bleaching = 0.01 ind·m 2 ) [16]. The population reduction during the 2009-2010 El Niño was likely due to the combination of warming events and the previous mass mortality caused by a pathogen [16,41]. This mass mortality event resulted in many loose spines and hundreds of bare tests scattered throughout the Huatulco reefs [41]. ...
... The population reduction during the 2009-2010 El Niño was likely due to the combination of warming events and the previous mass mortality caused by a pathogen [16,41]. This mass mortality event resulted in many loose spines and hundreds of bare tests scattered throughout the Huatulco reefs [41]. In contrast, only a few were observed during the 2023 El Niño. ...
Widespread Coral Bleaching and Mass Mortality of Reef-Building Corals in Southern Mexican Pacific Reefs Due to 2023 El Niño Warming
Article
Full-text available
  • Apr 2024
In May 2023, oceanic and atmospheric anomalies indicated El Niño conditions in the eastern Pacific, followed by coral bleaching in coral communities and reefs of Huatulco. We conducted surveys and sampled coral reef communities from late June to mid–August of 2023 to evaluate the intensity and extent of the changes associated with the warming event. From January of 2023, Huatulco experienced positive sea surface temperature (SST) anomalies; however, beginning in June, the high-temperature anomalies became extreme (>31 °C; ~2 °C above historical records). These high temperatures resulted in extensive coral bleaching in middle–late June and mortality from middle–late July (>50–93%). In addition, the area experienced significant reductions in echinoderm abundance and fish biomass. In 2023, severe bleaching affected coral systems in the Central Mexican Pacific, Gulf of Mexico, and Mexican Caribbean, making this the most devastating marine heatwave event, simultaneously impacting coral reefs across Mexico’s Pacific and Atlantic coasts.
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... Following this MME, D. africanum populations were reduced by 65%, and during a subsequent MME in 2018, the local population collapsed by 93% in the Canary Islands [27] promoting a stable shift toward a macroalgae-dominated system [28]. Also in 2009, and in contrast to the earlier extensive D. antillarum MME in the Caribbean [29], localized mortalities of Diadema mexicanum were reported from the eastern Pacific, and attributed to pathogenic infection [30]. However, the latter mortality was limited to a single reef in Mexico and thus could not be viewed as mass mortality. ...
... Bottom left: global scale view of Diadema mass mortalities: western Atlantic Ocean (blue), eastern Atlantic Ocean (yellow) and Mediterranean Sea (red). Black cross indicates the location of localized D. mexicanum mortality[30]. AOF, Almeria-Oran Front; SC, Sicily Channel; ADR, Otranto Channel; AEG, southern Aegean boundary. ...
Mass mortality of the invasive alien echinoid Diadema setosum (Echinoidea: Diadematidae) in the Mediterranean Sea
Article
Full-text available
  • May 2023
The sea urchin Diadema setosum is an ecological key species across its range, particularly on coral reefs. In 2006 D. setosum was first observed in the Mediterranean Sea, and since, it has proliferated to occupy the entire Levantine Basin. Here we report the mass mortality of the invasive D. setosum in the Mediterranean Sea. This is the first report of D. setosum mass mortality. The mortality spans over 1000 km along the Levantine coast of Greece and Turkey. The current mortality shows similar pathologies to previously reported Diadema mass mortality events, suggesting pathogenic infection as the cause of mortalities. Maritime transport, local currents, and fish predation of infected individuals may distribute pathogens at varying geographical scales. Due to the proximity of the Levantine Basin to the Red Sea, the risk of pathogen transport to the native Red Sea D. setosum population is imminent—with potentially catastrophic consequences.
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... The last cited event was the greatest marine animal mass mortality event recorded (Lessios, 1988b(Lessios, , 1995 resulting in 93% decline in population abundance involving the entire Caribbean area (Lessios, 1988b). In 2009, similar symptoms of disease were observed in D. mexicanum, causing a localized mass mortality along the Pacific coast of Mexico (Benítez-Villalobos et al., 2009). In the same year, D. africanum began to die-off around the southeast coast of Madeira Island, and the disease spread across several islands of Macaronesia (comprised by the island systems of Azores, Madeira, Canaries and Cabo Verde), causing massive mortality in D. africanum populations of Madeira and Canary Islands (Clemente et al., 2014). ...
... last accessed date was August 01, 2019). During this event, anomalous accumulations of moribund sea urchins and dead individuals were reported along the coasts of the Madeira islands showing disease symptoms similar to those previously reported during other mass mortality events in the eastern Atlantic and other areas of the world (Clemente et al., 2014;Benítez-Villalobos et al., 2009;Scheibling and Stephenson, 1984;Gilles and Pearse, 1986;Roberts-Regan et al., 1988;Girard et al., 2012). In Madeira, the 2018 disease outbreak resulted in a major drop of the population density with a mean decrease of ~90% from pre-mortality values (Fig. 3b). ...
Before and after a disease outbreak: Tracking a keystone species recovery from a mass mortality event
Article
  • Feb 2020
  • MAR ENVIRON RES
Mass mortality events involving marine taxa are increasing worldwide. The long-spined sea urchin Diadema africanum is considered a keystone herbivore species in the northeastern Atlantic due to its control over the abundance and distribution of algae. After a first registered mass mortality in 2009, another event off the coasts of Madeira archipelago affected this ecologically important species in summer 2018. This study documented the 2018 D. africanum mass mortality event, and the progress of its populations on the southern coast of Madeira island. A citizen science survey was designed targeting “marine stakeholders” to understand the extent and general impact of the event around the archipelago. Underwater surveys on population density prior, during and after the mass mortality, permitted an evaluation of the severity and magnitude of the event as well as urchin population recovery. A preliminary assessment of causative agents of the mortality was performed. The event was reported in all the principal islands of the archipelago reducing the populations up to 90%. However, a fast recovery was registered during the following months, suggesting that the reproductive success was not compromised. Microbiologic analyses in symptomatic and asymptomatic individuals, during and after the event, was not conclusive. Nevertheless, the presence of the bacteria Aeromonas salmonicida in all samples analysed, suggested this agent as responsible for the disease outbreak. Further studies are needed to assess the role of pathogens in sea urchin mass mortalities and the compound effects that sea urchins have in local habitats and ecological functioning of coastal marine ecosystems.
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... Furthermore, two other species of the same genus, Diadema africanum (Rodríguez, Hernández, Clemente and Coppard 2013) and Diadema mexicanum (A. Agassiz, 1863) were faced to MME (Clemente et al. 2014;Benítez-Villalobos, Díaz Martínez, and Martínez-García 2009). According to previous studies, bacteria, parasites, and fungi were presented as the (Bronstein, Georgopoulou, and Kroh 2017;Vafidis et al. 2021;Öndes et al. 2022;Zirler et al. 2023), and these studies did not include coordinate details for each sites thus the sensitivity of the dots is relatively low. ...
Mass Mortality of the Invasive Sea Urchin Diadema setosum in Türkiye, Eastern Mediterranean Possibly Reveals Vibrio Bacteria Infection
Article
  • Sep 2024
The invasive Diadema setosum (Leske, 1778) long‐spined sea urchin has been in the Mediterranean Sea since 2006, and then, it has been known that its population density has reached high values on the southern Aegean coasts of Türkiye. This study aimed to report the mass mortality event of D. setosum with the determined agent on the Aegean coast of Türkiye. In addition, it was targeted to provide information on the current status of its density based on seasonal SCUBA diving observations for the period between January 2023 and November 2023. The results showed that the mass mortality of D. setosum was determined in Muğla, Aegean Sea, in August 2023. Spine loss, the mucoid layer at the bottom of the appendages, and the outer body surface were observed as the clinical symptoms of the diseased samples. Bacterial growth was detected on Vibrio‐selected TCBS agar plates, while no other parasitic agents were determined in the coelomic fluid of sea urchins. The results of the biochemical (API 20E) and molecular tests confirmed the isolated bacteria as Vibrio spp. The density of D. setosum showed statistically significant temporal changes, and the highest and lowest mean density values were recorded in autumn and spring, respectively. Environmental stressors, such as increasing sea temperature levels, affect the marine ecosystem and lead to opportunistic pathogens. Long‐term monitoring of disease outbreaks is necessary to understand the interactions between species and the ecosystem.
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... The cause of death was identified as Vibrio alginolyticus in the study. A similar mass mortality event also occurred on the Pacific coast of Mexico, affecting Diadema mexicanum, which is one of the endemic species of this region (Benítez-Villalobos et al. 2009). ...
The last observation of the long-spined exotic Sea Urchin (Diadema setosum) in the Gulf of Antalya
Article
  • Dec 2023
Diadema setosum, a Red Sea migrant, was first identified on the shores of the Kaş Peninsula in the Mediterranean. Approximately a year after this observation, the same species was reported for the second time from Konyaaltı Beach in Antalya Bay. This sea urchin rapidly multiplied and expanded its distribution along the coasts of the Mediterranean and Aegean Seas, reaching as far as the Marmara Sea. Some individuals of this sea urchin, which expanded distribution to coastal areas posing a risk to swimmers, were observed to start dying in the summer months of 2022. Scuba diving surveys were conducted in five different areas with rocky and stony seabed structures in the Gulf of Antalya during the winter season (Cliffs, Konyaaltı Beach, Sıçan Island surroundings, Çaltıcak region, and Kemer Ağva Cape), and it was determined that 99% of the D. setosum population had died in February and March. No living individuals were encountered during scuba diving surveys conducted in the same stations in April and May. In conclusion; mass mortalities have occurred in the D. setosum population in the rocky areas of the Gulf of Antalya, including the cliffs, Konyaaltı beach, Sıçan island surroundings, Caltıcak region, and Kemer Ağva Cape. This study presents the first report on matter.Keywords: Diadema setosum; Gulf of Antalya; Sea urchin.
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... After 2017 there was an abrupt decline in the abundance of D. mexicanum and C. coronatus. Other Diadema species have been detrimentally affected by ENSO events: Diadema antillarum in 1980-81, D. mexicanum in 2009, and D. africanum in 2018(Benítez-Villalobos et al., 2009Ruiz-Ramos et al., 2011;Gizzi et al., 2020). Whether the temperature changes directly lead to these die-offs or compromise the ability of sea urchins to fight infections (Byrne et al., 2011;Silva 2013) remains to be determined. ...
Taxonomical and functional diversity dynamics of conspicuous echinoderms in the northeastern tropical Pacific over a decade
Article
  • May 2023
  • MAR ENVIRON RES
Understanding what determines spatio-temporal changes in echinoderm assemblages from an integrative perspective that considers biodiversity, species evenness, and species' niches could permit superior community-scale characterizations of habitat resilience to disturbance. Such an approach was taken herein by tracking a Central Mexican Pacific echinoderm assemblage between 2012 and 2021, and higher richness, diversity, evenness, and functional entity counts were associated with more heterogeneous benthic assemblages. Echinoderm taxonomic composition was influenced by ENSO events, with higher functional diversity found during La Niña events. Conservation strategies should focus on species with unique functional traits to maintain the balance of coral community functionality.
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... A common presentation of diseased urchins involves discoloration of the test, loss of spines and other appendages, and ulceration or perforation of the test (Bak et al., 1984;Benítez-Villalobos et al., 2009;Dykova et al., 2011;Gilles and Pearse, 1986;Girard et al., 2012;Lester et al., 2007;Maes and Jangoux, 1984;Roberts-Regan et al., 1988). These observations are variously referred to as bald sea urchin, spotting, or black mouth disease, and observed in wild and cultured urchins representing diverse genera and habitats (Li and Xu, 2000;Maes and Jangoux, 1984;Masuda et al., 2004). ...
Gross and microscopic pathology of West Indian sea eggs (Tripneustes ventricosus)
Article
Full-text available
  • Dec 2020
In this study, we performed comprehensive pathology examinations on 83 Tripneustes ventricosus from 11 locations on St. Kitts to build baseline data necessary for disease diagnosis in this species. Gross abnormalities were observed in 23/83 (28%) urchins and included spine loss, visceral hyperpigmentation, test discoloration, and test ulceration. Ciliates were the only protists identified in this study via examination of tissue wet mounts and histology, documented in 50/83 (60%) urchins. Microscopic observations associated with visibly abnormal status included muscle necrosis, test and appendage inflammation, appendage (tube feet, spines, and pedicellariae) degeneration, severe coelomocytosis, and generalized hypermelanosis. Enterocyte intranuclear inclusion bodies, microbial aggregates, nerve pigmentation, enteric pigmentation, integument-associated crustaceans, and encysted metazoan parasites were of uncertain pathological significance. The etiology for any lesion was not microscopically apparent, contrasting literature implicating common marine bacteria in urchin diseases. This study highlights the importance of histopathology in urchin disease investigations and facilitates the recognition of disease in T. ventricosus.
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... In some cases, the die-offs were attributable to changing or suboptimal environmental conditions (Scheibling and Stephenson 1984;Scheibling and Hennigar 1997;Lester et al. 2007;Scheibling et al. 2010;Girard et al. 2012;Hendler 2013) or to primary pathogens Feehan et al. 2013), or to a combination of the two (Dumont et al. 2004;Buchwald et al. 2015). Disease outbreaks and mass mortalities amongst wild echinoids appear to have increased in the last few decades (Ward and Lafferty 2004;Feehan and Scheibling 2014) with notable mortalities of other Diadema species also being reported (Benítez-Villalobos et al. 2009;Dykova et al. 2011;Clemente et al. 2014). ...
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... In some cases, the die-offs were attributable to changing or suboptimal environmental conditions (Scheibling and Stephenson 1984;Scheibling and Hennigar 1997;Lester et al. 2007;Scheibling et al. 2010;Girard et al. 2012;Hendler 2013) or to primary pathogens Feehan et al. 2013), or to a combination of the two (Dumont et al. 2004;Buchwald et al. 2015). Disease outbreaks and mass mortalities amongst wild echinoids appear to have increased in the last few decades (Ward and Lafferty 2004;Feehan and Scheibling 2014) with notable mortalities of other Diadema species also being reported (Benítez-Villalobos et al. 2009;Dykova et al. 2011;Clemente et al. 2014). ...
Diagnostic Methods for the Comprehensive Health Assessment of the Long-Spined Sea Urchin, Diadema antillarum
Article
  • Jun 2020
This 55-page document contains a wealth of information on the long-spined sea urchin, which is an important animal in coral reef ecosystems. The publication discusses diagnostic methods for Diadema antillarum and provides reporting forms for laboratory and diagnostic work. Written by Ruth Francis-Floyd, Jan Landsberg, Roy Yanong, Yasu Kiryu, Shirley Baker, Deborah Pouder, William Sharp, Gabriel Delgado, Nicole Stacy, Tom Waltzek, Heather Walden, Roxanna Smolowitz, and Greg Beck, and published by the UF/IFAS Veterinary Medicine—Large Animal Clinical Sciences Department, May 2020.
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... Other incidences of mass mortality include; a die-off of D. antillarum by 97% and 83% in the reefs off Key West and Long Key, respectively (Forcucci, 1994), of D. mexicanum in Bahias de Huatulco, Mexico in 2009(Benítez-Villalobos et al., 2009, and of D. africanum in the eastern Atlantic in 2009 (Clemente et al., 2014). The bacteria Vibrio alginolyticus was suggested as the possible cause of the D. africanum die-off, but the impact on the urchin population was short-term (Clemente et al., 2014). ...
Diadema
Chapter
Full-text available
  • Jan 2020
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Temporal variation of the sea urchin (Diadema mexicanum) population density at Bahías de Huatulco, Western Mexico
Article
Full-text available
  • Dec 2008
Sea urchins of the genus Diadema play an important role as controlers of algal growth in coral reef and rocky reef communities, but high densities cause bioerosion of the reef framework. Between January 2006 and February 2007 (except April, July and August), population densities and mean test diameter of Diadema mexicanum were determined at Isla Montosa, La Entrega, Isla Cacaluta and San Agustín, Bahías de Huatulco, Mexico. Mean density of the sea urchins was relatively constant through time at all localities: lowest at San Agustín (0.26±0.13 ind.m-2) and highest at La Entrega (4.17±1.4 ind.m-2). There were significant differences between La Entrega and other localities. Mean test diameter ranged between 4.41±0.88 cm (Isla Cacaluta) and 4.72±0.27 (San Agustin), and did no vary significantly between localities, but there were monthly variations. Test diameter agrees with other studies. The calculated amount of CaCO3 removed by D. mexicanum showed variations between localities. The lowest rate of bioerosion occurred at San Agustín (0. 25 kg.m-2.yr-1 ), and the highest at La Entrega (4 kg.m-2.yr-1). The recent urchin population decrease means a reduction in their removal of coral CaCO3: 5.55% to 2.36% at Isla Cacaluta, 5.08% to 1.40% at San Agustin and 16.59% to 3.08% at Isla Montosa. The only locality where bioerosion increased was La Entrega, from 27.04 % to 33.05 %. This reduc- tion of urchin activities could be beneficial for coral reef growing and recovery from stress, nevertheless it could also signify an increase in algal biomass and competition with corals for light and space. We recommend a permanent monitoring and evaluation of population densities of D. mexicanum and fishes, as well as coral and algal cover at the area, to discern if changes in sea urchin densities in Bahias de Huatulco are a continuous phenomenon, or part of a natural cycle of increments and reductions. Rev. Biol. Trop. 56 (Suppl. 3): 255-263. Epub 2009 January 05.
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Spread of Diadema Mass Mortality Through the Caribbean
Article
Full-text available
  • Nov 1984
Populations of the ecologically important sea urchin Diadema antillarum suffered severe mass mortalities throughout the Caribbean. This mortality was first observed at Panama in January 1983; by January 1984 it had spread to the rest of the Caribbean and to Bermuda. The sequence of mortality events in most areas is consistent with the hypothesis that the causative agent was dispersed by major surface currents over large distances. However, some of the late die-offs in the southeastern Caribbean do not fit this pattern. Several lines of indirect evidence suggest that the phenomenon is due to a water-borne pathogen. If so, this is the most extensive epidemic documented for a marine invertebrate.
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Coral reefs of the Pacific coast of México
Chapter
  • Apr 2003
This chapter provides information on the status and management of coral reefs on the coast of México. Due to differences in the biological characteristics and composition of the coral communities, the reefs of the west coast of México are naturally divided into three groups: those of the Gulf of California, the Revillagigedo Archipelago, and the tropical Mexican Pacific. In the Gulf, there are abundant coral patches. Frameworks are small, communities are dominated by Pocillopora spp., and zonation is weak. The oceanic Revillagigedo Archipelago has fringing reefs in Clarión and Socorro, where pocilloporids prevail in shallow water, and massive species prevail in deeper areas. Along the Pacific coast of México, natural perturbations are common, and they affect reefs in different ways depending on their geographic position. On the other hand, oceanographic and atmospheric events such as hurricanes and the El Niño-Southern Oscillation are suggested to be much more important in determining coral abundance and community structure in México both on short- and long-term scales. Also, human-induced perturbations are still very localized and of relatively low scale, but they may turn into demanding problems in the coming years because of the lack of official and public attention to the Pacific reefs, the slow implementation of management plans and other protective procedures, and the economic need to develop México's west coastal areas.
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Changes in population densities of Diadema mexicanum at Bahias de Huatulco, Western Mexico
  • Benítez
  • F Villalobos
  • Domínguez
  • Gómez Mt
  • López
  • Pérez
  • Jan 2003
  • 387-418
  • H Reyes-Bonilla
Reyes-Bonilla H (2003) Coral reefs of the Pacific coast of Mexico. In: Cortés J (ed) Latin American Coral Reefs. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 387-418