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Using the ARP-03 for high-resolution mapping of calcic horizons

DOI:10.2478/v10247-012-0100-0
Authors:
Simone Priori at Tuscia University
Simone Priori
Maria Fantappiè at Council for Agricultural Research and Agricultural Economy Analysis
Maria Fantappiè
E. A. C. Costantini at CNR-IBE
E. A. C. Costantini
  • CNR-IBE
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The aim of this work is to present a fast and cheap method for high-resolution mapping of calcic horizons in vineyards based on geoelectrical proximal sensing. The study area, 45 ha located in southern Sicily (Italy), was characterized by an old, partially dismantled marine terrace and soils with a calcic horizon at different depths. The geoelectrical investigation consisted of a survey of the soil electrical resistivity recorded with the Automatic Resistivity Profiling-03 sensor. The electrical resistivity values at three pseudo-depths, 0-50, 0-100 and 0-170 cm, were spatialized by means of ordinary kriging. A principal component analysis of the three electrical resistivity maps was carried out. During the survey , 18 boreholes, located at different electrical resistivity values, were made for soil description and sampling. The depth to the calcic horizon showed a strong correlation with electrical resisti-vity. The regression model between calcic horizon and the principal component analysis factors with the highest correlation coefficients was selected to spatialise the calcic horizon values. An Normalized Difference Vegetation Index map was used to validate the calcic horizon map in terms of crop response to different soil rooting depths. The strengths of this method are the quick, non-in-vasive kind of survey, the relevance for vine vigour, and the high spatial resolution of the final map.
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Supplementary resource (1)

2013 Intern Agrophysics27 ARP Mezzacorona
Data
May 2016
Simone Priori · Maria Fantappiè · S. Magini · E. A. C. Costantini
... Therefore, the results of the geophysical surveys by measurement of soil ERa and ECa enabled the identification of field heterogeneity due to deep in situ soil reworking and/or presence of polluted materials. Indeed, ERa and ECa are key parameters for understanding high spatial resolution soil geography, since they are strongly affected by physical, chemical and hydrologic properties, including soil moisture [55], soil compaction, coarse fragments and clay content [56,57], salinity [58] and carbonate content [59]. ECa maps represent the combined results of the spatial variability of the soil properties, but the effect produced by a single property is impossible to identify. ...
... ECa maps represent the combined results of the spatial variability of the soil properties, but the effect produced by a single property is impossible to identify. Nevertheless, EMI sensors are widely applied in anthropogenic [20] and natural environments [25,26,59] due to their effectiveness in studies of soil spatial variability and identification of HZs for purposes related to pollution remediation and precision agriculture. As a general rule, PSS surveys are carried out only after earth movements and site rearrangements, enabling researchers to collect information on the state of such places. ...
Multi-Sensor Approach Combined with Pedological Investigations to Understand Site-Specific Variability of Soil Properties and Potentially Toxic Elements (PTEs) Content of an Industrial Contaminated Area
Article
Full-text available
  • Apr 2022
A combination of indirect soil investigation by proximal soil sensors (PSS), based on geophysical (ARP, EMI), physical (Cone Index –CI– by ultrasound penetrometry) and spectrometric (γ-rays) techniques, as well as pedological surveys, was applied in the field to assess the spatial variability of soil pollution and physical degradation in an automobile-battery recycling plant in southern Italy. Five homogeneous zones (HZs) were identified by the PSS and characterized by soil profiles. CI measurements and field analysis showed clear features of physical (i.e., soil compaction, massive structure) degradation. XRF in situ (on profiles) analysis using portable equipment (pXRF) showed Pb, Cd and As concentrations exceeding the contamination thresholds provided by the Italian regulation for industrial land use up to 20 or 100 cm of depth. Hence, a validation procedure, based on pXRF field survey, was applied to the PSS approach used for the HZs identification. High consistency was found between the HZs and the PTEs in the most contaminated areas. Significant negative Pearson correlation coefficients were found between γ-rays dose rate and Pb, Cu, Zn, As and Ni; positive ones were found between γ-rays and autochthonous lithogenic elements (V, Ti, Mn, K, Sr, Nb, Zr, Rb, Th), confirming that higher radionuclide activity correlated with lower pollution levels.
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... This response is a function of several soil properties, such as the bulk density, clay fraction, soil organic matter, stone fraction and water content (Cockx, van Meirvenne, & de Vos, 2007;Piikki, Wetterlind, Söderström, & Stenberg, 2015;Seladji, Cosenza, Tabbagh, Ranger, & Richard, 2010). The technology has been successfully used to measure depths to the lower boundary of an A-horizon (Chaplot, Lorentz, Podwojewski, & Jewitt, 2010;Söderström et al., 2016), to argillic horizons or clay pans (Doolittle, Sudduth, Kitchen, & Indorante, 1994;Sudduth, Kitchen, Myers, & Drummond, 2010;Tabbagh, Dabas, Hesse, & Panissod, 2000) and to calcic horizons (Priori, Fantappi c, Magini, & Constantini, 2013). ...
... The relative RMSEs (2.6, 6.9 and 12.9%) were at the lower boundary of the 10.0-21.2% range reported in the literature (Chaplot et al., 2010;Priori et al., 2013;Söderström et al., 2016;Sudduth et al., 2010). On the other hand, the MLR-predicted buried horizon depths were unsatisfactory in the 2D transect compared to the pseudo-3D area; thus, these depths are only discussed in the section "Comparison of different geoelectrical devices". ...
Digital mapping of buried soil horizons using 2D and pseudo‐3D geoelectrical measurements in a ground moraine landscape
Article
  • May 2019
The identification of buried soil horizons in agricultural landscapes helps to quantify sediment budgets and erosion‐related carbon dynamics. High‐resolution mapping of buried horizons using conventional soil surveys is destructive and time‐consuming. Geoelectrical sensors can offer a fast and non‐destructive alternative for determining horizon positions and properties. In this paper, we compare the suitability of several geoelectrical methods for measuring the depth to buried horizons (Apb, Ahb, and Hab) in the hummocky ground moraine landscape of northeastern Germany. Soil profile descriptions were developed for 269 locations within a 6‐ha experimental field “CarboZALF‐D”. A stepwise linear discriminant analysis (LDA) estimated the lateral position of the buried horizons using electromagnetic induction data and terrain attributes. To predict the depth of a buried horizon, multiple linear regression (MLR) was used for both a 120 m transect and a 0.2 ha pseudo‐3D area. At these scales, apparent electrical conductivity (ECa), electrical resistivity (ER) and terrain attributes were used as independent variables. The LDA accurately predicted Apb‐ and Ahb‐horizons (a correct classification of 93 %). The LDA of the Hab‐horizon had a misclassification of 24 %, which was probably related to the smaller test set and the higher depth of this horizon. The MLR predicted the depth of the Apb‐, Ahb‐ and Hab‐horizons with relative root mean square errors (RMSEs) of 7 %, 3 % and 13 %, respectively, in the pseudo‐3D area. MLR had a lower accuracy for the 2D transect compared to the pseudo‐3D area. Overall, the use of LDA and MLR has been an efficient methodological approach for predicting buried horizon positions.
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... Mapping regolith thickness to bedrock is important for environmental modelling in For fine scale mapping, proximal sensing of the soil's electrical conductivity appears to be an efficient way to map calcic horizons (Priori et al., 2013). Priori et al. (2013) concluded that the depth to the calcic horizon in a vineyard showed a strong correlation with soil electrical conductivity by combining data from the geoelectrical sensor with a limited number of soil cores. ...
... Mapping regolith thickness to bedrock is important for environmental modelling in For fine scale mapping, proximal sensing of the soil's electrical conductivity appears to be an efficient way to map calcic horizons (Priori et al., 2013). Priori et al. (2013) concluded that the depth to the calcic horizon in a vineyard showed a strong correlation with soil electrical conductivity by combining data from the geoelectrical sensor with a limited number of soil cores. ...
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... The EM38-Mk2 measures the apparent electrical conductivity (ECa) of the soil at two depth ranges of about 0-0.75 (ECa 1 ) and 0-1.50 m (ECa 2 ) [50]. Soil physical properties, such as texture, stoniness, bulk density [51], soil moisture and water availability [52,53], soil depth [54], as well as organic matter [55] all affect ECa. "The Mole" spectroradiometer continuously measures the natural gamma-ray emission coming from the first 0.3-0.4 ...
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... The EM38-Mk2 measures the apparent electrical conductivity (ECa) of the soil at two depth ranges of about 0-0.75 (ECa1) and 0-1.50 m (ECa2) [50]. Soil physical properties, such as texture, stoniness, bulk density [51], soil moisture and water availability [52,53], soil depth [54], as well as organic matter [55] all affect ECa. "The Mole" spectroradiometer continuously measures the natural gamma-ray emission coming from the first 0.3-0.4 ...
Remote and Proximal Sensing Techniques for Site-Specific Irrigation Management in the Olive Orchard
Article
Full-text available
  • Jan 2022
The aim of this study was to evaluate the potential use of remote and proximal sensing techniques to identify homogeneous zones in a high density irrigated olive (Olea europaea L.) orchard subjected to three irrigation regimes (full irrigation, deficit irrigation and rainfed conditions). An unmanned aerial vehicle equipped with a multispectral camera was used to measure the canopy NDVI and two different proximal soil sensors to map soil spatial variability at high resolution. We identified two clusters of trees showing differences in fruit yield (17.259 and 14.003 kg per tree in Cluster 1 and 2, respectively) and annual TCSA increment (0.26 and 0.24 dm 2 , respectively). The higher tree productivity measured in Cluster 1 also resulted in a higher water use efficiency for fruit (WUEf of 0.90 g dry weight L −1 H2O) and oil (WUEo of 0.32 g oil L −1 H2O) compared to Cluster 2 (0.67 and 0.27 for WUEf and WUEo, respectively). Remote and proximal sensing technologies allowed to determine that: (i) the effect of different irrigation regimes on tree performance and WUE depended on the location within the orchard; (ii) tree vigour played a major role in determining the final fruit yield under optimal soil water availability, whereas soil features prevailed under rainfed conditions .
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... During the land preparation planning, a detailed study of the soil spatial variability, also through innovative techniques like proximal and remote sensing, allows a site-specific approach and strongly increases the success of the new plantation (Priori et al., 2013(Priori et al., , 2018. The adoption of the practice can be in some cases more expensive and time consuming than the common procedure of land preparation before tree plantation (Bazzoffi and Tesi, 2011). ...
Costantini-Priori Avoiding improper earth movements before planting tree crops FAO-recarbonizing-3
Chapter
Full-text available
  • Nov 2021
Avoiding improper earth movements before planting tree crops
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... PSS technologies include contact electrodes designed for electrical resistivity (ER) methods, electromagnetic induction (EMI), mechanical sensors, gamma-ray spectroscopy, vis-NIR diffuse reflectance spectroscopy (VNIR-DRS), and laser induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) (Viscarra Rossel et al., 2011). Among these technologies, the sensors based on soil electrical resistivity (or conductivity), namely ER and EMI sensors, are the most common for mapping soil salinity (Scudiero et al., 2013), texture (Doolittle and Brevik, 2014), moisture (Martini et al., 2017), and depth (Priori et al., 2013). ER techniques involve contact electrodes that directly inject electrical current into the soil, and measure the electrical potential drop due to the electrical resistivity of a determined volume of soil. ...
Soil Salinity and Sodicity in Drylands: A Review of Causes, Effects, Monitoring, and Restoration Measures
Article
Full-text available
  • Aug 2021
Soil salinization and sodification are common processes that particularly characterize drylands. These processes can be attributed either to natural conditions or anthropogenic activities. While natural causes include factors such as climate, lithology, topography, and pedology, human causes are mostly related to agricultural land-use, and specifically, to irrigated agriculture. The objective of this study was to thoroughly review this topic, while highlighting the major challenges and related opportunities. Over time, the extent of saline, sodic, and saline-sodic croplands has increased, resulting in accelerated land degradation and desertification, decreased agricultural productivity, and consequently jeopardizing environmental and food security. Mapping and monitoring saline soils is an important management tool, aimed at determining the extent and severity of salinization processes. Recent developments in advanced remote sensing methods have improved the efficacy of mapping and monitoring saline soils. Knowledge on prevention, mitigation, and recovery of soil salinity and sodicity has substantially grown over time. This knowledge includes advanced measures for salt flushing and leaching, water-saving irrigation technologies, precision fertilizer systems, chemical restoration, organic and microbial remediation, and phytoremediation of affected lands. Of a particular interest is the development of forestry-related means, with afforestation, reforestation, agroforestry, and silvopasture practices for the recovery of salt-affected soils. The forecasted expansion of drylands and aggravated drying of existing drylands due to climatic change emphasize the importance of this topic.
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... EMI measurements are also influenced by the gravel content [16], soil depth [17], bulk density [18] and, indirectly, soil water availability [19]. The correlation between ER and soil water retention can be explained by the strong relationships of both variables with soil physical features, like texture, coarse fragments, and porosity [20]. ...
Towards Economic Land Evaluation at the Farm Scale Based on Soil Physical-Hydrological Features and Ecosystem Services
Article
Full-text available
  • Jul 2019
The economic evaluation of a land parcel is mainly based on the local economy, as well as on the topography, distance to the main streets, distance to the river, and presence of irrigation. Spatial variability of soil features and functionalities are often left behind during economic land evaluation, probably due to a scarce awareness of soil function’s economic value. The paper shows an approach for economic land evaluation of irrigated croplands in the Po River plain (Northern Italy), based on spatial variability of soil functions, namely biomass production and carbon sequestration, as well as taking into account the river flood risk. The soil spatial variability was mapped using proximal sensing technology and few calibration points (one every 5 hectares). Biomass production of the main crops of the area, namely maize, soybean, and sorghum, was monitored and mapped for three years (2016, 2017, and 2018) using precision agriculture technologies. The results showed that the available water capacity (AWC) reached the highest correlation with biomass production, additionally, soil texture and cation exchange capacity were significantly correlated. Economic evaluation of the land parcels was computed considering the mean land market value of the area, the site-specific deviations due to the spatial variability of the biomass production by capitalization rate, and carbon sequestration soil functions, applying a natural capital approach by the mean annual value of the carbon market. This site-specific methodology could be applied to many other arable lands.
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... Large and sudden changes in soil properties, occurring in the area, are one of the most important issues that farmers have to manage for the implementation of precision farming techniques. In 2015, the farm conducted a survey for the determination of soil properties using the Automatic Resistivity Profiler (ARP) geophysical sensor (Priori et al, 2013) as well as soil sampling. From these data, a soil map of the whole farm was derived by the surveying company (SOING, Livorno, Italy). ...
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Scale effect of terroir under three contrasting vintages in the Chianti Classico area (Tuscany, Italy)
Article
Full-text available
In viticulture, terroir is a concept used to explain the specific combination and interaction of natural and human factors that provides distinctive characteristics to the wine. The role of soil and geology on wine characteristics is debated and sometimes considered less important than either climate or the human component. The present study, performed on one of the largest farms of the “Chianti Classico” wine district (Tuscany, Italy), focused on the effect of terroir on wine characteristics using two different zoning scales. At a broader scale, called macro-terroir (MT), the experimental vineyards were selected based on lithology, soilscape, morphology, and mesoclimate. Each vineyard was then subdivided at a detailed scale into two homogeneous zones for soil features, the Basic Terroir Units or Unité Terroir de Base (UTB). The study was conducted during three different vintages (2012, ’13 and ’14), in vineyards located in four different MT, which are representative of large parts of the Chianti Classico wine district. The vineyards were surveyed by proximal sensors, namely electromagnetic induction sensor (EMI) and gamma-ray spectroscopy to characterize soil spatial variability and to define two homogeneous areas (UTB) of about 2 hectares in each MT. The UTB differed for some soil features, mainly texture, gravel content, soil depth, available water capacity, and internal drainage. The weather for the three vintages was very different e during the growing season, which was very dry and hot in 2012, moderately wet and warm in 2013 and chilly and very wet in 2014. Grape harvest, wine-making and six-month ageing were carried out separately for the different UTB, using the same methodology. Mixed-design analysis of the variance of several must and wine features demonstrated that MT played the major role on must pH, as well as total acidity, glycerine content and colour intensity of the wine. The climate of the vintage played a stronger role than MT on the content of must malic acid, as well as polyphenols, anthocyanins and dry extract of the wine. Blind wine sensory analysis performed for all vintages showed significant differences between wines from the different UTB, in particular for colour intensity and wine aroma, but the differences between UTB within each MT were not stable over the three contrasting vintages, being less pronounced in the most humid vintage (summer 2014). This study demonstrates that characteristics of pedo-geological landscapes can be used for a wine district zoning, while a more detailed soil mapping, leading to UTB identification, is needed for differentiating particular wine characteristics.
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Vine and water a short review
Article
Full-text available
Water is an important factor in the terroirs of grape-growing regions. The vine obtains water from rainfall and the water table and when it is in short supply, it is necessary either to irrigate or accept the effects of water stress. Depending on the intensity of the water stress and the period at which it occurs, it may or not be favourable for the harvest and the wine it is used to produce. The objective of this article is to provide some information on the relationship that exists between the vine and water. The climate and the soil, which are essential but not the sole elements of this relationship will only be touched upon, but we will discuss in a non exhaustive way, with information's from the bibliography or from our research, the following aspects: the root system, vegetative growth, the relationship between plant architecture and the water status of the vine, the carbon balance and the biochemical composition of the grape berry in relation to vine water status. We will also present the currently available techniques for measuring vine water status and its evolution during the vegetative cycle as a function of water reserves in the soil easy to use by the roots. Finally examples are presented of possible recommendations for vine cultural practices as a function of the vine water status evolution during the growth, according to the predawn leaf water potential thresholds.
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Making sense of vineyard variability in Australia
Article
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  • Jan 2003
Vineyards are variable. Grapegrowers and winemakers have known this for as long as they have been growing grapes and making wine, but in the absence of tools or methods to accurately observe and measure the variation, variability has been accepted as a fact of life and the majority of vineyards have been managed on the assumption that they are homogenous.
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Principal Component Analysis and Factor Analysis
Chapter
  • Jan 1986
Principal component analysis has often been dealt with in textbooks as a special case of factor analysis, and this tendency has been continued by many computer packages which treat PCA as one option in a program for factor analysis—see Appendix A2. This view is misguided since PCA and factor analysis, as usually defined, are really quite distinct techniques. The confusion may have arisen, in part, because of Hotelling’s (1933) original paper, in which principal components were introduced in the context of providing a small number of ‘more fundamental’ variables which determine the values of the p original variables. This is very much in the spirit of the factor model introduced in Section 7.1, although Girschick (1936) indicates that there were soon criticisms of Hotelling’s method of PCs, as being inappropriate for factor analysis. Further confusion results from the fact that practitioners of ‘factor analysis’ do not always have the same definition of the technique (see Jackson, 1981). The definition adopted in this chapter is, however, fairly standard.
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Understanding variability in winegrape production systems 1. Within vineyard variation in yield over several vintages
Article
  • Apr 2004
Spatial variability in winegrape yield was studied over several vintages in blocks planted to Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot and Ruby Cabernet in the Coonawarra, Clare Valley and Sunraysia regions of Australia using new yield monitoring technology, a differentially corrected global positioning system (GPS), a geographical information system and some simple methods of spatial analysis. In any given year, yield was highly variable and typically of the order of 10 fold (i.e. 2 to 20 t/ha). However, through the use of k-means clustering and a method based on assessment of the probability of achieving yield targets relative to the mean annual block yield, temporal stability in the patterns of yield variation was demonstrated, even though there were substantial year to year differences in mean annual yield in these blocks. The methods used to demonstrate temporal stability in the patterns of yield variation also promote identification of zones of characteristic performance within variable vineyard blocks. Of significance in this work was the finding that, whilst k-means clustering is the more statistically robust of the two methods used, the ability to incorporate expert knowledge into the yield target method enhances the ability of the manager to accommodate the effects of abnormal events (e.g. an unusually cold flowering period) in the zone identification process. Targeted harvesting of different zones, followed by comparison between commercial lots of wine, provided indication that wine characteristics vary from zone to zone. However, the ranking of wine scores for the various zones changed between seasons. Our results have important implications for the adoption of Precision Viticulture. In particular, they support the introduction of a system of zonal vineyard management. Thus, rather than being managed uniformly, individual blocks can be split into zones in which the management of both inputs to, and outputs from the production system can be applied differentially.
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Mapping suitability for Sangiovese wine by means of δ13C and geophysical sensors in soils with moderate salinity
Article
A three year experiment was carried out to test the possibility of using the carbon isotope ratio (δ13C) measured in wine, combined with data of proximal and remote soil sensors, to assess viticultural and oenological suitability for Sangiovese. Two specialized vineyards on similar geomorphological conditions were investigated. Twelve plots were positioned differently along slopes. The soils were similar, except for structure, porosity and related hydrological characteristics, and salinity of the deeper horizons.
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