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ÖSTERREICHISCHE AKADEMIE DER WISSENSCHAFTEN
PHILOSOPHISCH-HISTORISCHE KLASSE
SITZUNGSBERICHTE, 851. BAND
=================================================
VERÖFFENTLICHUNGEN ZUR IRANISTIK
HERAUSGEGEBEN VON BERT G. FRAGNER UND VELIZAR SADOVSKI
NR. 51
IRANISTISCHE UND INDOGERMANISTISCHE
BEITRÄGE IN MEMORIAM
JOCHEM SCHINDLER (1944–1994)
herausgegeben von
VELIZAR SADOVSKI UND DAVID STIFTER
unter redaktioneller Mitwirkung von
BETTINA HOFLEITNER
UND STEFAN SCHUMACHER
VERLAG
DER ÖSTERREICHISCHEN AKADEMIE DER WISSENSCHAFTEN
WIEN 2012
INHALTSVERZEICHNIS
Vorwort der Herausgeber ............................................................................................. 3
Oswald PANAGL Der Joki. Erinnerungssplitter an einen außergewöhnlichen
Menschen.................................................................................. 5
Irene BALLES Zu einigen Fällen von (vermeintlichem) Laryngalschwund
im Indogermanischen............................................................... 9
Michiel DE VAAN The Avestan compounds in niuua
and niuuąn................ 31
Jared S. KLEIN sá/tá-Sequences in the Rigveda.......................................... 45
Agnes KORN Fußnoten zu einem parthischen Lautgesetz......................... 77
Alexander LUBOTSKY The Old Persian month name viyax(a)na-, Avestan
viiāx(a)na- ‘eloquent, bragging’ and Ossetic festivals........ 95
Pavel LURJE Ğat, Var: Archaic Elements in Ossetic Toponymy........... 107
Melanie MALZAHN Verbale Rektionskomposita im Tocharischen.................. 113
Joachim MATZINGER ‘Zwischensprachen’ – Areallinguistische Bemerkungen
aus dem Bereich des Balkanindogermanischen ................137
Oswald PANAGL Noch einmal zu homerisch ¢n£pustoj ........................... 161
Antonio PANAINO Av. mainiiu.tāšta- and other mainiiu-compounds............ 169
Daniel PETIT Balto-slavische Unterschiede im Bereich des
nominalen Ablauts: apr. pintis ‘Weg’, panno ‘Feuer’
und ihre slavischen Entsprechungen.................................. 185
Georges-Jean PINAULT Le feu et la cendre .....................................................................205
Inhaltsverzeichnis
2
Karl PRAUST Licht ins Dunkel – Bemerkungen zu vedisch dóṣāvastar
(RV 1.1.7) ..........................................................................235
Hans RAMHARTER Gebetene und ungebetene Gäste: Zur Etymologie des
indoiran. ‘Gast’-Wortes (ved. átithi-, av. asti-) und von
westidg. *ghóstis ................................................................ 269
Leonhard REIS Zum sasanidischen Privatrecht ..........................................291
Ulla REMMER “Wie erfreulich!” Kamadyū
-, Καμβύσης und die indo-
iranische Präfigierung *ka(m)- ......................................... 311
Velizar SADOVSKI Ritual Spells and Practical Magic for Benediction and
Malediction: from India to Greece, Rome, and Beyond
(Speech and Performance in Veda and Avesta, I.) ........... 331
Rüdiger SCHMITT Minima onomastica Iranica ...............................................351
Stefan SCHUMACHER Mittelkymrisch tra, tros, traws, traw, altirisch trá
und Verwandtes ................................................................. 361
David STIFTER gono míl und gweint mil mawrem...................................... 377
Karin STÜBER Zur Frage des Italo-Keltischen: Erkenntnisse aus der
Erforschung der Partikeln.................................................. 403
Xavier TREMBLAY (†) Zum Begriff ‘Nartensystem’. Apophonica V. ......................419
Paul WIDMER Etymologisches und Historisches zum Namen der Perser ... 445
Thomas ZEHNDER Vriddhiableitungen von Adverbien ................................... 461
Adressen der Autoren ........................................................................................... 475
Indices ...........................................................................................481
RITUAL SPELLS AND PRACTICAL MAGIC FOR BENEDICTION AND
MALEDICTION: FROM INDIA TO GREECE, ROME, AND BEYOND
(SPEECH AND PERFORMANCE IN VEDA AND AVESTA, I.)
Velizar SADOVSKI (ÖAW, Wien)
1.1. Sacred formulae and rites of ‘bene-dictio’ and ‘bene-factio’ or of ‘male-
dictio’ and ‘male-factio’, respectively, are well known to researchers of oral po-
etry and popular rites in older Indo-European cultures from Ancient Greek and
Latin contexts. They became central topics of scholarly discourse after the
publication of the classical corpora of magical inscriptions and papyri in Indo-
European traditions and beyond: by Richard WÜNSCH (1897), Auguste AU-
DOLLENT (1904), and Karl PREISENDANZ (1928–1941). This was the start of com-
parative research in problems of ‘cursing and blessing’ (for one of the first sum-
maries of cross-cultural studies s. CRAWLEY 1911), of ‘binding spells’ and incan-
tations on magic, ‘voodoo’ dolls, to mention only a few pertinent groups of texts.
1.2. The interest in this subject has been re-vivified in the last 30 years, after
the discovery of huge numbers of new materials, in Indo-European but also in
Semitic (Assyrian, Babylonian, Hebrew etc.) and Egyptian sources. Thus,
the circle of societies concerned was enlarged, and the spells and charms be-
came object of a series of (contrastive) investigations like the ones of David R.
JORDAN (e.g. 1985a, 1985b, 2000), John G. GAGER (1992), Fritz GRAF (1997),
Christopher A. FARAONE (1991ab, 2001 etc.), Henk VERSNEL (e.g. 1998, 2011),
Hans Dieter BETZ (1986), William M. BRASHEAR (e.g. 1995), Richard GORDON
(e.g. 2000, 2002) , Roy KOTANSKY (e.g. 1988), D. OGDEN (esp. 1999), John J.
WINKLER (e.g. 1990 and in FARAONE – OBBINK 1991: 214–243), Anita
KROPP (2008), and many others, on the topics of ‘Magic in the ancient world’.
2.1. Among the most archaic magic rites are those of ‘binding’, ‘piercing’
or ‘burying’ by means of spells or mantras. These rituals of cursing-and-sub-
jecting concern, on the one hand, adversaries in battles, opponents in lawsuits
or rivals in love, and, on the other hand, the beloved persons (!) themselves, as
‘opposite parties’ in love, who have to be bewitched, bewildered, bestirred –
and besotted. The relevant Greek spells are called κατάδεσμοι, from καταδέω
‘to bind (down)’; in Latin they are styled defixiones, both words meaning
‘binding’,‘binding (means)’1. The assessment of their quantity in the 1990es,
1 For some highlights from the voluminous literature, see e.g. PREISENDANZ, RAC 8 (1972), 1–
29, GAGER 1992: v, 3ff., GRAF 1997: 9f., 118ff., KROPP 2008: 37–43, and VERSNEL 2011: 4–14.
Ritual Spells and Practical Magic for Benediction and Malediction
332
stating that more than 1000 such κατάδεσμοι have been unearthed so far, is
meanwhile antiquated: Only David R. JORDAN’s two collections of addenda
to the corpus of Greek defixionum tabellae (1985a and 2000) comprise 189 and
122 new items, respectively, KROPP 2008 discusses 537 Latin texts (in part,
recently found), and discoveries from the whole territory from Britain to the
Near East and Egypt come every year. The papyrological evidence has its
own, impressive numbers (figures in BRASHEAR 1995: 3476–3576). The two
principal genres – the defixiones ‘hostiles’ and the defixiones ‘amatoriae’ –
originated as oral literature but had the advantage to have been early enough
(on this point, cf. GAGER 1992: 7 and 34, n. 39) fixed in written form.
2.2. However, a large corpus of oral poetry and relevant ritual practices in-
side Indo-European tradition – the Indo-Iranian corpus – has still not received
the deserved attention: Comparative Indo-Iranian philology and religious stu-
dies now stay in front of the task of studying new textual material of the
Atharvaveda, the Vedic ‘book of spells’ par excellence, of comparing it to Ve-
dic ritual sūtras and to parallel Iranian sources, and of drawing conclusions
concerning possible reconstructions of their common background. What ear-
lier used to be taken as isolated parallels, now has good chances to be situated
in a common inter-textual context of Indo-Iranian age.2 This task seems an
urgent desideratum especially since the discovery of the new Atharvaveda-
Paippalāda fragments by Durgamohan BHATTACHARYA3 and the start of the
Leiden project of their critical edition, initiated by Michael WITZEL and de-
veloped by Alexander M. LUBOTSKY.4 Since 2007, after Sasha Lubotsky kind-
ly invited me to Leiden and our joint project work in the field of Indo-Iranian
philology started, I have been engaging in the assessment of these Old Indian,
Atharvavedic material, in (genealogical) comparison with Iranian, esp. Ave-
stan texts – but also in contrastive, typological analysis of their Greek, Graeco-
Egyptian, and (Graeco-)Roman counterparts. The results so far are a series of
contrastive publications on Ritual Formulae and Ritual Pragmatics in Veda
and Avesta. One of them, concerning the comparison between spells and rites
in the Avestan Yašt 14 and Vidēvdād with the Atharvaveda, was published in
the Festschrift Eichner (2009), another one just appeared in the Proceedings of
the World Sanskrit Conference in Kyoto (SADOVSKI 2012), and two more are
2 Cf. SADOVSKI 2009: 156ff., with recent literature and further examples.
3 See now the continuation of his editorial magnum opus by his son, Dipak BHATTACHARYA
(BHATTACHARYA 1997–2008).
4 For a series of relevant publications going back to the Leiden project see e.g.: WITZEL 1985,
LUBOTSKY 2005 (AVP 5), GRIFFITHS 2009 (AVP 6–7), LELLI 2009 (AVP 15), OORT (AVP 8,
in prep.), ZEHNDER 1993 and 1999 (AVP 1–2); coming up: LUBOTSKY – GRIFFITHS (AVP 4).
Velizar SADOVSKI
333
in preparation for publication in the volume BRAARVIG – GELLER – SELZ –
SADOVSKI (forthc.) and in the Proceedings of the Berlin Max Planck confer-
ence Knowledge to Die For (SADOVSKI, in print), respectively.
3. The subject of this particular article concerns a specific type of rituals,
the binding spells-and-charms – a form of ‘ritual poetry in action’, i.e. of unity
between incantations and concomitant ritual performance, in which the ritual
words (uerba concepta) are considered largely identical with the ritual acti-
ons: the classical concept of performative speech acts.
To start with a typological outline of the phenomenon, in the traditions of
Ancient Greece, Rome, and Near East (cf. BRASHEAR 1995: 3390ff.), such
rites comprise following types of ‘spells-and-charms’:
(a) Binding (seizing/piercing/burying) spells (cf. § 4ff.). (b) Amatory spells, magical ‘ars amato-
ria’ (§8f.). (c) Execratory spells, as means of total destruction in this world, even in the hereafter.
(d) Protective spells, esp. ‘defensive magic’. (e) Rituals for procreation. (f) Healing spells, etc.
We are going to see some of these rites in comparison, first focusing on
mantras for binding and destroying adversaries and then going on to other per-
formative mantras such as amatory charms. Other speech-performance rituals
like execratory spells and, on the other hand, protective formulae, healing
spells, and rituals of procreation can be commented upon only en passant,
being special objects of two of the studies in preparation quoted above.
4. Let us first turn to binding spells, to ritual seizing, piercing, and burying
as speech acts and extralinguistic realia: The Indo-Iranian evidence contains,
first, incantantions and practical magic ‘against competitors’.
4.1. The Vedic tradition is represented by typical spells against opponents
like the following mantra from the Atharvaveda(-Śaunaka), 7,73[70],4-5:
ápāñcau ta ubháu bāhū
ápi nahyāmiy āsíyàm |
agnér devásya manyúnā
téna te ʾvadhiṣaṃ havíḥ ||4||
ápi nahyāmi te bāhū
ápi nahyāmy āsyàm |
agnér ghorásya manyúnā
téna ʾvadhiṣaṃ havíḥ ||5||
Turned back/behind are your two arms.
I bind your mouth.
With the wrath of god Agni
I destroyed your oblation.
I bind your arms,
I bind your mouth.
With the wrath of terrible Agni
I destroyed your oblation.
One can compare this binding curse with the usual form of the Greek κατά-
δεσμοι, which contain the same elements. Not only the same magic words are
to find in Greek and Egyptian spells (‘I turn back your arms. I bind your
mouth’): we even have little sculptural representations (§ 5.1.)! Sometimes they
are very simple, sometimes more elaborated: One of the simple structures of
this type, on a tabella defixionis from Attica (ed. WÜNSCH 1897, no. 86), alrea-
Ritual Spells and Practical Magic for Benediction and Malediction
334
dy contains some of the essential elements in common and reads ‘I bind Dro-
mōn… (his) feet and hands. I bind Isias before Hermes the Restrainer – the
hands, the feet of Isias, the whole body’. What is remarkable, is the identical
way of formulation – very frequently, the body parts are listed in extenso5, with
claim of totality (in elaborate syntactic structures, often increasing in accord
with BEHAGHEL’s rule), hierarchically systematized according to a set of crite-
ria: cf. the evidence discussed in § 6.3., Greek examples esp. in § 6.3.2.
4.2. Other operations mentioned in such spells beside binding are (ritual)
piercing and burying. This form of black magic has not only verbal expression
but also practical dimensions, the ritual acts being performed on little figural re-
presentations of the object concerned, figurines or ‘voodoo’ dolls.
4.2.1. A full-program piercing-and-destruction spell from the Atharvaveda
(AVŚ. 16,7), says about the competitor:
téna enaṃ vidhyāmiy
ábhūtyā enaṃ vidhyāmi
nírbhūtyā enaṃ vidhyāmi
párābhūtyainaṃ vidhyāmi
grā
hiyā enaṃ vidhyāmi
támasā enaṃ vidhyāmi ||1||
1. With that I pierce him;
with ‘becoming-not’/‘un-being’/annihilation I pierce him;
with ‘becoming-off/away’ (WL: ‘extermination’) I pierce him;
with ‘becoming-away’ (‘calamity’) I pierce him;
with seizure I pierce him;
with darkness I pierce him.
Then, the curse goes on:
evānevāva sā
garat ||4|| 4. Like this (‘So’), not like this (‘not so’), may she [Grāhi /
the Seizure] swallow [him] down.
nír dviṣántaṃ divó níḥ pr
thivyā
nír antárikṣād bhajāma ||6||
6. Let us deprive our hater of share of heaven, of earth, of inter-
mediary space / atmosphere (cf. WHITNEY – LANMAN, ad loc.)
Obviously, this is a performative speech act, also referring to an extra-lingui-
stic situation: The victim shall be fixed-and-neutralized ‘in a particularly tortur-
ing way’: the mantra is accompanied by real gestures. Further on, the text says:
idám ahám āmuṣyāyaṇè ʾmúṣyāḥ
putré duṣvápniyaṃ mr
je ||8||
8. Now do I wipe off this evil-dreaming on him of such-and-
such lineage, son of such-and-such a mother.
táṃ jahi téna mandasva
tásya pr
ṣṭīr ápi śr
ṇīhi ||12||
12. Smite him, amuse yourself with him, crush in his ribs.
(after WHITNEY – LANMAN [WL]).
Note the matri-lineal indication of origin, more about which see in § 10.
4.2.2. A very instructive parallel type in Greek appears e.g. in a spell from At-
tica, written on a lead plate from the beginning of the 4th century BC: on its first
side, we find almost the same structure, in the context of a rivalry in a lawsuit:
Side A: (1) I bind down Theagenes, his tongue and his soul and the words he uses; (2) I also bind
down the hands and feet of Pyrrhias, the cook, his tongue, his soul, his words; [...] (8) I also bind
5 On the character of such lists in the context of the various genres of lists and catalogues as a
device of systematization of the Universe in Veda and Avesta cf. SADOVSKI 2012: § 2.3.1.
Velizar SADOVSKI
335
down the tongue of Seuthes, his soul, and the words he uses, just like his feet, his hands, his
eyes, and his mouth; (9) I also bind down the tongue of Lamprias, his soul, and the words he
uses, just like his feet, his hands, his eyes, and his mouth (cf. GRAF 1997: 122 and 135)
On the backside, all adversaries are recapitulated and the key actions specified:
All these I bind down, I make them disappear, 1 bury them, I nail them down.
We will concentrate on the individual actions united in this formula in § 6.1
ff.; but first let us short focus on the pragmatic dimensions of the ritual situation,
when pronouncing such spells and of the concomitant activities expressed in the
various (verbal) forms we have observed in the text passages quoted till now:
5. For the respective actions, for which, as we have seen, Greeks use the
words ‘to bind (down)’ (κατα-δέω) and ‘binding(-down) (spell)’, κατάδεσμος,
and Latin terms like relegare, dē-figere, dē-fixiō (cf. e.g. GRAF 1997: 121f.,
125, 134f.), in Vedic, the genuine meaning of the prefix – ní ‘down’, esp. in
Ved. ní + bādh ‘to bind down’ – must be underlined as explicitly as in the ca-
ses of Greek κατά and Latin dē-, as a clear reference to a strongly infernal/
chthonic notion. Also Avestan exhibits this preverb – ni ‘down’ – for instance
with the root zan, but also with the verb dā, identical with δέω (< *deh1), in
nī.diiā- ‘to bind down’, pragmatically identical with (κατα-)δέω! We find this
usage e.g. in the third Avestan Gāθā, in a spell against the demon(iac)
furor/Furor ‘wrath/Wrath’ (aēšəma- ‘ira’):
nī aēšəmō nī.diiātąm
paitī rəməm paitī.siiōdūm
Down, let w/Wrath be tied down!
Cut back obstruction [...]! (SKJÆRVØ, with modif.)
5.0. A variant of this act uses live animals instead of statuettes, like in the
case of the cat from Santones found buried with his head twisted back and with
a curse tablet6 ordering: ‘Let them be turned away [...] in the same way that this
little cat is turned away and cannot get up. Let it be thus for them as well!’
5.1. Such spells of binding, piercing and burying are obviously not mere
metaphors but have clear extralinguistic aspects: Binding spells are explicitly
connected with burying rites. ‘One of the most striking features of ancient defi-
xiones emerges from the use of dolls or figurines as part of the binding process’
(GAGER 1992: 15). The evidence for figural representations of the victims of
performative speech acts comes e.g. from Egyptian magical recipes, Assyrian
incantations, as well as Greek, Graeco-Egyptian and Roman testimonies of bind-
ing and seizing enemies, lovers, or even gods. The effigies are bound (cf. FA-
RAONE 1991a: 166ff.), pierced, buried, in the following major ritual contexts:
6 AUDOLLENT 1904, no. 112; GRAF 1997: 124, 130, and esp. 136f.: aversos [...] esse quo/modi
[sic] hic catellus aversus / est nec surgere potest / sic nec illi, sic transpecti sint / quomodo ille.
Ritual Spells and Practical Magic for Benediction and Malediction
336
● Binding gods as a form of ‘re-ligio’: in public rites attested in Greek poleis; on our
evidence from India cf. below, § 10.4., and SADOVSKI, in print.
● ‘Rituals of burning’: effigies of demons or living enemies (cf. Assyrian maqlû incantations).
● Lead or wax figurines: pierced, buried, melt.
5.1.1. In Egypt, Greece and the Near East, a ‘significant number of such
figurines have survived. Their existence confirms and illustrates the texts and
formularies which speak of them. […]’ (GAGER 1992: 15, FARAONE 1991a:
173ff., 1991b: 5ff.). The most prominent are the ones found in graves from the
Kerameikos cemetery in Athens and going back to ca. 400 BC (cf. the table):
● Left side: Lead figurine from Athens, first publ. in Mélusine 9, 1898–1899, 104, fig. 2.
● Right side: Decapitated lead figurine from Athens, first publ. in. Philologus 61, 1902, 37.
Both FARAONE (1991a: 201, reprinting the same pictures in his fig. 6–7)
and GAGER (1992: 15 and 36, n. 82) discussed the figurines: GAGER (ibid., 15)
describes the material objects, ‘each encased in a miniature coffin made of two
lead sheets, with names of the targets inscribed on all of the sheets and on
three of the figurines’, and FARAONE adds that ‘[s]maller clay, mud, and stone
versions of the free-standing ‘bound captive’ evolved artistically into a flat-
tened, nearly abstract shape that provided a wide writing surface for long lists
of intended victims […]. Nearly all the extant examples were found buried in
large caches in cemeteries or near mortuary temples’ (1991a: 174).
5.1.2. On the whole Graeco-Roman territory, we have rich evidence for bu-
rying figurines as usual black magic practice; we already saw the formula: ‘All
of them, I bind them, I make them disappear, I bury them, I nail them down’.
5.2. Do we have Indian parallels of such effigies? Yes, but to find them,
one has to know that they exist, just like the ancient Greek verb for ‘reading’
(ἀνα-γιγνώσκειν) as a cognition by re-cognition (ἀνά + γιγνώσκειν), i.e. by
reading positive matter out of the black hole of lacking evidence on the basis
of deduction – for the effigies themselves are not directly preserved. Yo evam
veda, vindati, ‘the one who knows, finds it’:
Velizar SADOVSKI
337
5.2.1. Parallel traditions show us what materials to search for. Thus, Greek
and Roman epigraphic and papyrus traditions testify of rites of burying figu-
rines as usual black magic practice:
WÜNSCH 1897, no. 49: τούτους ἅπαντας καταδῶ
ἀφανίζω κατορύττω καταπασσαλεύω.
All of them, I bind them, I make them dis-
appear, I bury them, I nail them down.
5.2.2. The materials of these effigies were often of perishable or less dur-
able character: lead, wax, and especially: clay. If ‘in Greece and Rome, super-
natural attributes were ascribed to everyday objects and materials […]’ (BRA-
SHEAR 1995: 3394 with n. 27), then, logically, lead, ‘wax or clay figurines
with spells written on papyrus attached to them have been found as well as in-
structions occasionally attested in magical procedures’ (ibid.; cf. also the ma-
gic recipes in GRAF 1997: 138). For the Greek evidence, cf. e.g. WÜNSCH
1897, no. 55, Side A:
Τούτους ἐγὼ καταδίδημι ἅπαντας ἐν
μολύβδωι καὶ ἐν κηρᾶ(ι) [...]
[From the town of Karystos on Euboea]:
I bind all these people in lead and in wax.
Corresponding to the older Attic spells like the one quoted above, also later on in the Graeco-
Roman sphere, we have evidence ‘from Plato to the Augustan poets’ (GRAF 1997: 145) that
mentions statuettes of wax or clay: In Rome, Ovid (Amores 3,7,29, cf. GAGER 1992: 31, note 9;
on the direct evidence of such a rite ibid. 142) wonders ‘if a specialist sorcerer has ‘victimized
(dēfixit) [him], who has written his name in red wax and pierced it with a needle’.
5.3.1. To find testimonies of such material objects in Indo-Iranian, we have
to ‘re-bind’ disiecta membra. In Ancient India, we have scattered evidence for
such rites of piercing and burying figurines or other material objects, to damn
a person, in magic texts such AVŚ 3,25,3–6:
y plīhnaṃ śoṣáyati
kmasyéṣuḥ súsaṃnatā /
prācnapakṣā víyòṣā
táyā vid
h
yāmi tvā hdí //3//
3. The well-straightened arrow of love
which dries the spleen [...], forward-winged,
consuming — therewith I pierce thee in the
heart.
śuc vidd
h
víyòṣayā
śúṣkāsya abhí sarpa mā /
mdúr nímanyuḥ kévalī
priyavādíny ánuvratā //4//
4. Pierced with consuming pain [...], dry-
mouthed, do thou come creeping to me, gentle,
with fury allayed, entirely [mine], pleasant-
spoken, submissive.
jāmi tuvā janyā
pári mātúr átho pitúḥ /
yáthā máma krátāv áso
máma cittám upyasi //5//
5. I goad thee hither with a goad [...], away
from mother, likewise from father, that thou
mayest be in my power (krátu), mayest come
unto my intent.
víy àsyai mitrāvaruṇau
hdáś cittniy asyatam /
áthainām akratú
ṃ
k
tv
mámaivá k
ṇ
uta
ṃ
váśe //6//
6. Do ye, O Mitra-and-Varuna, cast out the
intents from her heart; then, making her pow-
erless, make her [to be] in my own control
(WHITNEY – LANMAN, ad loc.).
5.3.2. According to a counter-spell of Kauśika-Sūtra 39, if one finds a charmed
Ritual Spells and Practical Magic for Benediction and Malediction
338
clay effigy, the Brahmán pierces it ‘with a hostile eye (sū. 11, cf. CALAND 1900:
134f.) and shoots (an arrow) on places [the effigy] has wounded’. The effigy is
explicitly said to be ‘made of clay (12)’. He puts it ‘on a hide, with the heels
turned downwards (16)’. What follows, contains a ritual of binding-and-burying:
he ‘anoints it (18), binds it (19), pours water on it (14) and on places vulnerable
by the effigy (28.31) and plows on it with a plough drawn by black oxen (29).’
5.4. The Vedic notion of such objects is kr
tyā
-, f. (attested in RVKh., AV.,
YV.); it has been studied by prominent historians of religion (WEBER, HILLE-
BRANDT, HENRY, S.K. LAL, GOUDRIAAN) but, to my knowledge, without any
reference to figurines in Greek, Egyptian and Roman rituals of burying.
5.4.1. In his study of this notion, Teen GOUDRIAAN (1986: 452) distinguishes
two aspects: ‘an impersonal one, a material object produced by a sorcerer and
handled by him according to more or less technical prescriptions; and a more
personally conceived power which in a way is thought to be connected with this
material substratum, sometimes in the form of a highly effective and dangerous
being which threatens to destroy somebody’s life or property’.
The etymological meaning of kr
tyā
-, ‘activity’, ‘action’, goes back to the
more material one of ‘shaping, carving’, as a nomen actionis/abstractum → no-
men rei actae, ‘[an object that results from] shaping, carving’. For kr
tyā
- in ex-
tant Vedic texts, it seems reasonable to operate with two aspects of its meaning:
● Abstract: ‘powerful magic hidden in an object’;
● Concrete: ‘magical object (buried into the ground)’, esp. ‘“voodoo” doll’.
5.4.2. In fact, we have evidence from the Yajurveda, from the Atharvavedic
Kauśika-Sūtra, and from the corresponding mantra text of the Paippalāda-Saṃ-
hitā that points out to dolls of (more or less explicit) human form:
● The formula to be pronounced, if somebody finds a kr
tyā
- buried in his field or garden,
VSM 5,23 / VSK 5,6.2 út kr
tyā
ṃ kirāmi ‘the kr
tyā I dig out’, speaks not only of the ab-
stract ‘powerful magic’ but specifically of the precise object by which it is represented.
● At Kauś. 39,7ff., kr
tyā
- is presented like a doll (CALAND, HENRY) or another object (GOUD-
RIAAN) to bury. GOUDRIAN (ibid. 453) tends to retain that kr
tyā
- can mean any ‘strange’
material object hidden or buried and doubts that it necessarily appears as a doll. However,
also in Egypt and Greece, the figurine ‘does not need to be a portrait; it suffices that it bears
some very superficial resemblance to the identity’ (M. MAUSS, s. GRAF 1997: 139).
Both Victor HENRY and Willem CALAND underline that, at least at the
Kauś. 39,7ff. the object must have been a figurine. This solution is corrobora-
ted by Arlo GRIFFITHS, too, in his commentary of AVP 7,1, who stresses the
fact that ‘the wording of KauśS 39, sūtras 13 [...] and 14 [...] clearly implies an
object of human (or animal) shape, and so do stanzas like ŚS 10.1.1, 10.1.24’.
5.4.3. In this context, I would like to underline also other rituals connected
Velizar SADOVSKI
339
with the idea of burying a substitute of an adversary with appropriate mantras,
like the Kauśika ritual against female rival accompanying the mantras of AVP
1,15. – On forming human figures (puruṣākr
ti-) with the bones of a dead per-
son in burying and commemorative rituals, cf. LANMAN’s note to AVŚ.
18,3,25 (WHITNEY – LANMAN 2,856–857) on the father, represented by a pro-
strate figure of bones, and the relevant locus of the Bāudhāyana-Pitṛ-
medhasūtra 1,10, 5.7.10.13 (ed. CALAND, 15).
5.4.4. A similar type of objects to bury into the ground for damaging an en-
emy is called valagá-, m. The parallelism of the Indian evidence with the ones
of Egypt and Greece is also here striking, both in the general ritual and in its
details. If one happens to unearth or find a valagá- in Vedic times, Taittirīya-
Saṃhitā recommends the spell:
● TS. 1,3,2,1:
idám aháṃ táṃ valagám úd vapāmi,
yáṃ naḥ samānó yám ásamāno nicakhā
na
‘Here(-and-now) I (am) get(ting) out the Valaga
which an equal, an unequal (person) has buried
‘down’ (dug in) for/against us’.
6. Concerning the formulaic language of binding spells, just like in
Graeco-Latin traditions, also in Indo-Iranian we find various forms of binding
/ piercing / burying rites and formulae about the same types and individual
stages of ritual action both in hostile and in erotic spells, of the typology that
gave FARAONE 1991b the reason to subsume these two contexts as parts of the
same, agonic, or agonistic, ritual environment), for instance:
6.1. ‘Binding hands and feet (esp., behind the victim’s back)’: see § 7.2. here.
6.2. ‘Binding (seizing) the victim’s name’ (see § 10.1 below).
6.3. ‘Piercing the victim’s body (esp. separately, organ by organ, the vic-
tim’s limbs/heart/breath’, with enumeratio of the individual organs and (final-
ly,) focusing on vital items (§ 6.3.1.–6.3.3.):
6.3.1. A very old stratum is contained in the curse from the top of the head to
the heels. One of the pertinent incantations of this genre, AVP 2,84, is, again, di-
rected ‘against competition’: that is to say, against (other!) black magicians and
witches. The spell enumerates individual organs or pairs/systems of organs, start-
ing with the declaration: ‘Here-and-now I am splitting your head, sorcerer: hail/
‘svāhā’; here-and-now I am piercing your brain on the earth’. It then goes on, in
a logical, almost ‘medical’ order of systematics,7 with various bone structures
7 On the opposite rite of healing and purification “from head to toe” cf. SADOVSKI 2012:
§§ 2.1ff., with examples of such body-depicting lists in benedictions. The genre is obviously at
least Indo-Iranian: Avesta (Vd. 8,40–72) displays a highly elaborated spiral list of thirty bo-
dy-parts, within the purification ritual for persons that had contact with a dead body. Also in
the magic spells RV. 10,163, AVŚ. 2,33, AVP. 4,15,1–4, all the body parts concerned are
first listed individually, then summarized into the categories limbs, hairs, and joints, and, fi-
Ritual Spells and Practical Magic for Benediction and Malediction
340
– jaws, neck, shoulders, ribs – to finish with the joints and (as a peak of
gradation) the marrow, considered the seat both of life and of progeny:
idaṃ te śiro bhinadmi yātudhāna svāhā-
-idaṃ te mastiṣkaṃ ni tṛṇadmi bhūmyām ||1||
idaṃ te hanū bhinadmi yātudhāna svāhā-
-idaṃ te +jihvāṃ ni tṛṇadmi bhūmyām ||2||
idaṃ te grīvā bhinadmi yātudhāna svāhā-
-idaṃ te +skandhān ni tṛṇadmi bhūmyām ||3||
[...]
idaṃ te kulphau bhinadmi yātudhāna svāhā-
-idaṃ te pādau ni tṛṇadmi bhūmyām || 9||
idaṃ te tvacaṃ bhinadmi yātudhāna svāhā-
-idaṃ te prāṇān ni tṛṇadmi bhūmyām ||10||
idaṃ te parūṃṣi bhinadmi yātudhāna svāhā-
-idaṃ te +majjño ni tṛṇadmi bhūmyām ||11||
(Conjectures after ed. ZEHNDER, ad loc.)
1. Here-and-now I (am) split(ting) your head,
sorcerer: ‘svāhā’; here-and-now I (am) pierc(ing)
your brain down on(to) the earth.
2. Here-and-now I (am) split(ting) your jaws, sor-
cerer: ‘svāhā’; here-and-now I (am) pierc(ing)
your tongue down on(to) the earth.
3. Here-and-now I (am) split(ting) your neck, sor-
cerer: ‘svāhā’; here-and-now I (am) pierc(ing)
your shoulders down on(to) the earth. […]
9. Here-and-now I (am) split(ting) your ankles,
sorcerer: ‘svāhā’; here-and-now I (am) pierc(ing)
your feet down on(to) the earth.
10. Here-and-now I (am) split(ting) your skin,
sorcerer: ‘svāhā’; here-and-now I (am) pierc(ing)
your breathing (etc.) down on(to) the earth.
11. Here-and-now I (am) split(ting) your joints,
sorcerer: ‘svāhā’; here-and-now I (am) pierc(ing)
your marrow down on(to) the earth.
For other instances of (Greek etc.) ‘anatomic curses’ see below, 9.2.2.
6.3.2. The same structure is well spread in Greek and Roman texts. Thus,
beside the case of WÜNSCH 1897, no. 86, quoted above, we find the stylistic
form of body parts enumeration already in the most ancient attestations of ta-
bellae defixionum, the group of Kerameikos [5th c. BC; ed. JORDAN 1985a: 95]:
καταδῶ Χαρίαν ... καὶ ψυχὴν τὴν Χαρίου καὶ
γλῶταν τὴν Χαρίου ... καταδῶ ψυχὴν τὴν
Καλλίππο καὶ χεῖρας τὰς Καλλίππο
I bind Charias... and the soul of Charias and the
tongue of Charias... I bind the soul of
Kallippos... and the hands of Kallippos.
An especially remarkable parallel appears in a Graeco-Egyptian recipe
styled as ‘marvelous erotic binding spell’ (PGM IV, 296–466). In this amatory
charm we have our doll, pierced and stabbed in absolutely the same way like
the witch in the previous text. The recipe prescribes:
‘“Take thirteen bronze needles, drive one into her brain”, saying, “I stab your brain with the
needle, NN [name to be filled in], two in your ears, two in your eyes, and so forth,” each time
saying, “I stab this member of this person so that she thinks only of me, NN”’ (GRAF 1997:
138). – This follows after “a long list of magic words to be engraved on the body of the
female figurine—on her head, ears, eyes, face, right collarbone, arms, hands, heart, belly,
nally, once again recapitulated by sárvasmād ātmánas ‘the whole trunk/torso/body’. – On
these incantations, their textual structure and parallels see recently Kenneth Zysk’s PhD
thesis (TAPhS 75,7, 1985; 21998), Heiner EICHNER, Die Sprache 42, Heft 1–2, 2000–2001
[2004], 211–233, as well as SADOVSKI 2012, § 2.2., with lit.
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genitals, buttocks, and soles of the feet. It is necessary to write on the breast the name of
the victim and that of her mother (315) (which proves that the use of the metronym is
intentional, not used for lack of anything better)” (ibid.).
The same piercing – on twelve body spots – we spot in AVŚ. 3,25,3–6!
6.4. On the topos of ‘burying the victim’ see above, § 5. – Beside the bind-
ing, piercing and de-fixing spells, we find also ‘un-binding spells’, in particular
the so-called separation curses, Trennungszauber, about which s. below, § 9.
7. With regard to the typology of the formulary of binding and piercing
charms, Indo-Iranian knows come the same main types of formulae and struc-
tures as in Greek (s. FARAONE 1991b: 5ff., cf. GAGER 1992: 13), which, to be
sure, could be used in various combinations, even in one and the same spell:
7.1 The direct binding formula (‘I [am (herewith)] bind[ing] X/you!’), a
simple performative utterance (in injunctive or indicative), is ‘designed to ope-
rate through the effective force of the words themselves and without intervention
from any supernatural source’: in § 4.1., we have already seen AVŚ. 7,73[70],4–
5: ‘Turned back/behind are your two arms. I bind your mouth. I bind your arms’.
7.2. We also find a series of Indo-Iranian parallels to Greek and Latin for-
mulae that ‘appeal directly or indirectly for supernatural assistance’ – of the
type ‘Restrain X!’ or ‘May god A restrain B’. Compare e.g. the Vedic formu-
lae (precative or constative) of the type ‘May the god(s) (twist and) bind his
arms behind his back’, in the spell against one’s relatives (AVP 1,18,4a.d):
ihed asātha na puro gamātha- [...]
viśve vo devā upa +saṃdyān iha ||1||
Here you have to be, you will not go forwards [...]
the All-Gods (Viśve Devāḥ) will bind you here together.
Especially the narrative type, in which a god binds hands and feet of the
enemies, is common to Avesta and Veda:
7.2.1. In Avesta, such gods are Miθra and Vərəθraγna: Beside the Gāthic
Avestan appeal ‘to bind down’ (ni + dā) the demon(iac) w/Wrath, on which
see above, § 5.0., cf. for instance the case of Yt. 10,48:
āa ya miθrō frauuazaite
auui haēnaii +xruuišiieitiš
auui hąm.yaṇta rasmaoiiō
aṇtarə daihu pāpərətāne
aθra narąm miθrō.drująm
apąš gauuō darəzaiieiti
para daēma vāraiieiti
apa
+gaoša +taošaiieiti
nōi pāδa vīδāraiieiti
nōi paiti.tauuā bauuaiti
tā daihāuuō tē hamərəθə
yaθa dužbərəṇtō baraiti
When Mithra comes driving
against the blood-thirsty enemy armies,
towards those who (in the area lying)
between two countries at war join their (respective) regiments,
(and, having arrived) there,
fetters behind the evil hands of men false to the treaty,
switches off their eyesight,
deafens their ears:
(then) one no longer disjoins the feet,
one has no strength to counter:
the lands and the men (lit. opponents)
he treats as (he treats) those who treat (him) badly,
Ritual Spells and Practical Magic for Benediction and Malediction
342
miθrō yō vouru.gaoiiaoitiš: Mithra the grassland magnate (GERSHEVITCH).
A detailed analysis of the Avestan hymn Yt. 14, in which the soldiers ask
Vərəθraγna before the battle to bind the hands of the enemies behind (their
backs) by means of cords s. now in SADOVSKI 2009: 158f.; cf. also the posture
with twisted hands/head in the burying curses in §§ 5.0. and 5.1.
7.2.2. In the Veda, the same role is assigned to King Varuṇa, or else, to the
earthly/local king himself who, according to the Kauśika-Sūtra, binds on an
amulet and symbolically binds hand and feet of enemies – cf. in particular
Kauś. 2,7[16],1–26 (‘To terrify enemy’s army, let it run away’), esp. sū. 6, con-
taining a specific performative speech act that exhibits a nucleus (beside a se-
ries of additional details) common with the Avestan topoi (see op. cit., p. 159):
(3) somāṃśuṃ hariṇacarmaṇy
utsīvya kṣatriyāya badhnāti
[…] (6) (saṃdānaṃ vo [6.103])
(ādānena [6.104]) iti pāśair
ādānasaṃdānāni
(3) He binds an (amulet) consisting of Soma stalks, which he
has sewn into a piece of gazelle leather, to a kṣatriya- around
(his neck). […]
(6) The songs 6,103 and 104 are connected with (the actions)
of hand-binding and foot-binding, by means of the cords.
7.2.3. In Greek, ἀποστρέφω ‘to turn down’ is generally used for the action
of twisting of hands and feet that are bound backwards (VERSNEL 1998: 220).
Notably, this is a wide-spread topos in classical tabellae defixionum and in
particular, in ‘judicial curses’: e.g. ἀποστρέφω as terminus technicus trans-
ferred on the tongue, on the tablet from the Demeter Malaphoros sanctuary at
Gaggara, Selinous, early 5th c. BC (JORDAN 1985a, 99; cf. VERSNEL, l. cit.).
7.3. Binding spells can also function as ‘verdicts to Non-Liberty / Annihila-
tion’. The instances we meet in several variations (of the type of AVŚ 16,7,
whose core mantra we called in § 4.2. ‘a full-program piercing-and-destruction
spell’), AVŚ 16,8, are stylistically elaborated, containing series of repetitions
with form variation, gradations, enumerations according to various classificatory
patterns: Thus, the victim shall not be liberated from the bonds of Nir-r
ti; from
the bonds of Abhūti; of Nirbhūti; of Parā-bhūti (four forms of non-existence/
annihilation). Then he is given to the sorcerers of the different branches of
(black or white) magic, and their followers. For 27 stanzas, verses a–d remain
identical! Here a short excerpt from AVŚ. 16,8:
(2e): sá nírr
tyāḥ pāśān mā
moci
(3e): só ʾbhūtyāḥ pāśān mā
moci
(4e): sá nírbhūtyāḥ pāśān mā
moci
(5e) sá párābhūtyāḥ pāśān mā
moci
(11e) só ʾṅgirasāṃ pāśān mā
moci
(12e) sá āṅgirasānāṃ pāśān mā
moci
(13e) só ʾtharvaṇām pāśān mā
moci
(14e) sá ātharvaṇānāṃ pāśān mā
moci
He shall not be liberated from the bonds of the Nir-r
ti.
He shall not be liberated from the bonds of the A-bhūti.
He shall not be liberated from the bonds of the Nir-bhūti.
He shall not be liberated from the bonds of the Parā-bhūti.
He shall not be liberated from the bonds of the Aṅgiras-as.
He shall not be liberated from the bonds of the Āṅgirasa-s.
He shall not be liberated from the bonds of the Atharvan-s.
He shall not be liberated from the bonds of the Ātharvaṇa-s.
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7.4. A particular case of correspondence are the so-called persuasive ana-
logies (FARAONE 1991b: 5, GAGER 1992: 13): Here, the sorcerer or the client
curses the ‘target’ to take on (negative) properties of an object mentioned in
the spell, e.g.: ‘As this lead is cold and useless, so may X be cold and useless!’.
7.5. If we ask yourselves the question, where to bury a voodoo, our ritual
texts as well as specific manuals of magic (in Vedic, Kauśika-Sūtra, in Greek,
a series of magical papyri) give us instructions about marked places of putting
bound effigies, binding spells and other objects of curse.
7.5.1. For what concerns Indo-Iranian, beside a series of indications in the
Avesta that daēuuas and other demoniac beings (on the common Indo-Iranian
aversion against yātu- as acts/agents of black sorcery cf. SADOVSKI 2012) use
wells and other gaps in the earth, cemeteries, generally belonging to the
daēuuic sphere in Zoroastrian tradition and to the asuric one in the Veda, both
the Gr
hya-Sūtras and the unique hymn Atharvaveda 5,31 list more than 20
such places, like wells and cemeteries – cf. e.g. AVŚ. 5,31,8:
yāṃ te kr
tyām kū
pe ʾvadadhúḥ
śmaśāné vā nicakhnúḥ |
sádmani kr
tyām yāṃ cakrúḥ
púnaḥ práti harāmi tām ||8||
What witchcraft (kr
tyā
-) they have put down for thee in the well,
or have dug in at the cemetery;
in the seat (sádman-) what witchcraft they have made —
I take that back again (WHITNEY – LANMAN 1,279).
7.5.2. Absolutely the same locations – cemeteries, wells, walls, fields – are
to observe in the Greek tradition from the 5th century BC onwards:
● Cemeteries: e.g. the Athenian Kerameikos; the necropolis at Camarina in
Sicily (defixiones from ca. 450 BC) etc.; cf. also GAGER 1992: 250ff et passim.
● Wells: cf. e.g. D. R. JORDAN 1985b (and ZPE 9, 1975, 245–248), GRAF
1997: 127, 274f., n. 27, and the funds from the thermae in Arezzo, Italy and
Bath, Britain; cf. also the location of the ritual complex at Uley (TOMLIN 1993).
● Walls: e.g. a 4th century BC κατάδεσμος found buried in a mud-brick wall
of a house in the ancient Athenian industrial quarter (JORDAN 1985a, no. 20; cf.
FARAONE/OBBINK 11); a couple, bound and buried in the supporting wall of
the temple of Zeus Hypsistos on Mount Cynthus on Delos (FARAONE 1991a:
191, 202); on this location in Assyrian tradition, see lit. in GRAF 1997: 170.287.
7.5.3. The existence of Indian correspondents of the Greek type of ‘field-
buried’ magic objects, such as the two lead tabellae defixionum which were
plowed up in a field near Arkesinē, is presupposed by mantras like AVŚ. 4,18,5:
anáya ahám óṣadhyā
sárvāḥ kr
tyā
adūduṣam |
yāṃ kṣétre cakrúr yāṃ góṣu
yāṃ vā te púruṣeṣu ||5||
I, with this herb,
have spoiled all witchcrafts —
what one they have made in the field, what in
the kine, or what in thy men (púruṣa) (WL).
8.1. Analogously, ‘binding charms-and-spells’ play a central part also in
Ritual Spells and Practical Magic for Benediction and Malediction
344
amatory rituals. From the viewpoint of gender/sex, Greek evidence of erotic
magic virtually offers all combinations available: the main agents are ‘men in
pursuit of women’, but there are also other casūs (GAGER 1992: 80):
1. women in pursuit of men: PGM XV, XVI, XIXb, XXXIX; DT 100, 230; GAGER no. 18.
2. women in pursuit of women: PGM XXXII; JORDAN 1985, no. 151;
3. men in pursuit of men: PGM XXXIIa; GAGER no. 25?;
4. recipes to deliver men or women; PGM I, line 98; IV, line 2089; and GAGER no. 31.
8.2. In India, these types of amatory rituals are reduced especially to the
one for winning love of women:
1. men in pursuit of women: e.g., AVŚ. 2,30; 6,8; 6,77; 6,89 etc. etc.
2. women in pursuit of men: e.g., AVŚ. 6,130; 6,130; 6,60; 6,132...
Also here, the excessive formulae of the ‘restrained Eros’, projections of
obsessive possessivity, are pronounced in love/sex spells (and written on fi-
gurines), addressing the ‘beloved victim’:
● Greek (GUARDUCCI, Epigrafia greca IV; GAGER 158f.): I record ‘down’ (κατα-γράφω) Isias,
the daughter of Autoclea, with Hermes the Restrainer. Restrain her near you. I bind Isias before
Hermes the Restrainer (Kat-ochos) — the hands, the feet of Isias, the whole body.
● In Indian ‘women’s rituals’, which make part of Atharvavedic magic and are accomplished by
the Brahmán on behalf of the wife/lover, we find a unique couple of hymns: The first one, AVŚ.
6,138, has the purpose to make the beloved (!) man impotent. The second one, AVŚ. 4,4, is the ‘an-
tidote’ to the first: its task to give him his potency back, but only if he remains bound to the curser!
8.3. We have a number of typological parallels in Greece (6.3.2. and SA-
DOVSKI, in print): the most important examples are the figurine from Athens,
attached to a love spell written on papyrus, and the statuette produced after a
magic recipe, which prescribes that ‘thirteen needles shall be inserted into the fi-
gurine at thirteen symbolically appropriate body spots’ (GAGER 1992: 15), com-
parable with the spell for piercing the victim on 12 body spots, AVŚ 3,25,3–6.
For ‘corporeal binding’, we have entire lists of body parts in amatory spells,
on which see VERSNEL 1998 (Greek, Latin) and SADOVSKI 2012 (Vedic).
8.4. Furthermore, we have a series of fetiches for erotic(izing) prayers, of
amulets, pharmaka, and specialized technologies of philtre-katadesmoi. Also
human hair is largely used in Greek binding and/or erotic magic – see a spell
plate described by David JORDAN, found in a well near the Athenian Agora (on
the general background, cf. JORDAN 1985b: 251–255). In the Indian Yajur-Ve-
da, esp. in Gr
hya-Sūtras, many such charms of hair and nails magic are attested
that can serve as counterparts to the Graeco-Roman evidence. The Indian mate-
rial has been presented by Bruce LINCOLN, History of Religions 16,4, 1977,
353ff.; for the Berlin TOPOI conference 2011 (SADOVSKI, in print), I collected
relevant data from the Avesta, especially the Vidēvdād. Just like in the case of
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the military ritual displayed in SADOVSKI 2009, footprints (or dust taken from
them) can also serve as means of magic manipulation, seizing and control: AVP
2,35,3-4: ‘Your footprint has been taken by (a/my) footprint, | your thought has
been taken by (a/my) thought, | I seized you as one turned to me (/‘frontally’)’.
9.1. Paippalāda-Saṃhitā contains a Trennungszauber curse dedicated to
un-binding lovers, for separation of a woman from a man – AVP. 2,58:
vi vāṃ yantu hṛdayāni
vi cittāni manāṃsi ca |
atho yat tanvoḥ saṃgataṃ
tad vām astu vidūrakam ||5||
asti vai vāṃ viduvikam
ubhau śayane antarā |
viṣvañcau pary ā vartethāṃ
yathā vāṃ na sahāsati ||6||
Ed. ZEHNDER 1999: 130–134:
5. The hearts of you two shall go asunder/apart, asun-
der/apart the intentions and the thoughts; and then that
of the two bodies which has been united, that of you may
be wide asunder/apart.
6. (Now) there is a separation in bed between you two:
turn (‘yourself’) in different directions, so that there will
be no (more) together(ness) for you two.
The background of this mantra is even more curious, since contains a form of
‘intertextual communication’ of the Atharvavedins with a popular R
gvedic text:
RV. 10,191,4: samānī
va ākūtiḥ
samānā hr
dayāni vaḥ /
samānám astu vo máno
yáthā vaḥ súsahā
sati //4//
United (be) your intention,
united your hearts,
united be your thought,
so that here will be beautiful together(ness) for you!
It is the very last verse of the last stanza of the last hymn of the last, 10th
Maṇḍala: the hymn ‘for harmony’ (popular also under its GELDNERian name,
as ‘Eintrachtslied’), with which the whole RV-Saṃhitā ends, so to say, on a
high tone and with a positive note. In a striking example of deconstruction, ‘à la
Derrida’, of this positive sūkta, as Jan HOUBEN (apud ZEHNDER 1999: 130f)
discovered, the Brahmáns manage to turn this key stanza of the hymn about
harmony to a mantra for dis-harmony! Of course, such a de-constructive man-
tra is considered at least double as de-structive as a ‘common’ magic formula,
for carrying the inverse power of such a crucial Vorlage of the powerful R
g-
vedin competitors as 10,191. And ‘turning the medal’ of the meaning of the
very last RV verse has also the symbolic significance of ‘laughing last’ in the
sense of ‘saying the very last word’, thus winning against all odds in the
agonistic situation of ‘perpetual competitiveness’ between the Veda clans.
One has to stress the fact that this approach of ‘inverse ritual poetry-and-
action’ (for YV and Avestan examples, see SADOVSKI, in print, b), is carried
through in a completely conscious manner not only in this particular verse but
in the entire stanza 5 (and hymn AVP. 2,58), using classical constructive de-
vices of Vedic language of poetry such as the anaphora (which normally func-
tions as a sort of a spinal column (literally, with its columnal structure!) of a
Ritual Spells and Practical Magic for Benediction and Malediction
346
Vedic stanza: Thus, while RV. 10,191,4 exhibits the classical threefold ana-
phoric construction (cf. Jared KLEIN’s paper in this volume) of pāda a-c with
the anaphoric repetition of sam°, AVP. 2,58,5–6 answers (in the course of this
‘intertextual communication’) with a double de-construction: on the one hand,
the anaphora in pāda a–b contains not sam° but its perfect opposite, ví! – and,
on the other, the anaphora of RV. 10,191,4a–c is not only negated in the de-
scribed way but also negatively mirrored by its opposite, a form of epiphora of
the last words of AVP. 2,58,5d and 6a: vi-dūrakam and vi-duvikam, with a
‘mesophora’ resuming the separative vi, with homoioteleuton and a semantic
parallelism (apart – ‘partition’/separation) that leaves no space for doubt that
former harmony is now perverted to dis-harmony.
9.2. Also for the group of Trennungszuber, we have good parallel evidence
in Greek, in both binding and un-binding rites:
9.2.1. Separation of a woman from a man is the subject e.g. of the type of
‘negatively binding’ curses (GAGER 1992: 90, but see also GRAF 1997:
150ff., and cf. WINKLER in FARAONE – OBBINK 1991: 240, n.65):
● [...] I bind Theodora to remain unmarried to Charias and (I bind) Charias to forget
Theodora, and (I bind) Charias to forget ... Theodora and marriage bed with Theodora.
9.2.2. In case of enumeration of anatomic parts, we observe the genre that
VERSNEL 1998 called ‘anatomic curses’ (here, for physical separation) and
which is a beautiful match of ‘anatomic curses’ we have discussed in 6.3.1.:
● SEG 30. 353 (JORDAN 1985a, no. 57), Nemea, prob. 4th c. BC: ‘I turn away Euboula from Ai-
neas, from his face (προσώπου), from his eyes (ὀφθαλμῶν), from his mouth (στόματος),
from his nipples (τιθθίαν), from his soul (ψυχᾶς), from his belly (γάστρος), from his
[penis] ([+ψωλίον]), from his anus (πρωκτοῦ), from his entire body (ὅλου τοῦ σώματος). I
turn away Euboula from Aineas.’ (GAGER 1992: 25; VERSNEL 1998: 231).
10. To avoid any ambiguity about the person the spell was intended for, he/
she was identified by name and mother’s name (see also § 4.2. and cf. GRAF
1997: 127f.). What is important in the context of the rituals thematized here, is
the ritual group to be subsumed under the rubric of ‘binding or seizing names’:
10.1. If you could bind (or ‘seize’) the name, you had complete control over
its holder. Both in the Graeco-Egyptian space and in India, the practice of iden-
tifying personal names by matrilineal descent was characteristic in the treat-
ment of names in binding spells: ‘I curse X, whose mother is Y’. The Indian for-
mulaic examples are a legion; for a basic tripartite structure cf. AVŚ 10,5,44:
rājño váruṇasya bandhó 'si |
só 'múm āmuṣyāyaṇám amúṣyāḥ putrám
ánne prāṇé badhāna ||44||
44. You are bond of king Varuṇa. Bind now X, des-
cendent of Y, son of the mother Z, in his food and his
prāṇa- (breath/vital energy), – or AVŚ 16,8,2–4:
tásmād amúṃ nír bhajāmo 2. […] of this (all possession) we deprive X:
Velizar SADOVSKI
347
'amúm āmuṣyāyaṇám
amúṣyāḥ putrám asáu yáḥ |
sá nírr
tyāḥ pāśān mā
moci ||2||
X, descendant of Y,
son (of mother) Z; (the one) who is X;
he shall not be liberated from the bonds of Nirr
ti.
10.2. Just like in Graeco-Egyptian magic papyri we find ritual instructions to
intentionally use metronymics (cf. F. JONES, Nominum Ratio, Liverpool Classical
Papers 4, Liverpool 1996), so in Indo-Iranian, ‘knowing X’s mother’s or father’s
name’ is considered a powerful method of control and linking. SADOVSKI 2009
analyzes the hymn AVŚ. 1,2,1, which starts with this mantra for manipulation of
hostile missiles (reed being a standard metonym/synecdoche for ‘arrow’):
vidmā
śarásya pitáraṃ:
parjányaṃ bhridhāyasam /
vidmó ṣuv àsya mātáraṃ
pthivṃ bhrivarpasam//1//
We know the reed’s father:
Parjanya the much-nourishing;
and we know well its mother:
the earth of many aspects (WL).
10.3. One can even bind divinities by seizing their names, similarly to the
extreme Greek polis ritual of binding gods cited above (§ 5.). For Indian, com-
pare e.g. AVŚ. 1,191,13; 10,145,4. Another appropriate, recently found ex-
ample from the Paippalāda-Saṃhitā I can quote in this context, is AVP. 6,7,7:
yas tvā bhūme ʾnvavindad
yas tvā bhūma udābharat |
tayoḥ sahasradhāmann
ahaṃ nāmāni jagrabha ||
I have seized the names of these two [= (divine) Eagle (Vi-
ṣṇu/Sun?) and (divine) Hog (: Viṣṇu?)], o you of a thousand
abodes: the one who has discovered you, o Earth, the one
who has brought you up, o Earth (cf. ed. GRIFFITHS 95).
– and, per analogiam, one can pronounce the same name-seizing ritual formula
also with regard to (and even, dialogically, toward) teratomorphic forces of
positive or negative power, like healing plants or (demons of) diseases. – Once
again, what follows are instances from the Paippalādic material, AVP. 2,32,4:
● śunam ahaṃ madhughasya
pitur nāmeva *jagrabha |
yo mā hiraṇyavarcasaṃ
*kṛṇavat +pūruṣapriyam ||
For a profit I have seized the names of (the plant) Madhu-
gha, (just) like (his) father’s name, which (‘Madhugha’)
will make me of golden brilliance, pleasant to people (conj.
ZEHNDER 91f.), – cf. also AVP. 1,21,2a.3cd:
● apacitaḥ pra patata
[...] sarvāsām agrabhaṃ nāma-
-avīraghnīr apetana ||
O Apacits (scrofulosis)! Fly forth [...]
I seized the name(s) of all,
go away, as ‘Ones-who-do-not-kill-men’.
10.4. The binding charms find social employment in rites of ‘seizing gods’:
● The Greek data contain rituals like the one of ‘binding Ares’ and subjecting
him to the will of the polis, e.g. in Boeotia (4th c. BC, FARAONE 1991b: 166ff).
● The Indian evidence is represented by groups of rituals ‘for power above
gods and the world’ like Kauś.-Sū. 133,3, with mantras from AVP. 1,40,1ff:
mamobhā mitrāvaruṇā
mamobhendrābṛhaspatī |
mama tvaṣṭā ca pūṣā ca
mamaiva savitā vaśe ||1||
1. Mine (shall be) both: Mitra and Varuṇa,
mine: Indra und Bṛhaspati,
mine: Tvaṣṭar and Pūṣan
in my power only (be) also Savitar.
Ritual Spells and Practical Magic for Benediction and Malediction
348
The hymn continues with stanzas containing many other divine names, or-
dered according a principle of systematizaton that starts with the Divine, goes
over macrocosm with a list of celestial and terrestrial elements and finishing
with human microcosm: In this catalogue, we find the following items: ‘all
gods; heaven, earth, atmosphere, sun; plants, waters; cows, horses, goats, sheep;
humans; all the living world’. Details on this structure see in SADOVSKI 2012.
11. On the material of our text sources, including new-found ones, this paper
and the series of studies it makes part of demonstrate how the research in the
structure and form of the texts and rites attested in the Atharvaveda and Yajur-
veda, in comparison with the Avesta, turns out to be seminal for our under-
standing of their ritual pragmatics, especially for what concerns the question
of ‘how to do things with words’ in Old Indo-Iranian liturgical practice. More-
over, we see how, from the point of view both of linguistics and of religious
history, contrastive studies of the system of magical spells-and-charms used in
the private or public ritual, their stylistics, syntax, intra-textual structure, and
inter-textual relations, can shed light upon various common aspects of ritual
poetry and pragmatics that have been largely neglected in the analysis of the
individual traditions so far – but that turn out to be essential for the knowledge
of the underlying common structures of religious thinking and spiritual life.
I would like to dedicate this work on the complex of questions concerning
the topics of Speech and Ritual in Indo-Iranian to my first teacher of Avesta
and Rigveda, Prof. Jochem SCHINDLER, whose active interest in assessing the
role of extra-linguistic reality, such as the data of material culture or ritual
pragmatics, for the interpretation of our texts, made an essential part of his
own scholarly research and was well-known to us his students from the vivid
discussions with him both inside his teaching classes and outside the Uni-
versity, in the real life of lived academism so typical of him: that lived and
living Academism – with all its Socratic-dialogic, Aristotelian-peripatetic, and
Platonic-idealist dimensions – which has been giving us inspiration and philo-
logical fascination for the world of the living Word through the years.
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