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South African herbal teas: Aspalathus linearis, Cyclopia spp. and Athrixia phylicoides-A review
Abstract
Rooibos (Aspalathus linearis (Brum.f) Dahlg.) and honeybush (Cyclopia Vent. species) are popular indigenous South African herbal teas enjoyed for their taste and aroma. Traditional medicinal uses of rooibos in South Africa include alleviation of infantile colic, allergies, asthma and dermatological problems, while a decoction of honeybush was used as a restorative and as an expectorant in chronic catarrh and pulmonary tuberculosis. Traditional medicinal uses of Athrixia phylicoides DC., or bush tea, another indigenous South African plant with very limited localised use as herbal tea, include treatment of boils, acne, infected wounds and infected throats. Currently rooibos and honeybush are produced for the herbal tea market, while bush tea has potential for commercialisation. A summary of the historical and modern uses, botany, distribution, industry and chemical composition of these herbal teas is presented. A comprehensive discussion of in vitro, ex vivo and in vivo biological properties, required to expand their applications as nutraceutical and cosmeceutical products, is included, with the main emphasis on rooibos. Future research needs include more comprehensive chemical characterisation of extracts, identification of marker compounds for extract standardisation and quality control, bioavailability and identification of bio-markers of dietary exposure, investigation of possible herb–drug interactions and plant improvement with regards to composition and bioactivity.
... Previous phytochemical studies on lemon balm have revealed the presence of a wide range of chemical constituents (such as triterpenoids and polyphenols) that could be responsible for its pharmacological effects [19,31,32]. In South Africa, several plants are consumed as herbal infusions and decoctions such as rooibos tea [Aspalathus linearis (Burm.f.) R.Dahlgren] and honeybush tea (Cyclopia spp.) [33][34][35]. Among them, rooibos tea has gained increasing attention over the years due to its antioxidant activity and associated health-promoting properties [33]. ...
... In South Africa, several plants are consumed as herbal infusions and decoctions such as rooibos tea [Aspalathus linearis (Burm.f.) R.Dahlgren] and honeybush tea (Cyclopia spp.) [33][34][35]. Among them, rooibos tea has gained increasing attention over the years due to its antioxidant activity and associated health-promoting properties [33]. It is reported that 12,500 tonnes of rooibos tea are commonly produced each year in South Africa and 4,500 to 5,000 tonnes are consumed locally, while the rest is exported [36]. ...
... For example, rooibos tea is traditionally prepared as a decoction and not as an infusion [35]. Traditional rooibos tea is prepared through a fermentation process and has a characteristic red-brown colour ("red rooibos"), with a pleasant and slightly sweet flavour [33,35,37]. The unfermented product (green in color) is referred to as green rooibos [38]. ...
Background
The consumption of various herbal infusions was and is common in the traditional Mediterranean diet, and apparently are used in many other regions of the world outside of the Mediterranean region. The present study aimed to investigate the consumption of herbal infusions/decoctions and tea in a nationally representative sample of Greece, considering also their Planetary use.
Methods
3951 adult participants of the HYDRIA Survey (2013–2014) were included from the 13 regions of Greece. The diet of participants was assessed by two 24-h dietary recalls (24-HDR) and the Food Propensity Questionnaire (FPQ). All food items were analyzed through the HYDRIA Food Composition Tables. Information on socio-demographics, lifestyle, and health characteristics during the baseline was also provided.
Results
26.9% of herbal infusions and decoctions consumers are ≥ 75 years old, pensioners with a low level of education, and residents of urban areas. However, 22.2% of tea consumers belong to the 18–34-year age group, being employed with an intermediate level of education and living in an urban area. Elderly men and women use more herbal infusions/decoctions (55.4%; 40.6%) compared to tea (41.8%; 25.2%). According to FPQ, 7.1% of men and 9.7% of women use herbal infusions and decoctions four times or more per week, while 7.1 and 10.9% of men and women, respectively, consume tea at the same frequency. Green tea, mountain tea (Sideritis spp.), and black tea are reported most frequently. In addition, mountain tea (61.2%), black tea (60.3%), mixed herbal infusions/decoctions (58.4%), and sage (59.4%) are consumed mostly at breakfast, while chamomile was reported mainly at dinner or during the night (42.4%).
Conclusions
Based on the FPQ results, the moderate and high consumption of herbal infusions/decoctions and tea is low in Greece, especially among adults (18–64 years). Thus, our results indicate the existence of a generation gap to the attachment to the traditional Med Diet and the consumption of herbal infusions. The present study could encourage future research to focus on herbal infusions and decoctions consumption by other populations for cross-cultural comparison, as well as on emphasizing the value of consuming locally available herbs in a Planeterranean perspective.
Graphical Abstract
... (family Fabaceae; tribe Crotalarieae), better known as Rooibos, and various species of Cyclopia Vent. (family Fabaceae; tribe Podalyrieae), commonly known as Honeybush, have enjoyed commercial success as herbal teas [17]. These teas are popular tisanes enjoyed for their taste and aroma and medicinal purposes [17,18]. ...
... (family Fabaceae; tribe Podalyrieae), commonly known as Honeybush, have enjoyed commercial success as herbal teas [17]. These teas are popular tisanes enjoyed for their taste and aroma and medicinal purposes [17,18]. ...
... Aqueous extracts of both fermented and unfermented Honeybush have shown antimutagenic [33], antioxidant, immunomodulating [34,35], lipolytic [36], bone resorption [37] and antidiabetic [38] activities. Honeybush is traditionally used as a restorative and as an expectorant in chronic catarrh and pulmonary tuberculosis [17]. ...
Rooibos (Aspalathus linearis) and Honeybush (Cyclopia intermedia) are popular tisanes in South Africa and are of growing interest due to the wide variety of flavonoids and other phytochemicals they contain. Despite their history as herbal teas and traditional medicines, the chemical constituents of these tisanes have yet to be studied for their effects on adenosine receptors. A series of 30 commercially available chemical constituents of Rooibos and Honeybush were investigated via radioligand binding studies to determine their adenosine A1 and A2A receptor affinity at both rat and human subtypes in order to establish structure-activity relationships and identify novel adenosine receptor ligands. In addition, in silico evaluations of the 30 test compounds were also performed to predict their physiochemical and pharmacokinetic properties. The most promising chemical constituent was kaempferol (28) which showed sub-micromolar affinity towards the rat A1 subtype (rA1Ki = 0.7287 μM; hA1Ki = 9.88 µM) and acted as an antagonist toward adenosine rA1 receptors. Additionally, quercetin (2), chrysoeriol (8), luteolin (9), eriodyctiol (12), and naringenin (27) also showed adenosine A1 and/or A2A receptor affinity. It was observed that a flavonol scaffold is preferred to flavone and flavanone scaffolds, and within the flavonols, C4’-OH substitution on ring B is preferred to C3’,4’-diOH substitution. These phytochemicals, specifically kaempferol (28), may be considered lead-like and valuable in designing novel ligands, based on in vitro and in silico evaluation.
... (family Fabaceae; tribe Crotalarieae), better known as Rooibos, and various species of Cyclopia Vent. (family Fabaceae; tribe Podalyrieae), commonly known as Honeybush, have enjoyed commercial success as herbal teas [26]. These teas are popular tisanes enjoyed for their taste and aroma and medicinal purposes [26,27]. ...
... (family Fabaceae; tribe Podalyrieae), commonly known as Honeybush, have enjoyed commercial success as herbal teas [26]. These teas are popular tisanes enjoyed for their taste and aroma and medicinal purposes [26,27]. ...
... Aqueous extracts of both fermented and unfermented Honeybush have shown antimutagenic [42], antioxidant, immunomodulating [43,44], lipolytic [45], bone resorption [46] and antidiabetic [47] activities. Honeybush is traditionally used as a restorative and as an expectorant in chronic catarrh and pulmonary tuberculosis [26]. ...
Rooibos ( Aspalathus linearis ) and Honeybush ( Cyclopia intermedia ) are popular tisanes in South Africa and are of growing interest due to the wide variety of flavonoids and other phytochemicals they contain. Despite their history as herbal teas and traditional medicines, the chemical constituents of these tisanes have yet to be studied for their effects on adenosine receptors. Flavonoids have previously shown promising affinity toward the adenosine receptors. A series of 30 commercially available constituents of Rooibos and Honeybush were investigated via radioligand binding studies to determine their adenosine A 1 and A 2A receptor affinity at both rat and human subtypes in order to establish structure-activity relationships and identify novel adenosine receptor ligands. In addition, in silico evaluations of the 30 test compounds were also performed to investigate their physiochemical and pharmacokinetic properties. The most promising constituent was kaempferol ( 28 ) which showed sub-micromolar affinity towards the rat A 1 subtype (rA 1 K i = 0.7287 μM; hA 1 K i = 9.88 µM) and acted as an antagonist toward adenosine rA 1 receptors. Additionally, quercetin ( 2 ), chrysoeriol ( 8 ), luteolin ( 9 ), eriodyctiol ( 12 ), and naringenin ( 27 ) also showed adenosine A 1 and/or A 2A receptor affinity. It was observed that a flavonol scaffold is preferred to flavone and flavanone scaffolds, and within the flavonols, C4’-OH substitution on ring B is preferred to C3’,4’-diOH substitution. These phytochemicals, specifically kaempferol ( 28 ), may be considered lead-like and valuable in designing novel ligands, based on in vitro and in silico evaluation.
... Utilised leaves and branches of honeybush are known as sources with high contents of polyphenolic compounds, which determine the biological activity of honeybush extracts. Many studies have focused mainly on the antioxidant, anticancer or phytoestrogen properties [9][10][11]. However, the honeybush also has numerous extremely important protective and regenerative properties that can be successfully utilised in cosmetology and dermatology [8,10,12]. ...
... Many studies have focused mainly on the antioxidant, anticancer or phytoestrogen properties [9][10][11]. However, the honeybush also has numerous extremely important protective and regenerative properties that can be successfully utilised in cosmetology and dermatology [8,10,12]. Honeybush polyphenolic compounds work as a shield against skin degradation caused by UV radiation [7,13,14]. In addition, the plant is effective in the inhibition of wrinkle formation and the skin aging process [5,15]. ...
... The HPLC-DAD method was utilised to quantitatively analyse the four main polyphenols from honeybush extracts known for their biological activity: mangiferin, isomangiferin, hesperidin and vicenin-2 ( Figure 1) [10,11,20,46]. ...
Cyclopia sp. (honeybush) is an African shrub known as a rich source of polyphenols. The biological effects of fermented honeybush extracts were investigated. The influence of honeybush extracts on extracellular matrix (ECM) enzymes responsible for the skin malfunction and aging process—collagenase, elastase, tyrosinase and hyaluronidase—was analysed. The research also included assessment of the in vitro photoprotection efficiency of honeybush extracts and their contribution to the wound healing process. Antioxidant properties of the prepared extracts were evaluated, and quantification of the main compounds in the extracts was achieved. The research showed that the analysed extracts had a significant ability to inhibit collagenase, tyrosinase and hyaluronidase and a weak influence on elastase activity. Tyrosinase was inhibited effectively by honeybush acetone (IC50 26.18 ± 1.45 µg/mL), ethanol (IC50 45.99 ± 0.76 µg/mL) and water (IC50 67.42 ± 1.75 µg/mL) extracts. Significant hyaluronidase inhibition was observed for ethanol, acetone and water extracts (IC50 were 10.99 ± 1.56, 13.21 ± 0.39 and 14.62 ± 0.21µg/mL, respectively). Collagenase activity was inhibited effectively by honeybush acetone extract (IC50 42.5 ± 1.05 μg/mL). The wound healing properties of the honeybush extracts, estimated in vitro in human keratinocytes (HaCaTs), were indicated for water and ethanol extracts. In vitro sun protection factor (SPF in vitro) showed medium photoprotection potential for all the honeybush extracts. The quantity of polyphenolic compounds was estimated with the use of high-performance liquid chromatography equipped with diode-array detection (HPLC-DAD), indicating the highest mangiferin contents in ethanol, acetone and n-butanol extracts, while in the water extract hesperidin was the dominant compound. The antioxidant properties of the honeybush extracts were estimated with FRAP (2,4,6-Tris(2-pyridyl)-s-triazine) and DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) tests, indicating their strong antioxidant activity, similar to ascorbic acid for the acetone extract in both tests. The wound healing abilities, estimation of SPF in vitro and the direct influence on selected enzymes (elastase, tyrosinase, collagenase and hyaluronidase) of the tested honeybush extracts were analysed for the first time, indicating a high potential of these well-known herbal tea for antiaging, anti-inflammation, regeneration and protection of the skin.
... (Fabaceae) is one of over 20 species of indigenous shrubs from the Cyclopia genus, which are characteristic for the fynbos plant formation of the Cape Floristic Region of South Africa. The leaves and stems of several Cyclopia species, including C. genistoides, are used to prepare the honeybush herbal tea, characterized by sweet, honey-like aroma, low tannin content, and the absence of caffeine (Joubert et al., 2008a;. The obtained infusions are rich in polyphenols, represented mainly by xanthones (mangiferin and isomangiferin) and a fl avanone, hesperidin (Joubert et al., 2008a). ...
... The leaves and stems of several Cyclopia species, including C. genistoides, are used to prepare the honeybush herbal tea, characterized by sweet, honey-like aroma, low tannin content, and the absence of caffeine (Joubert et al., 2008a;. The obtained infusions are rich in polyphenols, represented mainly by xanthones (mangiferin and isomangiferin) and a fl avanone, hesperidin (Joubert et al., 2008a). The chemical composition of Cyclopia is unique due to the presence of xanthones, which are rarely recorded in legume plants (De Nysschen et al., 1996). ...
... The increasing demand for Cyclopia plant material, harvested mainly from wild-growing plants, created the need to establish commercial cultivation in order to avoid the overexploitation of wild populations (Joubert et al., 2008a;Mbangcolo, 2008). One of the species selected for mass production, which could provide suffi cient amounts of material for the honeybush tea industry, due to the relatively fast growth, is C. genistoides (Joubert et al., 2008a, b). ...
An efficient micropropagation protocol of Cyclopia genistoides (L.) Vent., an indigenous South African shrub of economic importance, was established. In vitro shoot cultures were obtained from shoot tip fragments of sterile seedlings cultured on solid Schenk and Hildebrandt (SH) medium supplemented with 9.84 μM 6-(γ,γ-dimethylallylamino)purine (2iP) and 1.0 μM thidiazuron (TDZ). Maximum shoot multiplication rate [(8.2 ± 1.3) microshoots/explant)] was observed on this medium composition. Prior to rooting, the multiplied shoots were elongated for 60 days (two 30-days passages) on SH medium with one-half sucrose concentration, supplemented with 4.92 μM indole-3-butyric acid (IBA). The rooting of explants was only possible in the case of the elongated shoots. The highest root induction rate (54.8%) was achieved on solid SH medium with one-half sucrose and one-half potassium nitrate and ammonium nitrate concentration, respectively, supplemented with 28.54 μM indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) and 260.25 μM citric acid. The plantlets were acclimatized for 30 days in the glasshouse, with the use of peat/gravel/perlite substrate (1:1:1). The highest acclimatization rate (80%) was obtained for explants rooted with the use of IAA-supplemented medium. The phytochemical profile of the regenerated plants was similar to that of the reference intact plant material. HPLC analyses showed that C. genistoides plantlets obtained by the micropropagation procedure kept the ability to produce xanthones (mangiferin and isomangiferin) and the fl avanone hesperidin, characteristic of wild-growing shrubs.
... Preparation procedures varied between studies. Japanese studies mostly used much lower solid-to-solvent ratios for the preparation of infusions (Joubert et al., 2008a). If no reference is made to the 'fermentation' (oxidation) status of the plant material (green vs fermented), it was not stated in the paper, but it was most likely fermented rooibos. ...
... Many studies did not report the phenolic composition of the extracts and infusions. Several reviews have dealt with studies evaluating the pharmacological potential of rooibos extracts and the flavonoid constituents, some providing an overview of the many studies (McKay and Blumberg, 2007;Joubert et al., 2008a;Chaudhary et al., 2021). Reviews by Marnewick and co-workers concentrated on in vivo and in vitro anti-oxidant activity and oxidative stress-induced conditions (Marnewick, 2014;Ajuwon et al., 2015). ...
... A study of a large number of green rooibos samples showed a linear relationship between the total anti-oxidant capacity of their extracts and aspalathin content (Joubert et al., 2008b). Several reviews covered details of the early and other studies on the anti-oxidant activity of rooibos and aspalathin (Joubert and Schulz, 2006;Joubert et al., 2008a;Joubert and De Beer, 2014;Chaudhary et al., 2021). Literature abounds with studies on the anti-oxidant capacity of various plant extracts that include rooibos for comparative purposes. ...
Aspalathus linearis (Burm.f) R.Dahlgren, commonly referred to as ‘rooibos tea’, is the best-known indigenous South African herbal tea. It is considered the success story of indigenous product development and marketing, and it is a prime export product, marketed globally. Rooibos is endemic to the Fynbos Biome and is found in the far southwestern part (Nieuwoudtville) of the Northern Cape Province, but chiefly in the Citrusdal and Clanwilliam regions (Cederberg area) of the Western Cape Province. Rooibos tea is anecdotally consumed to relieve colic, indigestion, heartburn and nausea. It also reduces nervous tension, promotes sound sleep and improves appetite. Rooibos extracts are included as anti-oxidant in a wide range of nutraceutical products. The use of rooibos extract in products for topical application for a range of dermatological issues and in a collection of skin-care products is well-established in South Africa. The ‘fermentation’ process is important for the development of the characteristic aroma, flavour and colour of the ‘traditional’ tea product, notable for its red–brown colour. The phytochemistry of rooibos tea has been extensively investigated, especially with regard to the aspalathin (dihydrochalcone) content and that of other major flavonoids, and the quantitative differences between unfermented (green) and fermented rooibos. Much has been documented concerning the anti-oxidant activity of rooibos tea and its role in alleviating oxidative stress. The potential of rooibos, in particular green rooibos extract and aspalathin, in the prevention of metabolic syndrome has been the focus of many studies. Other investigations include antispasmodic, anticancer, bone health and antistress activities. High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with diode array detection (DAD) has been used extensively for the quantification of aspalathin, other major flavonoids and Z-2-(β-d-glucopyranosyloxy)-3-phenylpropenoic acid in rooibos. Other techniques, such as semi-automated high-performance thin-layer chromatography (HPTLC), ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (UPLC–MS), and mid-infrared (MIR) spectroscopy, were used to determine the chemical profiles of rooibos tea.
... The anti-diabetic effects of rooibos tea extract or its component aspalathin have been confirmed both in vitro and in vivo [5,21]. Rooibos water extract decreased the formation of AGEs after incubation of glucose and serum albumin, and the effect was attributed to the presence of compounds with antioxidant properties [22]. Aspalathus increased glucose uptake by L6 myotubes in culture and improved impaired glucose tolerance in type 2 diabetic model db/db mice [5]. ...
... Honeybush tea exhibited lower anti-oxidant activity in this study. These results are consistent with the findings of Joubert [22] who reported that honeybush tea had lower anti-oxidant activity than rooibos and Camellia sinensis. ...
... µg/mL), BH50:50 (IC 50 = 6.25 µg/mL) and BH25:75 (IC 50 = 7.44 µg/mL) were less potent than vitamin C (1.17 µg/mL) and trolox (1.16 µg/mL). The lower anti-oxidant activity of honeybush tea could be attributed to the loss incurred during the fermentation process, as only fermented tea was used in this study [22]. Fermentation of tea leaves decreases total phenols and anti-oxidant activities, such that unfermented teas will have higher anti-oxidant activities compared to fermented teas [40]. ...
South Africa is home to a variety of herbal teas, such as bush tea (Athrixia phylicoides DC.), honeybush tea (Cyclopia intermedia E. Mey and C. subternata Vogel), special tea (Monsonia burkeana Planch. ex Harv.), and rooibos tea (Aspalathus linearis (Burm.f.) R. Dahlgren) that are known to possess anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory and anti-diabetic properties. The objective of this study was to determine the in vitro anti-oxidant activity of selected tea blends using 2,2′-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS) and 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) assays, as well as to assess their anti-inflammatory properties using the 15-lipoxygenase inhibitory assay. Furthermore, the study measured glucose utilisation in C2C12 myotubes. Lastly, 3-(4, 5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2, 5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay was used to test the safety of the tea extracts on Vero cells (African green monkey kidney cell line). Special tea and its blend with bush tea exhibited potent anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory activity. The blending of bush tea with special tea at different ratios resulted in increased anti-oxidant activity. Although special tea had a level of cell toxicity, its toxicity was lowered during blending. All of the tea samples showed anti-diabetic effects, although with less potency as compared to insulin. The current investigation supports the use of blended herbal teas, and the positive anti-inflammatory effect of special tea warrants further research.
... Commercialisation of rooibos was initiated in 1904 by Benjamin Ginsberg under the brand name Eleven O ′ Clock (Joubert et al., 2008a). The first exports of the tea from South Africa took place in 1955, but it was during the 1990s that the international market for rooibos started to expand, following several studies that provided scientific evidence for the health benefits associated with its consumption . ...
... Traditionally, honeybush tea was produced mainly from Cyclopia genistoides, although other Cyclopia species were also used for tea production (Van Wyk and Gorelick, 2017). The herbal tea is used traditionally to promote appetite, improve digestion, alleviate heartburn, stimulate milk production during breast-feeding and to treat colic in babies (Joubert et al., 2008a). Currently, the bulk of production comprises wild-harvested C. intermedia with lesser quantities of C.subternata, both wild-harvested and cultivated, and cultivated C. genistoides . ...
... Leaf shapes and sizes vary, depending on the species, and are narrow or flat. The dried stems and leaves are chopped and 'fermented' by employing a high-temperature oxidation step (Joubert et al., 2008a). The main chemical constituents of the aerial parts, ubiquitous to all Cyclopia species (Stander et al., 2019a), as well as the fermented product, are the xanthones, mangiferin and isomangiferin, and the flavanone, hesperidin. ...
High performance thin layer chromatography (HPTLC) has been widely implemented for the rapid chemical fingerprinting of medicinal plant extracts for identification and authentication purposes. Despite herbal teas of rooibos (Aspalathus linearis) and honeybush (Cyclopia spp.) being important local and export products of South Africa, characteristic and well-defined HPTLC chemical profiles for the species that could assist in identification and authentication, have not been established and reported. ‘Fermentation’, an oxidation processing step for flavour and colour development, is known to alter the chemical composition of these plant materials, with consequences for their therapeutic properties. In this study, HPTLC fingerprints were established that characterise these herbal teas in terms of phenolic constituents linked to their health benefits. Selected flavonoids present in rooibos were clearly distinguished from the extract matrix, and the marked depletion of aspalathin in the fermented samples was demonstrated. The analytical method developed for honeybush achieved partial separation of the major xanthone constituents, mangiferin and isomangiferin. Lower relative concentrations of the regio-isomers were evident in the fermented samples of C. genistoides compared to their unfermented counterparts. The chemical profile of fermented C. subternata was markedly different to those of C. genistoides and C. intermedia in that mangiferin/isomangiferin was detected in only one of the five samples of C. subternata. Cost-effective HPTLC methods are herein described that can be used for the rapid analysis of multiple samples in industrial environments, as a tool for the quality control, in particular in identification of these herbal teas of South African origin.
... Bush tea (Athrixia phylicoides DC.) is a nutritious indigenous crop grown in South Africa that is used as medicine by many households [1]. Traditionally, it is well known as an herbal tea that purifies blood, treats boils, headaches, infected wounds, and cuts, and creates a foam bath [2][3][4]. ...
... All treatments were watered to field capacity before the treatment was applied to reduce evaporation and drainage losses, and ensure moisture is accessible in the soil during peak periods of the day. As a result, the crop water requirements, ETa, were calculated using Equation (1). ...
The influence of water regimes on plants is crucial for integrating bush tea (Athrixia phylicoides DC.) into strategies in Sub-Saharan Africa to tackle food and nutritional insecurity by considering physiological aspects, nutritional yield, nutritional water productivity, and metabolite composition. The objective of the study was to determine the physiological aspects, including leaf gas exchange and chlorophyll fluorescence, nutritional yield, nutritional water productivity, and metabolite composition of bush tea under varying water regimes. The tunnel experiment was laid out in a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with treatments consisting of three water regimes: 100% of crop water requirement (ETa), 30% of ETa, and a control (no irrigation), all replicated three times. The morphological aspects were recorded on a weekly basis. However, yield, nutrient content, nutritional water productivity (NWP), and phytochemical composition were determined at harvest. The phytochemical analysis by liquid chromatography mass spectrometry (LC-MS), coupled with visualization of the detected chemical spaces through molecular networking, indicated Athrixia phylicoides DC. to be rich in various bioactive compound derivatives, including methyl chlorogenate, flavonoids, tartaric acid, caffeoylquinic acid, and glutinane. The results showed that 30% ETa enhanced plant growth, nutrient content, and nutritional water productivity compared to other water treatments. Nevertheless, 100% ETa yielded more (95.62 kg ha−1) than 30% ETa (60.61 kg ha−1) and control (12.12 kg ha−1). The accumulation of chlorogenic acids was higher under 30% ETa compared to 100% ETa and control. Therefore, this study is the first to determine the accumulation of various bioactive compounds in bush tea leaf extracts under varying water regimes. This confirms that in areas with low water availability, bush tea is well adapted for production without limiting nutrients.
... Many medicinal products are derived from these plants as pure compounds or standardized extracts and are used to alleviate many symptoms and diseases. Fermented and unfermented Aspalathus linearis (Burm.f.) R. Dahlgren (A. linearis) have extensively been investigated, especially regarding their antioxidant potential, as stated by Joubert et al. [1]. Minimal research has been conducted on Lippia scaberrima Sond. ...
... Not applicable. 1 ...
Background
Metabolism is an important component of the kinetic characteristics of herbal constituents, and it often determines the internal dose and concentration of these effective constituents at the target site. The metabolic profile of plant extracts and pure compounds need to be determined for any possible herb-drug metabolic interactions that might occur.
Methods
Various concentrations of the essential oil of Lippia scaberrima, the ethanolic extract of Lippia scaberrima alone and their combinations with fermented and unfermented Aspalathus linearis extract were used to determine the inhibitory potential on placental, microsomal and recombinant human hepatic Cytochrome P450 enzymes. Furthermore, the study investigated the synthesis and characterization of gold nanoparticles from the ethanolic extract of Lippia scaberrima as a lead sample. Confirmation and characterization of the synthesized gold nanoparticles were conducted through various methods. Additionally, the cytotoxic properties of the ethanolic extract of Lippia scaberrima were compared with the gold nanoparticles synthesized from Lippia scaberrima using gum arabic as a capping agent.
Results
All the samples showed varying levels of CYP inhibition. The most potent inhibition took place for CYP2C19 and CYP1B1 with 50% inhibitory concentration (IC50) values of less than 0.05 µg/L for the essential oil tested and IC50-values between 0.05 µg/L-1 µg/L for all the other combinations and extracts tested, respectively. For both CYP1A2 and CYP2D6 the IC50-values for the essential oil, the extracts and combinations were found in the range of 1 – 10 µg/L. The majority of the IC50 values found were higher than 10 µg/L and, therefore, were found to have no inhibition against the CYP enzymes tested.
Conclusion
Therefore, the essential oil of Lippia scaberrima, the ethanolic extract of Lippia scaberrima alone and their combinations with Aspalathus linearis do not possess any clinically significant CYP interaction potential and may be further investigated for their adjuvant potential for use in the tuberculosis treatment regimen. Furthermore, it was shown that the cytotoxic potential of the Lippia scaberrima gold nanoparticles was reduced by twofold when compared to the ethanolic extract of Lippia scaberrima.
... Other species with a history of use as a tea were C. vogelii, later renamed C. subternata, C. latifolia and C. longifolia ]. Honeybush is well-known as a caffeine-free, low tannin, aromatic herbal tea with a wealth of polyphenolic compounds associated with its health-promoting properties [Joubert et al. 2008]. Honeybush infusions were reported to contain 0.59 mg/ml fluoride, although no information was given on the Cyclopia spp. ...
... It has also been reported that these beverages can improve appetite, reduce tension and improve sleep [Kokotkiewicz and Łuczkiewicz 2009]. Rooibos tea is not wellknown by the general public for its antimicrobial activity, but there have been studies confirming the inhibitory effects of rooibos against certain microorganisms, such as Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus cereus, Listeria monocytogenes, Streptococcus mutans and Candida albicans [Joubert et al. 2008]. ...
Rooibos (Aspalathus linearis) and honeybush tea (Cyclopia species), are the products coming from South Africa, that due to their organoleptic features and antioxidant properties are gaining increasing popularity among the Polish consumers. Due to the high similarity, these products are very often confused, and both consumers and sellers have problems in distinguishing them. Therefore, the aim of the paper is the attempt to differentiate rooibos and honeybush infusions based on the consumer evaluation of color of the beverages and color parameters measured in the CIEL*a*b* system. On the basis of the obtained results, statistically significant differences in the consumer color assessment of infusions were found. The results presented in this paper indicate that the samples of rooibos were very similar and were characterized by more intensive brick, red and brown color than honeybush. However, it was shown that the values of the color parameters measured in the CIEL*a*b* system do not allow for clear differentiation of rooibos and honeybush beverages.
... Together with rooibos (Aspalathus linearis) and honeybush (Cyclopia ssp.), bush tea (Athrixia phylicoides) is a plant species that has a long and rich ethnobotanical history of use by indigenous people as a medicinal tea (Joubert et al., 2008;Lerotholi et al., 2017). Bush tea is an aromatic, perennial, leafy shrub that can reach a height of up to 1 m (Fox & Young, 1982). ...
... The potential for commercialising bush tea as an alternative to caffeine-containing tea is well documented (Joubert et al., 2008;Lehlohonolo et al., 2013) but, despite the high economic potential of bush tea as a crop with high export value, the commercialisation of bush tea is still in its infancy (Lerotholi et al., 2017). Most research and development efforts on bush tea have focused so far on cultural practices, such as the effects of the application of macro-and micro-nutrients on plant growth (Mudau et al, 2005Mogotlane et al., 2007), pruning and application of growth regulators (Maudu et al., 2010(Maudu et al., , 2011Marasha et al., 2013). ...
Bush tea ( Athrixia phylicoides ) is an aromatic, perennial, leafy shrub that is endemic to the northeastern mountain ranges of South Africa and has a high potential for commercialisation as an alternative to caffeine-containing tea. During the summer and winter of 2018-2019, a survey was carried out at nine localities in the northeastern regions of South Africa to study the diversity of nematodes associated with bush tea and, in terms of frequency of occurrence and abundance, identify the dominant plant-parasitic nematodes. Twenty-one plant-parasitic nematode species belonging to 14 genera were identified in 90 rhizosphere soil and root samples. Meloidogyne and Helicotylenchus were the dominant plant-parasitic nematode genera. Meloidogyne javanica and Scutellonema brachyurus were found at all localities, followed by M. enterolobii , Pratylenchus brachyurus , Rotylenchulus parvus , H. martini and S. truncatum (found at 7-8 localities). Other species identified included Criconema corbetii , C. sphaerocephalus , C. xenoplax , Criconemoides ihlathum , C. parvus , Discocriconemella glabrannulata , H. dihystera , H. erythrinae , H. paraplatyurus , Hemicycliophora typica , M. hapla , M. incognita , Rotylenchulus unisexus and R. clavicaudatus . Individuals of Crossonema , Paratylenchus , Ogma , the Xiphinema americanum -group and X. americanum sensu lato could not be identified to species level due to the low number of specimens present in the samples. Comparison of the two methods used to identify the Meloidogyne populations to species level shows that morphological identification (particularly perineal pattern morphology) provided a more complete picture of the Meloidogyne species present in the samples compared with the molecular SCAR-PCR technique. High levels of Cu, K and pH were associated with the highest relative population densities (RPD% = average population density of a nematode genus/total nematode population density × 100) of Meloidogyne , whilst high levels of Al and soil resistivity were associated with the lowest RPD% of Meloidogyne . By contrast, high levels of K and pH were associated with the lowest RPD% of Helicotylenchus , whilst high levels of Al and soil resistivity were associated with the highest RPD% of Helicotylenchus .
... Rooibos, honeybush and sutherlandia are indigenous Southern Africa plants, and they are caffeine-free beverages. Rooibos originate from the Cederberg Mountains of the Western Cape region of South Africa (McGaw et al., 2007;Joubert et al., 2008). The leaves and stems are used for the commercially available rooibos tea. ...
... It has been shown to be used as a traditional tea since the 19th century (Joubert et al., 2011;Schloms and Swart, 2014). Honeybush tea does not only have a pleasant taste and scent, it also contains phytochemicals and volatile organic compounds that are beneficial to health (Joubert et al., 2008). The known health benefits of honeybush are ascribed to its rich bioactive compounds such as Eriodictyol, Hesperetin, Isokuranetin, Naringenin, Chrysoeriol, Luteolin, Kaempferol, Afrormosin, Calycosin, Formononetin, Fujikinetin, Pseudobaptigen, Wistin, Flemichapparin, Medicagol, Sophoracoumestan, Pinitol, Isomangiferin and Mangiferin (Kamara et al., 2003;Jang et al., 2008). ...
Introduction: Rooibos (Aspalathin linearis), honeybush (Cyclopia intermedia), and sutherlandia (Sutherlandia frutescene) are three Southern Africa indigenous plants, of which the extracts have become house-hold items and are consumed on a large scale. Although, they are known for their antioxidant properties, studies have highlighted danger in the excessive intake. Therefore, the current study investigated whether treatment with rooibos, honeybush, and sutherlandia will impact sperm functional parameters positively or otherwise, in healthy rats.
Methods: Fourteen-week-old pathogen-free adult male Wistar rats (250–300 g) were randomly divided into four groups of ten, including a control, rooibos (RF), honeybush (HB) and a sutherlandia (SL) group. After 7 weeks of treatment, animals were sacrificed. Spermatozoa were retrieved from the cauda epididymis for motility, morphology and concentration analysis and the testis was used for all biochemical assays.
Results: The infusion treated animals (RF, HB, and SL) presented with a non-significant decrease of −14.3%, −18.2%, −17.2% and −24.8%, −20.7%, −27.3% in total motility and progressive motility when compared to the control group, respectively. There was a significant increase in number of spermatozoa with slow speed (p = 0.03), especially in SL treated group compared to the control (p = 0.03). Additionally, there was an increase of 28.8%, 31.7%, 23% in superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity of RF, HB and SL compared to control, respectively. This was accompanied with a percentage decrease of −21.1%, −23.7%, 45.9% in malondialdehyde (MDA) levels compared to the control group.
Conclusion: In summary, animals treated with the respective infusions presented with a percentage increase in SOD activity but have reduced sperm motility and decreased normal morphology. Paradoxically, they presented with increased sperm concentration. Hence, it is presumed that rooibos, honeybush and sutherlandia may enhance sperm quantity (concentration) but may impair sperm quality (motility morphology) when consumed by healthy animals.
... This led to the development of a booming industry with a range of commercial rooibos health and skincare products still recognised internationally [14]. The beneficial effects of rooibos extend beyond its anti-allergic properties, with enhanced antioxidant anti-ageing, antispasmodic, and anti-inflammatory effects [15,16]. Women in Africa use herbal tea to alleviate nausea and heartburn during pregnancy [13]. ...
... Due to its commercial significance, rooibos' biological activity and phytochemical properties have been extensively studied. Two primary polyphenols attributing to the unique composition and antioxidant effects of rooibos are a dihydrochalcone C-glucoside, aspalathin, and a cyclic dihydrochalcone, aspalalinin [15,18]. It has been shown to restore stress-related metabolites, endogenous antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase and catalase, and prevent lipid peroxidation in oxidative stress-induced models [19]. ...
South Africa, a country considered affluent in nature, ranks third in global biodiversity and encompasses approximately 9%of higher plants on planet Earth.Many indigenous plants have been utilised as herbal medicine, proving successful in treating numerous ailments. From the common cold to pandemic maladies such as COVID-19 in the 21st century and the treatment of incurable diseases, South African inhabitants have found great promise in the healing properties of these plants. Phytomedicine is a rapidly evolving topic, with in-depth bioactive composition analysis, identifying therapeutic actionmechanisms, and disease prevention.Whilewe are nowpoised to take advantage of nature’s medicine cabinet with greater scientific vigour, it remains critical that these practises are done with caution. Overharvesting significantly impacts biodiversity and cultivation practices amidst the beautiful nature of these nutraceuticals. This book chapter focuses on the therapeutic potential of commonly used South Africanmedicinal plants, their ethnopharmacological properties, and how we can conserve this treasure cove we call home for future generations.
... In 2011, 80% of the annual honeybush crop came from wild harvested populations (Joubert et al. 2011). The tea has become popular due to purported medicinal properties (Joubert et al. 2008;McKay and Blumberg 2007) and this increased demand creates the risk of overexploitation. Population declines in the wild due to harvesting has been recognized and has sparked research on multiple aspects of the industry (Du Toit, Joubert, and Britz 1998). ...
... Cyclopia intermedia is recognized by the market as premium quality product, but due to its relatively slow growth it cannot be harvested every year and is unlikely to be cultivated commercially (Joubert et al. 2008). Furthermore, augmentation and cultivation are limited to sourcing plants locally to prevent genetic contamination (Potts 2017) since C. intermedia populations show a relatively high degree of genetic differentiation between mountain ranges, and even within mountain ranges (Galuszynski and Potts 2020). ...
Cyclopia intermedia (honeybush) is a plant species endemic to the fynbos biome. Wild harvested populations are used commercially to produce tea. The species is a resprouter, regrowing from underground rootstock after fires, and as such resprouts once it has been cut. However, there is concern that premature cutting may be compromising rootstock recovery. We report on an initial 400 wild plants measured and monitored under different harvest regimes, including control plants. Plants were harvested once in 2018 and regrowth and survival monitored until 2021. Here, an allometric calculation is provided based on height and stem number to estimate the harvest yield. Plants in valleys or with high surrounding vegetation had the highest yield values and potential fecundity. After harvest, an increase in mortality was correlated with plant size, being higher for smaller plants, but after two years of drought high mortality was not explained by any harvesting category nor any of the site variables, suggesting drought results in high plant mortality regardless of harvest history. The study clarifies several speculative components of harvest method, demonstrates that a complete cut rather than half cut results in better potential yield, and that an ash admixture post-harvest had no measurable impact on regrowth.
... However, other alternative uses of the plant such as for cosmeceutical product formulation can overcome some of these challenges. Recently, researchers have started looking at the potential cosmeceutical application of A. phylicoides extracts when agronomic practices of the plant are altered [8,9]. The cutting of dried plant material has been reported to result in a sticky residue developing on the cutting blades, which impeded further processing [9]. ...
... Recently, researchers have started looking at the potential cosmeceutical application of A. phylicoides extracts when agronomic practices of the plant are altered [8,9]. The cutting of dried plant material has been reported to result in a sticky residue developing on the cutting blades, which impeded further processing [9]. Slurry and paste preparations from the plant material may prove to be an alternative processing method since cosmeceutical extracts can be prepared from infusion of the leaves [10]. ...
Athrixia phylicoides DC. (Bush tea) is a shrub harvested in the north-eastern mountain regions of South Africa and belongs to the Asteraceae family. Generally, A. phylicoides is consumed as a hot tea beverage for its associated health benefits. The use of bush tea extracts for beauty enhancement has not been investigated even though several ethnobotanical reports have indicated its usage against skin imperfections. Therefore, the aim of the study was to assess plant metabolites of A. phylicoides for their inhibition of tyrosinase from mushroom and determine their inhibitory mechanism. Methanolic extracts (80% v/v) of A. phylicoides were evaluated using a tyrosinase-based TLC (thin-layer chromatography) autography technique. The inhibitory mechanism of active metabolites against the enzyme was determined using Lineweaver–Burk plots. Quercetin and an unknown metabolite with a retention factor (Rf) value of 0.73 inhibited melanogenesis. However, the IC50 value for Quercetin was reported as 51.07 ± 2.43 µg/mL higher than that of kojic acid of 5.22 ± 1.44 µg/mL. Chlorogenic acid was reported to have a similar Rf value as kojic acid, suggesting similarities in polarity and affinity towards the adsorbent material. However, chlorogenic acid with an IC50 value of 15.25 ± 1.18 µg/mL and an inhibitory strength of 2.92 could not inhibit melanogenesis with a similar intensity as kojic acid. The inhibitory mechanism for A. phylicoides extract was reported to be mixed inhibition (competitive/uncompetitive). The IC50 value for A. phylicoides was recorded as 20.65 ± 0.14 µg/mL with an inhibitory strength of 3.96. These results suggest that A. phylicoides extracts could be used against dark spots associated with scarring and ageing through modulation of tyrosinase activity.
... Aspalathus linearis (Burm.f.) R.Dahlgren (confirmed on https:// www.theplantlist.org) is polymorphic in the wild, 33 but only the Nortier variety of the red Rocklands type of A. linearis is cultivated for commercial use. 33,34 The process for the production of GRT from green minimally-oxidized Rooibos leaves was developed and standardized by the South African Agricultural Research Council (ARC) and the South African Medical Research Council (SA-MRC). ...
... Aspalathus linearis (Burm.f.) R.Dahlgren (confirmed on https:// www.theplantlist.org) is polymorphic in the wild, 33 but only the Nortier variety of the red Rocklands type of A. linearis is cultivated for commercial use. 33,34 The process for the production of GRT from green minimally-oxidized Rooibos leaves was developed and standardized by the South African Agricultural Research Council (ARC) and the South African Medical Research Council (SA-MRC). The GRT used for this study (batch number 730330) was generously donated by the SA-MRC. ...
Current pharmaceutical treatments addressing obesity are plagued by high costs, low efficacy and adverse side effects. Natural extracts are popular alternatives, but evidence for their anti-obesity properties is scant. We assessed the efficacy of a green (minimally-oxidized) Rooibos (Aspalathus linearis) extract (GRT) to ameliorate the effects of obesogenic feeding in rats, by examining body weight, metabolic measures, adipose tissue cellularity and tissue-resident adipose stem cells (ASCs). Furthermore, we performed statistical correlations to explore the relationships and interactions between metabolic and adipose tissue measures. Using an in vivo/ex vivo study design, male Wistar rats were maintained for 17 weeks on one of 3 diets: CON (laboratory chow), OB1 (high-sugar, medium fat) or OB2 (high-fat, high-cholesterol) (n = 24 each). From weeks 11-17, half of the animals in each group received oral GRT supplementation (60 mg per kg body weight daily). Blood and tissue samples were collected, and ASCs from each animal were cultured. Diets OB1 and OB2 induced divergent metabolic profiles compared to CON, but metabolic measures within dietary groups were mostly unaffected by GRT supplementation. Notably, diets OB1 and OB2 uncoupled the positive association between visceral adiposity and insulin resistance, while GRT uncoupled the positive association between elevated serum cholesterol and liver damage. Obesogenic feeding and GRT supplementation induced adipocyte enlargement in vivo, but lipid accumulation in cultured ASCs did not differ between dietary groups. Larger adipocyte size in subcutaneous fat was associated with favourable glucose metabolism measures in all GRT groups. In conclusion, GRT affected the associations between systemic, adipose tissue-level and cellular measures against the background of obesogenic diet-induced metabolic dysregulation.
... This led to the development of a booming industry with a range of commercial rooibos health and skincare products still recognised internationally [14]. The beneficial effects of rooibos extend beyond its anti-allergic properties, with enhanced antioxidant anti-ageing, antispasmodic, and anti-inflammatory effects [15,16]. Women in Africa use herbal tea to alleviate nausea and heartburn during pregnancy [13]. ...
... Due to its commercial significance, rooibos' biological activity and phytochemical properties have been extensively studied. Two primary polyphenols attributing to the unique composition and antioxidant effects of rooibos are a dihydrochalcone C-glucoside, aspalathin, and a cyclic dihydrochalcone, aspalalinin [15,18]. It has been shown to restore stress-related metabolites, endogenous antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase and catalase, and prevent lipid peroxidation in oxidative stress-induced models [19]. ...
South Africa, a country considered affluent in nature, ranks third in global biodiversity and encompasses approximately 9% of higher plants on planet Earth. Many indigenous plants have been utilised as herbal medicine, proving successful in treating numerous ailments. From the common cold to pandemic maladies such as COVID-19 in the 21st century and the treatment of incurable diseases, South African inhabitants have found great promise in the healing properties of these plants. Phytomedicine is a rapidly evolving topic, with in-depth bioactive composition analysis, identifying therapeutic action mechanisms, and disease prevention. While we are now poised to take advantage of nature’s medicine cabinet with greater scientific vigour, it remains critical that these practises are done with caution. Overharvesting significantly impacts biodiversity and cultivation practices amidst the beautiful nature of these nutraceuticals. This book chapter focuses on the therapeutic potential of commonly used South African medicinal plants, their ethnopharmacological properties, and how we can conserve this treasure cove we call home for future generations.
... Rooibos is a unique South African herbal tea produced from the leaves and stems of Aspalathus linearis Dahlg (Leguminosae). It is naturally caffeine-free and has low tannin content when compared to Camellia sinensis teas, but high in unique antioxidant polyphenols (Joubert et al., 2008). Rooibos has a flavonoid profile that is distinctly different from those found in Camellia sinensis, including the β-dihydroxy-dihydrochalcone glucoside aspalathin, and its cyclic counterpart aspalalinin, both of which are unique to rooibos (Rabe et al., 1994;Shimamura et al., 2006), the dihydrochalcone nothofagin, as well as flavonols including orietin, iso-orientin, vitexin, isovitexin, luteolin, quercetin and chrysoeriol among others (Rabe et al., 1994;Bramati et al., 2002;Joubert et al., 2008). ...
... It is naturally caffeine-free and has low tannin content when compared to Camellia sinensis teas, but high in unique antioxidant polyphenols (Joubert et al., 2008). Rooibos has a flavonoid profile that is distinctly different from those found in Camellia sinensis, including the β-dihydroxy-dihydrochalcone glucoside aspalathin, and its cyclic counterpart aspalalinin, both of which are unique to rooibos (Rabe et al., 1994;Shimamura et al., 2006), the dihydrochalcone nothofagin, as well as flavonols including orietin, iso-orientin, vitexin, isovitexin, luteolin, quercetin and chrysoeriol among others (Rabe et al., 1994;Bramati et al., 2002;Joubert et al., 2008). Studies has shown that rooibos exert hepatoprotective effect in acute and chronic liver damage in rats (Ulicna et al., 2003;, and modulate oxidative stress by preventing lipid peroxidation and improving glutathione redox status in rat tissues and in humans (Nikolova et al., 2007;Marnewick et al., 2011;Pantsi et al., 2011;Awoniyi et al., 2012). ...
Background: This study investigated the hepatic, renal and endogenous antioxidant status modulatory effects of chronic cosupplementation of rooibos and red palm oil (RPO) in male Wistar rats. Materials and Methods: Rats were randomized into four groups (n=10/group) and fed daily either standard rat chow (SRC) and water (Group I), SRC and the aqueous rooibos extract (2% w/v; Group II), SRC and RPO (200 μL/day) with water (Group III), or SRC and RPO (200 μL/day) with rooibos (2% w/v; Group IV) for 22 weeks. Results: Chronic feeding of rooibos, RPO or their combination did not induce any adverse hepatic or renal effects, as shown by serum levels of alkaline phosphatase, alanine- and aspartate aminotransferase, lactate dehydrogenase, albumin, creatinine, blood urea nitrogen and uric acid. Histopathology analyses showed that liver from the three supplementation groups displayed normal hepatic histoarchitecture. Chronic feeding of RPO did not influence the redox status in the blood and liver significantly. Supplementation of rooibos alone for 22 weeks significantly (P
... Regular consumption of rooibos tea may aid in the prevention of cardiovascular diseases. Aspalathin, a distinctive flavonoid in rooibos, has shown promise in regulating blood sugar levels by improving insulin sensitivity and reducing fasting glucose levels, making it a beneficial dietary supplement for diabetes management [32]. Cyclopia intermedia is indigenous to South Africa, and it particularly thrives in the fynbos biome spanning the Western and Eastern Cape provinces. ...
This study emphasizes the critical role of antioxidants in protecting human health by counteracting the detrimental effects of oxidative stress induced by free radicals. Antioxidants-found in various forms such as vitamins, minerals, and the phytochemicals abundant in fruits and vegetables-neutralize free radicals by stabilizing them through electron donation. Specifically, flavonoid compounds are highlighted as robust defenders, addressing oxidative stress and inflammation to avert chronic illnesses like cancer, cardiovascular diseases, and neurodegenerative diseases. This research explores the bioactive potential of flavonoids, shedding light on their role not only in safeguarding health, but also in managing conditions such as diabetes, cancer, cardiovascular diseases, and neurodegenerative diseases. This review highlights the novel integration of South African-origin flavonoids with nanotechnology, presenting a cutting-edge strategy to improve drug delivery and therapeutic outcomes. This interdisciplinary approach, blending traditional wisdom with contemporary techniques, propels the exploration of flavonoid-mediated nanoparticles toward groundbreaking pharmaceutical applications, promising revolutionary advancements in healthcare. This collaborative synergy between traditional knowledge and modern science not only contributes to human health, but also underscores a significant step toward sustainable and impactful biomedical innovations, aligning with principles of environmental conservation.
... Rooibos has traditional value in South Africa as a medicinal beverage that is used to treat stomach ailments, eczema and other skin conditions, and for relief of colic in infants (Malongane et al., 2018). Various other health benefits from the consumption of rooibos have been reported in literature, namely its anti-diabetic, anti-cancer, anti-aging and more recently anxiolytic properties (Erickson, 2003;Joubert et al., 2008;van Wyk, 2011;Lall & Kishore, 2014). ...
Introduction
Aspalathus linearis (commonly known as rooibos) is endemic to the Cape Floristic Region of South Africa and is a popular herbal drink and skin phytotherapeutic ingredient, with health benefits derived primarily from its unique phenolic content. Several, seemingly habitat-specific ecotypes from the Cederberg (Western Cape) and Northern Cape have morphological, ecological, genetic and biochemical differences.
Objectives and methods
Despite the commercial popularity of the cultivated variety, the uncultivated ecotypes are largely understudied. To address gaps in knowledge about the biochemical constituency, ultra-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis of fifteen populations was performed, enabling high-throughput metabolomic fingerprinting of 50% (v/v) methanolic extracts. Antioxidant screening of selected populations was performed via three assays and antimicrobial activity on two microbial species was assessed. The metabolomic results were corroborated with total phenolic and flavonoid screening of the extracts.
Results and discussion
Site-specific chemical lineages of rooibos ecotypes were confirmed via multivariate data analyses. Important features identified via PLS-DA disclosed higher relative abundances of certain tentative metabolites (e.g., rutin, aspalathin and apiin) present in the Dobbelaarskop, Blomfontein, Welbedacht and Eselbank sites, in comparison to other locations. Several unknown novel metabolites (e.g., m/z 155.0369, 231.0513, 443.1197, 695.2883) are responsible for metabolomic separation of the populations, four of which showed higher amounts of key metabolites and were thus selected for bioactivity analysis. The Welbedacht and Eselbank site 2 populations consistently displayed higher antioxidant activities, with 2,2-azino-bis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid) (ABTS) radical scavenging activities of 679.894 ± 3.427 µmol Trolox/g dry matter and 635.066 ± 5.140 µmol Trolox/g dry matter, respectively, in correlation with a high number of phenolic and flavonoid compounds. The contribution of the individual metabolites to the pharmacological effectiveness of rooibos remains unknown and as such, further structural elucidation and phytopharmacological testing is thus urgently needed.
... Rooibos is known to have antioxidant qualities (Blommaert et al., 1978) and is an important dietary source of antioxidants containing mostly flavonoids, but also the unique C-C linked dihydrochalcone glucoside aspalathin (Koeppen, & Roux, (1965) and cyclic dihydrochalcone, aspalalinin (Shimamura et al., 2006). As such Rooibos has gained increasing popularity as a health/functional beverage both locally and worldwide (Joubert et al., 2008;Joubert and Schulz, 2006). A commonly cited reference point for the identification of Rooibos, relates to the work of the botanist Carl Thunberg, who wrote: "Of the leaves of the Borbonia cordata [an earlier classification of Aspalathus] the country people made tea" (Thunberg, 1986:44). ...
Based on the shared expertise of two research entities at the Cape Peninsula University of Technology (CPUT) a transdisciplinary (TD) research approach was adopted to investigate whether Rooibos an indigenous South African plant with its unique bioactive compounds modulates oxidative stress and potentially acts as an ergogenic supplement. Due to the nature of this unique biotechnology and sport business collaboration along with support from the South African Rooibos Council (SARC) and associated academic stakeholders, various beneficial outcomes were anticipated, including: 1) to provide scientific findings informed by the innovative technologies that measure metabolic and gene-diet interaction responses to phenolic-rich Rooibos; 2) to assess the potential of Rooibos to modulate oxidative stress during exercise and underscore its anticipated ergogenic properties; 3) to utilize scientifically derived evidence to beneficiate Rooibos in the lucrative sport supplement market; 4) to provide rationale to optimize the equitable sharing of benefits derived from Rooibos to the relevant indigenous communities, and 5) to enhance sustainable economic benefits derived from various policy enactments including the Protected Designation of Origin (PDO) status. The findings from two randomized double-blinded placebo controlled intervention trials provide a strong indication that the unique bioactive compounds of Rooibos may have benefits for exercise performance and recovery and as a potential ergogenic supplement, which may have further positive ramifications for the Rooibos value chain in terms of beneficiating Rooibos. Additionally, the TD approach has acknowledged the importance of indigenous biological resources, and the commitment to share sustainable economic benefits with traditional knowledge holders in a fair and equitable way.
... Also, the health and biological action of this plant have been reported because of their bioavailability, bioactivity, and potential herb-drug interactions (Rampedi and Olivier, 2008;Joubert et al., 2008Joubert et al., , 2009Marnewick, 2009;McKay and Blumberg, 2007;Joubert and Schulz, 2006). Several scientists have reported the economic importance of Aspalathus linearis in the production of different beverage drinks and its tremendous economics value to global beverage industry capable of generating huge amount of income thereby changing the global landscape of bioeconomy. ...
... Assamica scores a high Use value of 0.94. Herbal beverages are consumed for recreational or therapeutic purposes [52][53][54][55]. Tea is the second most consumed beverage after water, with the global average per capita consumption of boiled tea being 120 ml per day [56]. ...
Background
Despite the popularity of modern medicine, medicinal plants remain a cornerstone of treatment for numerous diseases, particularly among ethnic groups and tribal communities around the globe. Ethnomedicine offers advantages such as ease of use, convenience, and economic benefits. Medicinal plant knowledge within Bulang ethnic community of southwest China is a valuable complement to Chinese ethnomedicine systems. Accumulated medical knowledge is due to the extensive length of occupation by Bulang People, considered the earliest inhabitants of Xishuangbanna; this has resulted in the development of various traditional treatment methods with local characteristics and unique curative effects. Therefore, there is exceeding value in exploring the medical knowledge of Bulang.
Methods
A total of 175 local informants participated in the interviews and distribution of questionnaires in 10 Bulang villages in Menghai County, Xishuangbanna Prefecture, Yunnan Province, China. We documented the community of Bulang's use of medicinal herbs, and we used both the informant consensus factor (ICF) and use value (UV) methodologies to analyze the data. Furthermore, we conducted a comparative study to explore the potential of Bulang traditional medicine by comparing it to traditional Dai medicine.
Results
The study recorded 60 medicinal plant species belonging to 41 families and 59 genera, including 22 species of herb, 22 species of shrub, nine species of trees, and seven species of liana. Araceae, Compositae, Lamiaceae and Leguminosae were found to have the highest number of species. The affordability and cultural heritage of Bulang medicine make it advantageous, Investigated Informants report that increased usage of Western medicine (88%), less availability of herbal medicine (95.43%), and the reduction in medicinal plant resources (80.57%) pose significant threats to Bulang medicine. All Bulang medicinal plants are naturally grown, with only 22 per cent being cultivated. Camellia sinensis (0.94) and Zingiber officinale (0.89) showed the highest UV values, while the function of Phyllanthus emblica L. and Houttuynia cordata Thunb. were also noted. The ICF revealed digestive system related diseases were the most commonly treated, with conditions of the motor system using the highest number of plant species. Finally, a comparison with traditional Dai medicine determined that 22 plants (36.67%) of the 60 surveyed had higher medicinal value in Bulang medicine.
Conclusion
Bulang communities primarily source medicinal plants from the wild. Should environmental damage lead to the extinction of these medicinal plants, it could result in a shift toward modern Western medicine as a preferred medical treatment. Bulang ethnomedicine is a vital supplement to China's traditional medicine, particularly aspects of ethnic medicine relevant to daily life. Future research should emphasize inter-ethnic medical studies to reveal the untapped potential of medicinal plants.
... Thus, considering the highlighted aspects, this review may be considered the basis of future prospects that lead to the determination of Athrixia phylicoides DC. (bush tea) metabolic profiles. Indeed, bush tea is a shrub indigenous to South Africa, and naturally grows in Limpopo, Mpumalanga, Eastern Cape, and KwaZulu-Natal provinces of the country, which has gained a high popularity countrywide as a healthy beverage [84,85]. Thus, given the renowned health benefits of its leaves for cleansing blood and treating ailments, such as boils, headaches, infested wounds, and coughs, the use of this "omics" discipline may be promising in studying the plant metabolic responses to different treatments. ...
Camellia sinensis is the most consumed beverage worldwide. It contains a wide variety of secondary metabolites, such as alkaloids, saponins, tannins, catechins, and polyphenols, generated through a condensation reaction of cinnamic acid with three malonyl-CoA groups. In addition to the metabolic processes occurring within this plant, there are also some plant-associated bacterial endophytes. These bacteria reside in the living tissues of the host plants without causing any harmful effect to them, thereby stimulating secondary metabolite production with a diverse range of biological effects. Omics technologies reveal understanding of the biological phenomena of transcriptomics, proteomics, and metabolomics. In this sense, the present review aims to provide a comprehensive review of various methods used to identify distinct plant compounds, namely transcriptomic, proteomic, and metabolomic analysis. The role of endophytic bacteria in C. sinensis metabolism, and C. sinensis antioxidant and antimicrobial effects, are also carefully highlighted.
... Polyphenols make up about 30 to 41% of the fermented or unfermented rooibos tea and they include aspalathin, nothofagin, isoorientin, orientin, rutin, hyperoside, quercetin, isoquercitrin, vitexin, isovitexin, luteolin-O-galactoside and lignans (Marnewick et al., 2000;Standley et al., 2001;Joubert et al., 2008;Breiter et al., 2011). Of all the polyphenols present in rooibos, the most abundant is aspalathin which is a dihydrochalcone glucoside, unique to rooibos and makes up about 4 to 12% of the plant material (Joubert and De Beer, 2011;Erlwanger and Ibrahim, 2017;Chaudhary et al., 2021). ...
This article investigates the potential neuroprotective effects of the total extract of Aspalathus linearis (rooibos RB), and its bioactive compounds aspalathin (ASP), and linearthin (LIN) in an in vitro model 9f parkinson's disease, using the SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells and the 1-methyl-4-phenylpiridinium (MPP+) neurotoxin.
... The teas are sold as either black or green (fermented or unfermented, respectively) (Horn, 2019). Even though the commercialization of some of these remedial teas is still in its infancy stage, honeybush has gained recognition, while rooibos is the most well-known and well established in the industry (Van Wyk and Gericke, 2000;Joubert et al., 2008;. ...
Cyclopia, generally known as honeybush, and belonging to the Fabaceae family, originates from the Cape Floristic Region of the Eastern Cape and Western Cape provinces of South Africa. Currently, 6 honeybush species are commercially cultivated but, to date, there have been limited trials attempting to study their agronomic water demand. A pot trial was conducted where Cyclopia subternata plants were cultivated on different soil types (Stellenbosch granite, Stellenbosch shale and Stellenbosch clovelly) and subjected to three different water-deficit stress levels (well-watered, semi-stressed and stressed). Remarkably, irrigation treatments and soil types did not significantly affect the growth of the plants. However, the well-watered treatment consistently had higher yields compared to the other two treatments. The water-stressed (semi-stressed and stressed) treatments had lower relative water contents (RWC) with higher concentrations of proline, which signify water stress, compared to the control treatment. Higher proline and lower RWC contents found in this study are indications of water stress.
... Polyphenols, the antioxidants Mary-Jane S. Mahlare1 in honeybush tea, have beneficial effects on human health [5], [1]. Traditionally, honeybush has been used to treat disorders such as heartburn, ulcers, colic in infants, chronic tonsillitis, lung infections, nausea and mucus build-up in the respiratory tract or body cavities [3], [6]- [8]. There are 23 species of Cyclopia in the Cape Floristic Region of South Africa, of which only six are used commercially, among the six is Cyclopia subternata. ...
... Cyclopia is an endemic South African plant genus and several of the species have traditionally been processed and consumed as herbal tea, commonly known as honeybush tea [8]. In addition, anecdotal evidence suggests that drinking infusions of honeybush tea has restorative properties and can stimulate appetite [9], implying its role in improving appetite and thus regulating energy metabolism and obesity. ...
Previously, we reported that a crude polyphenol-enriched fraction of Cyclopia intermedia (CPEF), a plant consumed as the herbal tea, commonly known as honeybush, reduced lipid content in 3T3-L1 adipocytes and inhibited body weight gain in obese, diabetic female leptin receptor-deficient (db/db) mice. In the current study, the mechanisms underlying decreased body weight gain in db/db mice were further elucidated using western blot analysis and in silico approaches. CPEF induced uncoupling protein 1 (UCP1, 3.4-fold, p < 0.05) and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPARα, 2.6-fold, p < 0.05) expression in brown adipose tissue. In the liver, CPEF induced PPARα expression (2.2-fold, p < 0.05), which was accompanied by a 31.9% decrease in fat droplets in Hematoxylin and Eosin (H&E)-stained liver sections (p < 0.001). Molecular docking analysis revealed that the CPEF compounds, hesperidin and neoponcirin, had the highest binding affinities for UCP1 and PPARα, respectively. This was validated with stabilising intermolecular interactions within the active sites of UCP1 and PPARα when complexed with these compounds. This study suggests that CPEF may exert its anti-obesity effects by promoting thermogenesis and fatty acid oxidation via inducing UCP1 and PPARα expression, and that hesperidin and neoponcirin may be responsible for these effects. Findings from this study could pave the way for designing target-specific anti-obesity therapeutics from C. intermedia.
... Green rooibos was initially developed to offer a product that maintains the high concentrations of aspalathin, a potent antioxidant, found in the plant [10]. This compound was the first example of a C-glycosyl dihydrochalcone found in nature [11] and has since been shown to be integral to many of the biological properties of rooibos, as well as to the formation of the red-brown color of fermented rooibos [12][13][14]. Its beneficial biological activities, in particular modulation of the metabolic syndrome [15], encouraged the development of aspalathin-rich extracts and sparked research into the stability of the compound during the production of extracts and formulated products and their storage. ...
Rooibos tea is made from an endemic South African plant, Aspalathus linearis (family Fabaceae), also known by its common name, rooibos (“red bush”). The main herbal tea product is traditional “fermented” rooibos. Interest by the market in antioxidant-rich herbal teas motivated the production of green rooibos as it retains aspalathin, a rare dihydrochalcone and potent antioxidant. The compound is also associated with modulation of the metabolic syndrome, giving impetus to studies on its stability during herbal tea manufacture, production of extracts and product storage. Aspalathin acts as precursor to the formation of yellow and red-brown reaction products under oxidative conditions. The red-brown color is characteristic of the leaf and beverage color of traditional rooibos tea. While these changes are desirable during “fermentation,” the poor oxidative stability of aspalathin poses a challenge during the production and storage of value-added products. In this chapter, a brief section on the plant and its cultivation provides background for the sections covering the manufacture of the green and traditional rooibos teas, their extracts, and convenience products such as ready-to-drink beverages. The focus also falls on the natural variation in the phenolic content of the plant with an emphasis on aspalathin. A summary of the reactions and mechanisms involved in the oxidation of aspalathin provides context for a discussion of the challenges involved in the development of shelf-stable products. The focus also falls on the impact of heat processing, storage conditions, and the presence of other beverage ingredients such as citric acid and ascorbic acid.
... Currently, Rooibos tea is a commercialised herbal tea that has global success. A. linearis has been used traditionally to treat different ailments, including skin ailments, kidney ailments, diarrhoea, hypertension, and colic, and to stimulate appetite [98,99]. A. linearis leaves contain two unique phenolic compounds called aspalathin and aspalalinin, as well as other phenolic compounds, including flavones, flavonols and flavanones, as listed in Table 2 [100]. ...
Metal oxide nanoparticles (NPs), such as zinc oxide (ZnO), have been researched extensively for applications in biotechnology, photovoltaics, photocatalysis, sensors, cosmetics, and pharmaceuticals due to their unique properties at the nanoscale. ZnO NPs have been fabricated using conventional physical and chemical processes, but these techniques are limited due to the use of hazardous chemicals that are bad for the environment and high energy consumption. Plant-mediated synthesis of ZnO NPs has piqued the interest of researchers owing to secondary metabolites found in plants that can reduce Zn precursors and stabilise ZnO NPs. Thus, plant-mediated synthesis of ZnO NPs has become one of the alternative green synthesis routes for the fabrication of ZnO NPs. This is attributable to its environmental friendliness, simplicity, and the potential for industrial-scale expansion. Southern Africa is home to a large and diverse indigenous medicinal plant population. However, the use of these indigenous medicinal plants for the preparation of ZnO NPs is understudied. This review looks at the indigenous medicinal plants of southern Africa that have been used to synthesise ZnO NPs for a variety of applications. In conclusion, there is a need for more exploration of southern African indigenous plants for green synthesis of ZnO NPs.
... For instance, aloe gel is used in the treatment of burns and acne, and as a moisturizer for dry skin because of its diverse and effective bioactive compounds e.g., aloe-emodin, aloin A and B [2]. The antioxidant effect of rooibos and honeybush helps fight against free radicals in the skin, caused by environmental impact, and to repair damaged skin, soothe irritation from sunburn, reduce the appearance of wrinkles, and improve skin elasticity and hydration [3,38]. The ancient use of Marula oil in Africa has gained momentum in the cosmeceutical industry due to the oil's emollient properties, UV protecting effect, and anti-ageing and wound healing benefits [39,40]. ...
Africa is counted amongst the cosmetic market contributors; however, South Africa’s remarkable plant diversity is still largely untapped in terms of its potential for medicinal and cosmetic purposes. Thus, we aim to provide a critical assessment of the advancements made in South African cosmeceuticals with emphasis towards online local companies/brands that are manufactured by small, medium and micro enterprises (SMMEs). For the current study, we limited our search of herbal cosmeceutical products to SMMEs with online websites, or products traded in other online cosmetic directories such as ‘Faithful to Nature’ and ‘African Botanicals’ using a simple Google search. We recorded more than 50 South African SMME companies/brands involved in the trade of cosmeceuticals. Skin and hair care were the major product categories widely traded in these online platforms. Furthermore, few patents were recorded from South African researchers and institutions thereof, which is quite alarming considering the extensive research that has been undertaken to study these commercially valuable plants. Based on the increasing number of new products and the wide pool of economically important plants coupled to their associated rich indigenous knowledge systems, the cosmeceutical sector can contribute to the economy, job creation, entrepreneurship skills, socio-economic development and intellectual property generation.
Tea is widely consumed in the world and has a special place in the life of tea lovers. However, the tea along with its goodness also delivers small amount of caffeine to the consumers. Since, excess of everything is bad, huge accumulation of caffeine may lead to dysfunctioning of the normal mechanism of the body. As an alternative, attention could be given to the herbal infusions in the form of beverages, which is tisane. This review aims to provide a comprehensive exploration of tisanes, encompassing their definitions, botanical origins, historical background, types, preparation methods and possiblehealth/therapeutic properties. While tea as a beverage made from Camellia sinensis leaves continue as the most favored, the heightened attention in tisanes as a beverage in lieu of Camellia sinensistea reflects an extensive mindset, cultural and habitual shift towards remedies based on naturally existing botanicals and holistic wellness. Additionally, since the nutritional composition of tisanes vary as according to the raw material utilized for decoction, a discussion is made based on the growing body of evidences on tisanes and their role in promoting human health and well-being which could potentially prove fruitful in the conceptualization for research and development in the preparation and studies on blends of tisanes and their benefits.
Cyclopia, generally known as honeybush, and belonging to the Fabaceae family, originates from the Cape Floristic Region of the Eastern and Western Cape Provinces of South Africa. Honeybush (Cyclopia spp.) plants are a rich source of antioxidant properties and phenolic compounds, and the extracts are utilised as beverages and other aesthetic products. Currently, six honeybush species are commercially cultivated, but to date, there are limited trials attempting to study their agronomic water demand. Two pot trials and a field study were conducted at three different sites where Cyclopia subternata plants were cultivated on different soil types (Stellenbosch granite, Stellenbosch shale, and Stellenbosch clovelly) and subjected to three different water deficit stress levels (well-watered, semi-stressed, and stressed). Remarkably, irrigation treatments and soil types did not significantly affect the growth of the plants. However, the well-watered treatment consistently had higher yields compared to the other two treatments. Proline, which generally accumulates in plants that undergo different stresses (biotic and abiotic), was studied in all three experiments using the colorimetric method. The water-stressed (semi-stressed and stressed) treatments had higher proline concentrations with lower relative water contents (RWC), which signify water stress. Stomatal conductance was also investigated only in one pot study and field experiment and
generally, lower in stressed plants and highest in well-watered plants. The drop in stomatal conductance in the stressed plants was due to the induction of stomatal closure, which is a coping mechanism to aid survival by reducing transpiration rate. The development, growth, and yields of the plant can be limited by water availability. Thus, this study also investigated the changes in molecular functions, cellular components, and biological processes of C. subternata exposed to different water stress conditions (T1, T2, T3, T13, T17, and T19). The proteins found in C. subternata leaves were differentially identified and quantified with quantitative mass spectrometry. A total of 11 differentially expressed proteins (DEPs) were identified using the Fisher's Exact Test (p < 0.00100). Only α-glucan phosphorylase was found to be statistically common between T17 and T19 (p < 0.00100). In T19, 5 DEPs were upregulated and 6 were downregulated. Based on gene ontology, the DEPs in the stressed plant were associated with cellular and metabolic processes, response to stimulus, binding, catalytic activity, and cellular anatomical entities. Majority of these proteins were involved in photosynthesis, phenylpropanoid biosynthesis, thiamine, and purine metabolism. This study revealed the presence of trans-cinnamate 4-monooxygenase, an intermediate for the biosynthesis of a large number of substances, such as phenylpropanoids, coumarins, and flavonoids. As much as consumers prefer healthy food, they are mostly not eager to compromise on taste and other sensory properties. Studies have proven that water stress has various effect on the sensory quality of different plant food products. In terms of tea quality, a descriptive sensory analysis was used for field grown C. subternata to compare the infusions prepared from three water deficit treatments. Severe water-deficit stress seems to boost the sensory profile of the infusions, in particular the ‘woody’, ‘fynbos-floral’, ‘rose perfume’, ‘fynbos-sweet’ and ‘sweet spice’ aromas as well as a
sweet taste.
Introduction: Natural remedies in the treatment of health conditions are an appealing option for many individuals. Previous studies reported that fermented and unfermented rooibos tea have considerable anti-inflammatory and antioxidative properties. Most of this knowledge, however, originates from animal and cell culture studies. Objectives: The aims of this review are to evaluate the existing, but limited, body of knowledge regarding rooibos tea interventions in humans and to identify the gaps in the literature. Methods: The PRISMA extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) guidelines were followed in the collation of this scoping review. Among the databases searched were Google Scholar, PubMed, Cochrane Library, Scopus, and Web of Science. Results: This review comprised 18 publications, with half (50%) of the studies being conducted in South Africa. There were 488 participants in all, ranging in age from six to 83 years, in the investigations. Rooibos tea was either fermented, unfermented, or black in 62% of the studies. Doses ranging from 200 mL to 1200 mL were employed. In both healthy and at-risk individuals, rooibos has been shown to enhance lipid profiles, boost antioxidant status, and lower blood glucose levels. The existing findings suggests that rooibos consumption demonstrated to improve lipid profiles, boost antioxidant status, and lower blood glucose levels in both apparently healthy, and individual at-risk individuals or diagnosed of chronic conditions. Conclusion: Thus, it can be presumed that rooibos tea provides some health benefits, yet these findings are based on a limited number of human intervention studies and a small total sample size. Additionally, a variety of rooibos dosages and types of tea in the experiments had inconsistent results that were probably impacted by the amount consumed. Future studies should include a dose-response study in humans, as well as large scaled clinical trials to evaluate the health effects of Rooibos.
Honeybush (Cyclopia spp.), a legume endemic to the Fynbos biome of South Africa, has gained popularity as a herbal tea, particularly for its unique honey-like flavour, low tannin content and high antioxidant status. However, extensive wild-harvesting practices are a concern as this continued practice is placing pressure on natural stands. To ensure a sustainable supply of high-quality tea, a switch to clonal cultivation is required. In this study, the rooting potential of cuttings from four clonal types of Cyclopia genistoides was evaluated, following rejuvenation of stock plants over various regrowth periods, with cutting material collected over different seasons and phenological phases. The highest rooting success of > 90% was achieved following either six- or nine months of regrowth in winter and spring. Cutting dry weight positively correlated with rooting percentages in summer and autumn rooted cuttings. Extended periods of regrowth highlighted clonal differences in rooting success whilst no clonal differences occurred in shorter regrowth periods of less than a year. Cuttings (clones ‘GK3’ and ‘GK5’) made following regrowth of more than 12 months differed significantly, with ‘GK3’ rooting percentages that were lower in comparison to ‘GK5’ cutting material, when harvested in winter (30%; 82%) and the following autumn (37%; 100%), but were comparable when harvested in the preceding summer, autumn and spring. Stock plant phenology of C. genistoides at harvesting influenced rooting as low rooting percentages consistently coincided when the harvesting of cutting material coincided with the flowering period. The use of terminal cuttings collected from the current season’s growth during a vegetative phase, following a six- or nine-month regrowth period, is recommended for C. genistoides stock plants to achieve acceptable to high rooting success in cutting material.
In the field of catalysis, bimetallic nanostructures have attracted much interest. Here, we discuss the effect of Au/Rh bimetallic composition-tuned nanostructure and electrocatalytic activity. A simple bio-assisted technique was used to fabricate multiple Au:Rh nanoplate ratios (25:75, 50:50, and 75:25). XRD and XPS studies show that both Au and Rh phases coexist in a bimetallic nanostructure, and electron microscopy confirms the formation of a triangle-shaped nanoplate. Au0.25Rh0.75 exhibited the maximum catalytic activity and good stability for hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) with an overpotential of 105 mV at a current density of 10 mA/cm2. On the other hand, Au0.50Rh0.50 exhibits a higher activity for methanol oxidation reaction (MOR) compared to the other compositions. Theoretical studies indicate that the electrocatalytic enhancement obtained for both HER and MOR relies on electronic modification effects of the surface, with the overall reaction energy profile being optimized due to Au/Rh d-band mixing.
Nanotechnology is a growing area of biotechnology. In this connection, nanoparticles (NPs) synthesis is a significant step. Traditional ways of making NPs do not work as well as they could, so a greener way of doing it has been developed. Most of the time, plants and microorganisms are used in the green synthesis of metal NPs. Plants are increasingly being used to synthesize NPs, which have advantages over microorganisms because plants have a wide range of bio-molecular variability that can act as blocking/stabilizing agents and reducing agents, increasing the synthetic nanoparticle reduction rate and stability. Desert plants produces secondary metabolites for instance polyphenols (phenolic acids, flavonoids, and coumarins), alkaloids, steroids, saponins (spirostanol saponins, furostanol saponins, and open-chain steroidal saponins), and pregnane glycosides. Such phytochemicals derived from desert plants have many beneficial effects on human health, including antioxidants, anti-cancer, anti-diabetic, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, hepatoprotective, and molluscicide. At the moment, very few papers discuss the use of desert plant extracts as a reducing agent in the biosynthesis of NPs. Therefore, this chapter discusses green nanomaterials’ ability to be synthesized from desert plants and their applications.KeywordsNanoparticlesGreen synthesisDesert plantsBiological applications
In the present study, carbon quantum dots (CDQs) modified coumarine-3-carboxylic acid (CCA) and 7-diethyl amino coumarine-3-carboxylate (DACC) were synthesized by microwave assisted method and the synthesized hybrid nanomaterials possess greater biocompatibility, water solubility, luminescent and fluorescent properties. The hybrid CDQs: CCA/DACC nanomaterials exhibit superior fluorescent properties and greater quantum yield when subjected for excitation. Also, they possess superior bio-imaging properties, fluorescent quenching and contribute for the modern diagnosis and cell identification techniques. When tested for cytotoxicity, the hybrid nanomaterial does not showed cytotoxicity against L929 mouse fibroblast. The results clearly indicated that, the hybrid nanomaterials with surface modified CQDs dispersed over CCA/DACC may become a powerful tool in the field of nano medicine and pharmacy
Synthesis of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) using phytochemicals has become tremendously prominent in biomedical applications because of its enhanced bioactivity and biocompatibility. In this study, water extracts from the leaves of Cyclopia genistoides (C. genistoides), commonly known as honeybush (HB), were used to synthesize honeybush gold nanoparticles (HB-AuNPs). The HB water extracts (HBE) served as both reducing and capping agents in the synthesis of HB-AuNPs. The HB-AuNPs were characterized by UV–Vis spectrophotometry, dynamic light scattering (DLS), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The cytotoxicity and apoptotic effects of the HBE and HB-AuNPs, alone and in combination with doxorubicin (Dox), were examined against various human cell lines. Spherical-shaped HB-AuNPs with a hydrodynamic diameter range of 63 to 121 nm were produced. The HB-AuNPs conferred selective cytotoxicity against colon (Caco-2), breast (MCF-7), and prostate (PC-3) cancer cells and did not display any cytotoxicity to non-cancerous skin fibroblast (KMST-6) and human embryonic kidney (HEK)-293 cells. Moreover, co-treatment of Caco-2 cells with HB-AuNPs and Dox (at non-toxic concentrations) significantly enhanced the anti-cancer effects of Dox towards the Caco-2 cells. Furthermore, it was demonstrated that HB-AuNPs induced PC-3 cell death through apoptosis. Further studies are warranted to elucidate the mechanisms by which the HB-AuNPs influence cell death when used alone or in combination with drugs, as well as the type of phytochemicals involved in AuNPs synthesis and activity.
Breast cancer is the most diagnosed type of cancer amongst women in economically developing countries and globally. Most breast cancers express estrogen receptor alpha (ERα) and are categorized as positive (ER⁺) breast cancer. Endocrine therapies such as, selective estrogen receptor modulators (SERMs), aromatase inhibitors (AIs), and selective estrogen receptor downregulators (SERDs) are used to treat ER⁺ breast cancer. However, despite their effectiveness, severe side-effects and resistance are associated with these endocrine therapies. Thus, it would be highly beneficial to develop breast cancer drugs that are as effective as current therapies, but less toxic with fewer side effects, and less likely to induce resistance. Extracts of Cyclopia species, an indigenous South African fynbos plant, have been shown to possess phenolic compounds that exhibit phytoestrogenic and chemopreventive activities against breast cancer development and progression. In the current study, three well characterized Cyclopia extracts, SM6Met, cup of tea (CoT) and P104, were examined for their abilities to modulate the levels of the estrogen receptor subtypes, estrogen receptor alpha and estrogen receptor beta (ERβ), which have been recognized as crucial to breast cancer prognosis and treatment. We showed that the Cyclopia subternata Vogel (C. subternata Vogel) extracts, SM6Met and cup of tea, but not the C. genistoides extract, P104, reduced estrogen receptor alpha protein levels while elevating estrogen receptor beta protein levels, thereby reducing the ERα:ERβ ratio in a similar manner as standard of care breast cancer endocrine therapies such as fulvestrant (selective estrogen receptor downregulator) and 4-hydroxytamoxifen (elective estrogen receptor modulator). Estrogen receptor alpha expression enhances the proliferation of breast cancer cells while estrogen receptor beta inhibits the proliferative activities of estrogen receptor alpha. We also showed that in terms of the molecular mechanisms involved all the Cyclopia extracts regulated estrogen receptor alpha and estrogen receptor beta protein levels through both transcriptional and translational, and proteasomal degradation mechanisms. Therefore, from our findings, we proffer that the C. subternata Vogel extracts, SM6Met and cup of tea, but not the C. genistoides extract, P104, selectively modulate estrogen receptor subtypes levels in a manner that generally supports inhibition of breast cancer proliferation, thereby demonstrating attributes that could be explored as potential therapeutic agents for breast cancer.
The combination of hydrophilic interaction chromatography (HILIC) and reversed-phase liquid chromatography (RP-LC) has proved effective in the LC × LC analysis of polyphenols due to the high degree of orthogonality associated with these separation modes for various classes of phenolic compounds. However, despite the growing number of such applications, HILIC is almost exclusively used as the first dimension (1D) separation mode, and RP-LC in the second dimension (2D). This is somewhat surprising in light of the potential advantages of swapping these separation modes. In this contribution, we present a detailed evaluation of the potential of online RP-LC × HILIC-MS for the analysis of phenolic compounds, comparing the performance of this system to the more established HILIC × RP-LC-MS configuration. Method development was performed using a predictive optimisation program, and fixed solvent modulation was employed to combat the solvent incompatibility between HILIC and RP-LC mobile phases. Red wine, rooibos tea, Protea and chestnut phenolic extracts containing a large diversity of phenolic compound classes were analysed by both HILIC × RP-LC- and RP-LC × HILIC-MS in order to compare the separation performance. Overall, the kinetic performance of HILIC × RP-LC was found to be clearly superior, with higher peak capacities and better resolution obtained for the majority of samples compared to RP-LC × HILIC analyses using similar column dimensions. Dilution of the 1D solvent combined with large volume injections proved insufficient to focus especially phenolic acids in the 2D HILIC separation, which resulted in severe 2D peak distortion for these compounds, and negatively impacted on method performance. On the other hand, a noteworthy improvement in the sensitivity of RP-LC × HILIC-MS analyses was observed due to higher ESI-MS response for the 2D HILIC mobile phase and greater sample loading capacity of the 1D RP-LC column, brought on by the high solubility of phenolic samples in aqueous solutions. As a result, a significantly higher number of compounds were detected in the RP-LC × HILIC-MS separations. These findings point to the potential advantage of RP-LC × HILIC as a complementary configuration to HILIC × RP-LC for phenolic analysis.
Purpose
Infantile colic (IC) or fussing and crying behavior of unknown cause, affects up to 20% of the infant population and is one of the major reasons for parents to seek medical advice. Therapeutic options are limited and the key component for IC management is parental support. Fennel-based herbal treatments were shown to significantly reduce crying time. The current study was designed to evaluate the parent perception of effectiveness of a fennel-based commercially-available herbal treatment for IC (BabyCalm, Hisunit Ltd., Israel) using a retrospective online survey.
Design and methods
This was a real-world observational, case-control retrospective study. Parents of babies with IC symptoms, who either used the herbal product for their baby or did not use any product were invited to participate in an online survey during August–December 2019. The primary outcome was the perceived level of treatment success and symptom improvement.
Results
1218 parents of IC babies (48% females, 90% up to 3 months of age, 58% exclusively breast-fed) responded to the survey of whom 771 used the treatment. Significantly fewer IC-related symptoms were reported by parents who used the product compared to those that did not. Parents perceived the treatment as successful in 65% of the cases, reporting meaningful improvements within 30 min for 69%–79% of the symptoms.
Conclusions
The majority of parents perceived the herbal treatment as effective in rapid symptom reduction suggesting that this may provide a satisfactory solution for IC in the community.
Athrixia phylicoides DC. (Asteraceae), known as bush tea, is a leafy shrub that grows abundantly in South Africa and its neighbouring countries, including Lesotho and Swaziland. The plant is recognised as one of South Africa’s indigenous teas, since infusions of the aerial parts are enjoyed as a beverage. Several indigenous groups prepare decoctions, infusions and pastes from various parts of the plant to treat an array of ailments, including infections, pain, inflammation, and conditions of dermatological, gastrointestinal, genito-urinary, cardiovascular and endocrine origin. In vitro studies have indicated that A. phylicoides has antidiabetic effects, and suggest that bush tea is safe to consume, but clinical trials to confirm this are lacking. Although bush tea has not been commercialised and is only informally traded, ongoing fundamental research coupled with models derived from successfully commercialised local herbal teas revealed potential for the development of bush tea products. Leaves and twigs of A. phylicoides from several natural populations were extracted using methanol: water (1:1). The chemical profiles of the extracts were established using semi-automated high-performance thin-layer chromatography (HPTLC) and ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (UPLC–MS). Compounds identified as chemical markers for the species were visible on derivatised HPTLC plates (viewed under 366 nm radiation) and on the UPLC–MS chromatograms.
Introduction
Rooibos (Aspalathus linearis) is a South African herbal tisane that is enjoyed throughout the world for its taste and emerging health benefits. Rooibos possesses a unique composite of phytochemicals known to encompass antioxidant and bioactive properties and has been suggested as an intervention for several disease conditions. The current study aims to provide a comprehensive bibliometric overview of the literature on Rooibos and its proposed health benefits to complement previous review articles. Methods: A bibliometric mapping analysis of the research on Rooibos was carried out, using data from the titles, abstracts, and keywords of articles published in leading journals and other peer-reviewed documents available in the Scopus database from 1962 to 2021 (21 September), and subsequently analyzed with the VOSviewer software.
Results
The search yielded 635 documents. The numbers of original articles (n = 525) and reviews (n = 51) were in the ratio of 10:1. More than half of the papers have been published since 2015. These publications were mainly published in journals representing the emerging ethnopharmacological potential of this tisane.
Discussion/Conclusion
The literature mainly focused on Rooibos bioactive effects against cancer, inflammation, and oxidative stress. Purified Rooibos phytocompounds that were frequently mentioned in the keywords of evaluated publications included aspalathin, quercetin, rutin and the umbrella term “polyphenols”. The accumulating research clearly underlines the benefits of Rooibos as both a preventative and complementary therapeutic functional food. This first attempt to visualize the bibliometrics and altmetrics of Rooibos and its health applications is a good starting point for further scientific work.
Background
The medicinal properties of plants can be predicted by virtue of phylogenetic methods, which nevertheless has not been utilized to explore the regularity of skin related bioactivities of ethnomedicinal plants. We aim to investigate the distribution of skin efficacy of Asteraceae and Ranunculales plants on the species-level Tree of Life.
Methods
The clinical efficacy data of 551 ethnomedicinal species belonging to Ranunculales, as well as 579 ethnomedicinal species of Asteraceae, were systematically collected and collated; these therapeutic data fell into 15 categories, including skin disease/cosmeceutical. The large phylogenetic tree of all China angiosperm species was used to detect the phylogenetic signals of ethnomedicinal plants by calculating the D statistic, phylogenetic diversity (PD), net relatedness index (NRI) and nearest taxon index (NTI). Of all Chinese ethnomedicinal plants of Ranunculales and Asteraceae, 339 (61.5% of all ethnomedicinal species) and 382 (66.0% of all) are used for skin problems. In Ranunculales, a clustered structure was suggested by NRI value for skin uses. In Asteraceae, the skin utility was not clustered; Artemisia, Aster, Cremanthodium, Ligularia and Saussurea are the most used Asteraceae genera for skin issues.
Results
The clustering structure was identified in Artemisia, and the skin efficacy in other genera was of overdispersion (NRI < 0). NTI values and D statistic largely agree with NRI. When compared with PD values of other therapeutic categories, the PD value of skin category was relatively high in Cremanthodium, Ranunculales, Asteraceae and Artemisia, suggesting the enormous efficacy space in the unexplored taxa of these taxonomic groups.
Conclusion
By resolving the distribution of therapeutic effects of Ranunculales/Asteraceae taxa, the importance of phylogenetic methods in mining botanical resources with skin utilities is validated.
Use of the herbal tea, rooibos, made from the indigenous South African fynbos plant, Aspalathus linearis spp. linearis, has shown tremendous growth on the international markets since the 1990s. From a small beginning in 1904, solely depended on wild harvesting, the industry has developed out of the selected and cultivated Nortier type, leading to improved quality. Traditional rooibos is processed, entailing an oxidation ("fermentation") step, essential to develop the characteristic sweetish flavour and red-brown colour. Higher antioxidant levels for unfermented rooibos resulted in the development of green rooibos and extracts enriched in aspalathin, a potent antioxidant unique to rooibos. Major markets for rooibos extracts are ready-to-drink iced teas and cosmetic products.
Bush tea (Athrixia phylicoides) belongs to the Asteraceae family. It is a popular beverage used as an herbal tea and as medicine for cleansing or purifying the blood, treating boils, headaches, infested wounds, and cuts, and the solutions may also be used as a foam bath. In some parts of South Africa, people drink bush tea for aphrodisiac reasons. Bush tea was grown under varying N, P, and K levels in all four seasons to determine the seasonal nutrient requirements for improved plant growth. Three parallel trials for N, P, or K one at each season were laid out in a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with six treatments replicated eight times. Treatments consisted of 0,100, 200, 300, 400, or 500 kg·ha-1 N, P, or K. Parameters recorded were plant height, number of branches and leaves, fresh and dry stem mass, fresh and dry root mass, stem girth, fresh and dry shoot mass, leaf area and percentage leaf and root tissue N, P, and K. Results of this study demonstrated that, in all trials regardless of season, N, P, or K nutrition increased bush tea fresh and dry shoot mass, plant height, number of leaves, number of branches and leaf area. Regardless of season, the optimum level of N, P and K fertilization for bush tea on growth parameters was 300 kg·ha-1 N or P and 200 kg·ha-1 for K. No significant differences in number of flowers and buds (fall and winter), stem girth, fresh and dry root mass as well as fresh and dry stem mass were obtained.
The flavonoid content as well as the superoxide anion and hydroxyl radical scavenging activities of water extracts of rooibos (Aspalathus linearis (Burm. f.) R. Dahlgr.), honeybush (Cyclopia intermedia E. Mey.) and roselle (Hibiscus sabdariffa L.), three South African herbal teas which are commercial products exported world-wide, were investigated. The results indicated that the water extracts of rooibos exhibited the best scavenging activity for both the hydroxyl radical and superoxide anion followed by honeybush and then roselle. This seems to be due to the total flavonoid concentration, which was the highest in rooibos and lowest in roselle.
New terms such as oxidative stress, antioxidant products or pro-oxidant risks are becoming familiar and an increasing number of international scientific conferences and the publication of thousands of scientific articles is an indication of the growing interest that the subject awakens. The most publicized example is perhaps the French paradox, based on the apparent compatibility of a high fat diet with a low incidence of coronary atherosclerosis attributed to the regular consumption, by the French, of red wine and/or grape juice. Flavonoids, and other phenolic substances contained in red wine, are assigned with antioxidant properties, which lower the oxidation of low density lipoproteins and consequently, the risk of atherogenic diseases. Other examples are the aging process and its correlation with an increase of free radicals, and the correlation between the initiation and promotion of cancer and tissue injury by free radicals, which has induced the intake of antioxidant products as chemical factors that prevent the onset of the disease. Currently, the incidence of oxidative stress on the onset and evolution of more than 100 diseases is claimed by several researchers. All these are "realities", which on the other hand, are lacking of more clinical evidence, are considered by both physicians and health regulatory bodies, either as "myths" or of "secondary" importance. In the attempts to destroy those myths, results of chemical, preclinical, and clinical works with a crude extract of mango (Mangifera indica L.) stem bark, which has been developed in Cuba, are reviewed, with a strong experimental evidence of its antioxidant, antiinflammatory and immunomodulatory properties.
The processed leaves and stems of Aspalathus linearis contain hydroxylated benzoic and cinnamic acids, luteolin, chrysoeriol, quercetin, isoquercitrin, the C–C linked β-d-glucopyranosides based on four flavones and the dihydrochalcone aspalathin.
The presence of alkaloids in three southern African genera of the tribe Crotalarieae is reported for the first time. Sparteine, lupanine and nuttalline were detected in several species of Aspalathus L., Rafnia Thunb. and Wiborgia Thunb., but rarely in more than trace quantities. Except for very large quantitative differences, the alkaloids are almost identical to those found in the genus Lebeckia Thunb. Available evidence suggests that the three genera are more closely related to Lebeckia than to any other genus of the tribe. The divergence of these genera seems to be linked to an almost total loss of the ability to produce alkaloids.
The superoxide anion radical (O2-) scavenging ability of aqueous extracts from honeybush tea, as affected by species and fermentation, and phenolic compounds from fermented C. intermedia, was evaluated. Unfermented C. sessiliflora showed the strongest O2- scavenging ability. Fermentation significantly (P ≤ 0.05) decreased the O2- scavenging ability of the different species. A strong structure-activity relationship was illustrated by the relative O2- scavenging efficacy of the phenolic compounds. The flavone luteolin and the flavanone eriodictyol showed excellent O2- scavenging activity compared to the flavanones, hesperidin and hesperetin. The isoflavone formononetin and coumestan medicagol were not effective scavengers of this radical.
The processed leaves and stems of Cyclopia intermedia contain 4-hydroxycinnamic acid, the isoflavones formononetin, afrormosin, calycosin; pseudobaptigen, and fujikinetin, the flavanones naringenin, eriodictyol, hesperitin, and hesperidin, the coumestans medicagol, flemichapparin, and sophoracoumestan B, the xanthones mangiferin and isomangiferin, the flavone luteolin, and the inositol (+)-pinitol.
The antioxidative activity of the rooibos tea was examined by using linoleic acid autoxidation, rabbit erythrocyte membrane, rat liver microsome and rat liver homogenate systems. Both freshly brewed rooibos tea and freeze-dried rooibos tea extract had antioxidative activity in linoleic acid system, and rooibos tea extract showed synergistic antioxidative effect with citric acid. In the rabbit erythrocyte membrane and rat liver microsome systems, rooibos tea extract exhibited strong antioxidative activity in a dose dependent manner. In the rat liver homogenate system, freshly brewed rooibos tea exhibited strong antioxidative activity. Several purified flavonoids contained in rooibos tea were examined in the rat liver microsome system and luteolin and quercetin showed strongest activity. These results suggest that the rooibos tea may play an important role in the prevention of lipid peroxidation of cell membranes induced by active oxygen radicals in living systems as dietary antioxidants after ingestion.
Three kinds of tea extracts were prepared from green tea (Camellia sinensis, unfermented), polei tea (Camellia assamica, fermented with yeast) and rooibos tea (Aspalathus linearis, irradiated with sunlight). Each tea extract was incubated with a mixture of D-glucose and human serum albumin under physiological conditions (pH 7.4, 37°C). All tea extracts showed suppression effects on the formation of glycated albumin including fluorescent advanced glycosylation endproducts (AGEs). The determination of ESR spectra of reaction mixture and tea extract suggested that the suppression activity is correlated to the radical scavenging potency of tea extracts. Several tea components such as catechins and flavonoids may play important roles in the disappearance of free radicals containing superoxide formed in the early stage of the Maillard reaction.
The treatment of Chinese hamster ovary cells with Rooibos tea extract (RT, lyophilizate of Rooibos tea infusion, 100-1000 µg/ml) simultaneously with or subsequent to mitomycin C or benzo[α]pyrene (BP) significantly suppressed chromosome aberrations induced in the presence or absence of a metabolic activation system. Furthermore, gastric intubation of RT (0.05-0.1%) to ICR male mice at 1 ml per mouse per day for 28 days before intraperitoneal mitomycin C or BP treatment reduced micronucleus induction in peripheral blood reticulocytes. When mice received oral administration of RT (0.05%) in the drinking water ad libitum for 28 days, the frequency of micronuclei induced by mitomycin C (i.p.) or gamma rays was also decreased. As the dose of tea extract used in the experiments was almost the same as that of typical human daily consumption, RT intake might be a useful tool for chemoprevention of human cancer.
Sulphuric acid scarification of Aspalathus linearis seed reduced their impermeability and increased their germination by 100%. Treatments of 120 minutes altered the seed coat structure, extensively damaging cuticle, macrosclereid, osteosclereid, hilar, strophiolar and cotyledon layers. Seedling vigour was adversely affected by scarification. This resulted in a decrease in seedling fresh mass and an increase in seedling abnormalities which increased their mortality.
Investigation of seven Athrixia species affords besides known compounds four new norkaurene derivatives and six thymol derivatives. The structures are elucidated mainly by spectroscopic methods, together with some chemical transformations. Due to nonplanarity of the chromophoric system, one of the compounds shows some surprising spectroscopic data. The chemotaxonomic aspects of these findings are discussed briefly.
From the heartwood of Nothofagus fusca were isolated taxifolin, catechin, aromadendrin, quercetin, kaempferol, naringenin, ellagic acid, gallic acid, resveratrol, 3,3′-di-O-methyl ellagic acid and a compound “nothofagin” with properties consistent with those of a mono-C-glycoside of 4,2′,4′,6′-tetrahydroxy-dihydrochalcone. Another compound “konnanin” appears to be a C-glycoside of 3,4,2′,4′,6′-pentahydroxy-dihydrochalcone. Afzelechin, epicatechin, protocatechuic acid, p-hydroxybenzoic acid and phloroglucinol have been identified chromatographically. The possible taxonomic significance of the dimethyl ellagic acid is discussed. Spectral and chromatographic properties of the known dihydrochalcones are described.
Cyclopia species are used to manufacture a herbal infusion called honeybush tea. The pleasant sweet, honey-like flavour and anecdotal evidence of the beneficial qualities of honeybush tea consumption make this herbal infusion a healthy alternative to coffee and black tea. Honeybush tea has been known to South Africans for centuries and, until recently, was processed only on a small-scale, mainly for home consumption. Growing interest in herbal teas, both locally and overseas, has resulted in a revival of the honeybush tea industry. Research addressed the lack of a standardized processing method, which in turn lead to the production of poor and inconsistent quality tea.