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An exploration of shame, social rank and rumination in relation to depression
Abstract
This study explored the associations and interactions between social rank (submissive behaviour and social comparison), shame, rumination and depression. 125 undergraduate students completed a battery of self-report questionnaires measuring the research variables. It was found that social rank and shame are highly related and that both shame and social rank are significantly correlated with rumination. A moderator analysis suggested an effect of gender on the relationship between external shame and rumination. A mediational path analysis suggested that rumination partially mediated a link between shame and depression, but shame retained a unique contribution to depression after controlling for rumination.
... Strong feelings of shame have been shown to be a important predictor of depressive symptoms (Cheung et al., 2004;Kim et al., 2011). While shame is a common mental state experienced by humans, intense feelings of shame reflect a sense of negative evaluation by another person who is experienced as more powerful, leading to strong feelings of anger, helplessness, and inferiority (Goss et al., 1994). ...
... First, a replication of the findings by Li et al. (2020) in a larger and clinical sample is required to obtain robust evidence confirming mentalizing as a potential mediator. Moreover, in the current study feelings of shame are introduced as a second mediating state of mind within this framework, since strong associations between childhood maltreatment and feelings of shame (Alix et al., 2017;Ellenbogen et al., 2015;Kealy et al., 2018), and between feelings of shame and depressive symptoms (Cheung et al., 2004;Kim et al., 2011), do exist. Furthermore, feelings of shame might at least partially represent a downstream result of ineffective metacognitive processes, as they are conceptualized as maladaptive evaluations of both the self and other people (Goss et al., 1994). ...
... Further, we expect that experiences of maltreatment lead to compromised mentalizing, which in turn causes feelings of shame-a pathway that to the best of our knowledge has not been tested empirically. These imbalanced, negatively distorted representations of the self as devalued, humiliated, and disgraced (Goss et al., 1994;Lewis, 1986) can then lead to severe depressive symptoms, as shown by previous studies (Kim et al., 2011;Cheung et al., 2004). This hypothesized framework suggests that, due to the impaired capacity to mentalize, the integration of aversive experiences such as childhood maltreatment could not succeed. ...
Background
Experiences of childhood maltreatment have been shown to be a crucial predictor of depressive symptoms.
Objective
This study investigated the association between a history of maltreatment and depressive symptoms in a mixed sample of adults, exploring whether feelings of shame and impairments in mentalizing mediate this association and potentially represent health-affecting factors associated with an increase in depressive symptoms. Further, the association between feelings of shame and depressive symptoms was expected to be moderated by impairments in mentalizing.
Participants and setting
A mixed sample of 796 adults, including clinical and non-clinical participants, completed questionnaires assessing retrospectively rated experiences of childhood maltreatment, feelings of shame, mentalizing capacities, and current depressive symptoms in a cross-sectional design.
Methods
The hypotheses were tested using structural equation modelling.
Results
Associations were found between childhood maltreatment, feelings of shame, impairments in mentalizing, and depressive symptoms. Impairments in mentalizing and feelings of shame partially mediated the link between maltreatment and depressive symptoms. However, impairments in mentalizing did not moderate the link between shame and depressive symptoms.
Conclusion
The current study provides evidence for the role of metacognitive processes that affect mental health problems in the domain of depression. Psychological treatments that promote mentalizing capacities might be helpful in reducing feelings of shame, and consequently in reducing depressive symptoms.
... This form of public stigma typically manifests as acts of coercion, segregation, avoidance, aggression, and/or withholding help when persons in mental illness are in need . For example, persons with mental illness perceived to be lower in status may be shunned from social activities and thus be denied opportunities to contribute to community, political, and business ventures (Cheung et al., 2004;Link & Phelan, 2001). ...
... 2019) and perpetuate mental illness stigma in response to perceptions of low social ranking and power (Cheung et al., 2004). Successful methods of reducing rumination include exposure to ruminative thoughts and accompanying response-prevention techniques, distraction techniques, techniques to reduce self-punishing thoughts and behaviors (Abramowitz et al., 2003), and rumination-focused cognitive-behavioral therapy (Watkins & Roberts, 2020). ...
... Overall, the habit of rumination should be replaced with another, more beneficial habit that can be repeated across different contexts. (Cheung et al., 2004;McEvoy et al., 2013;McIntosh et al., 2009;McLaughlin & Nolen-Hoeksema, 2011;Lyubomirsky & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1993;Lyubomirsky & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1995;Lyubomirsky et al., 1999;Nolen-Hoeksema & Morrow, 1993;Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 2007;Segerstrom et al., 2000;Thomas & Bentall, 2002;Watkins & Baracaia, 2001). The content of one's ruminative thoughts can vary immensely, but persons with mental illness tend to ruminate specifically on trauma, the past, and current problems (Kaiser et al., 2015). ...
Persons with mental illness are highly susceptible to experiencing public, anticipated, and internalized mental illness stigma, which can manifest in a myriad of ways to negatively affect quality of life, treatment outcomes, and attainment of personally meaningful goals. Research also shows that the impostor phenomenon and rumination are prominent cognitive processes experienced by persons with mental illness in unique ways. This is the first study to examine the relationship among all three psychological constructs. Survey data were collected from an online sample of 90 participants with one or more professionally diagnosed mental illnesses. Mental illness stigma was assessed with the Inventory of Stigmatizing Experiences and the Internalized Stigma of Mental Illness scale. The impostor phenomenon was assessed with the Leary Impostorism Scale, and rumination was assessed with the Scott-McIntosh Rumination Inventory. Correlational analyses revealed that public, anticipated, and internalized mental illness stigma scores were significantly correlated with both impostor phenomenon and rumination scores. Impostor phenomenon scores were significantly correlated with rumination scores as well. Moderated multiple regression models revealed that the impostor phenomenon moderated the relationship between public mental illness stigma and the distraction dimension of rumination. These results add to the growing body of evidence documenting the nuanced ways in which stigma interacts with other psychological factors to impact persons with mental illness.
... Coerentemente con ciò, la ricerca supporta questa inferenza, dimostrando che i pazienti con uno stile interazionale distaccato sviluppano relazioni terapeutiche più povere (Hersoug et al., 2001(Hersoug et al., , 2009 (Cheung et al., 2004;Lutwak et al., 2003;Tangney, 1995). Inoltre, la vergogna è stata identificata come fattore di mediazione tra le difficoltà relazionali e la depressione: in particolare, gli individui che affrontano la difficoltà relazionale allontanandosi psicologicamente e/o fisicamente dall'interazione con l'altro presentano alti livelli di depressione e una bassa soddisfazione a livello relazionale (Rice & Fallon, 2011). ...
... La vergogna è una delle emozioni comunemente sperimentate nella vita quotidiana e, a livelli normali, si ritiene che promuova un sano sviluppo sociale e morale. Tuttavia, livelli cronici e intensi di vergogna sono stati associati a numerosi disturbi psicologici, tra cui depressione(Cheung et al., 2004), disturbo da stress post-traumatico(Dyer et al., 2009), ansia(Harder et al., 1992) e comportamenti autolesionistici(Gilbert et al., 2010). Le teorie cognitive suggeriscono che la vergogna è evocata da un processo cognitivo-valutativo in cui il sé viene valutato come indesiderabile o cattivo(Mills, 2005). ...
La capacità di raggiungere un certo grado di vicinanza e intimità nella relazione con gli altri costituisce un fattore protettivo per la salute mentale. Nonostante questo, molte persone sperimentano difficoltà nello stabilire relazioni caratterizzate da un adeguato livello di interdipendenza. La ricerca ha identificato come le esperienze relazionali precoci avverse e lo sviluppo di un attaccamento insicuro costituiscano dei fattori ostacolanti la costruzione di una dipendenza sana nelle relazioni interpersonali. Infatti, se da un lato questi individui possono rappresentare sé stessi solo in relazione a un altro che fornisce cure e accudimento, dall’altro possono mostrare risposte avversive alla vicinanza emotiva per timore di entrare in intimità con gli altri. Nel trauma complesso vi è una pervasiva sfiducia nei confronti degli altri mentre, su di sé, prevale la credenza di essere inamabili e privi di valore. Il contesto relazionale, che precedentemente è stato fonte di abuso o neglect, diventa lo stesso nel quale può avvenire la guarigione, attraverso la costruzione di una relazione terapeutica caratterizzata da confini chiari e definiti, indicativi di una dipendenza sana. Le rappresentazioni di sé e dell’altro non integrate portano il paziente traumatico a oscillare tra tentativi di vicinanza e di distacco nella relazione terapeutica quando entra in contatto con i propri bisogni di accudimento e di dipendenza, manifestandoli attraverso strategie che tendono a elicitare il rifiuto del terapeuta e pongono il paziente a rischio di ulteriori traumatizzazioni. L’intensa qualità degli stati emotivi nel trauma comporta un alto grado di coinvolgimento per il terapeuta, che potrà mostrare sentimenti ambivalenti tra una forte sintonizzazione emotiva e un istinto a respingere e allontanare il paziente. La frattura dell’alleanza è un processo continuo nella relazione col paziente traumatico, ed è proprio attraverso di esso che il paziente guarisce nella misura in cui apprende che l’interruzione è riparabile e che la disconnessione non coincide con la perdita del senso di sé.
Parole chiave: trauma complesso, relazione terapeutica, confini, vicinanza, intimità, dipendenza
... The term "social shame" has also been used to describe external shame (Georges & Baker, 2016;Nelson, 2016). Internal shame, external shame, loss of face, loss of selfface, and self-criticism share similar patterns of associations with indicators of psychological distress (Cheng, 2013;Cheung et al., 2004;Gilbert, 2000;Kam & Bond, 2008;Irons et al., 2006). ...
... has also been used to describe external shame (Georges & Baker, 2016;Nelson, 2016). Despite scientific differences in these constructs, research has shown that internal shame and external shame, loss of face, loss of self-face and self-criticism are considered variants of shame and share similar patterns of associations with indicators of psychological distress (Cheng, 2013;Cheung et al., 2004;Gilbert, 2000;Kam & Bond, 2008;Irons et al., 2006). Some studies found evidence that external shame is more painful than internalized shame in a collective culture (Ferreira et al., 2020), and can also be correlated with morbidity (Ang & Khoo, 2004). ...
Due to the notion of extrinsic self-worth and collective self-construal, shame is positively valued in the East. These traditional values warrant a qualitative investigation to deconstruct the emotion and social scripting of internalized shame as phenomena that emerges in collective contexts. Separate narratives of childhood shame experiences from 91 hours of 51 interviews with three Asians provided storylines of shame events, values, that constructed socio-cultural scripts of shame (SIS). Narrative restorying presented the voice of the Abused Self, Romantically Rejected Self, Academic Self, Suppressed Creative Self, Conflicted Self, Not a Proud Self, Misgendered Self, Divorced Self, Depressive Self, Inferior Female Gender, and Inferior Status.
Primary findings: External shame events and SIS were endorsed by societal values. External shame and societal values functioned as contextual mechanisms which facilitated an internalization of values, which in turn constructed SIS. Progressive self-shaming, self- devaluating, scripted fear, and shame-related morbidity were related to SIS. Neglect functioned as “non-events” preceding a vulnerability to SIS. Influences of socio-cultural values and SIS were bi-directional. I propose: four basic components of internalized shame, i.e., rejected, devalued, neglected, and abused; a distinction between internalized shame as an affect, as an identity belief, and as self-shaming events, the latter of which is proximal to morbidity; varied pathways that linked external shame events and societal values to SIS; and considerations to defend the injustice related to the condoning of shamer’s abuse due to status-related power privileges. Finally, as an alternative to the humanistic philosophies condoning, or alternatively condemning shame, a theological anthropology of a divinely-scripted-communal-self is presented.
... Finally, there is evidence that shame, but not guilt, is uniquely associated with greater depressive rumination. For instance, dispositional shame is related to heightened depressive rumination, even after controlling for guilt (Cheung et al., 2004;Cohen et al., 2011). By contrast, the association between guilt and depressive rumination is much less clear. ...
... Specifically, both brooding and reflective pondering mediated the unique effect of shame on procrastination. This pattern aligns with past findings that shame predicts greater depressive rumination (Cheung et al., 2004;Cohen et al., 2011). Shame elicits feelings of self-condemnation, global incompetence, and severe perceived defects in social-and self-image. ...
Procrastination is common among college students, involving irrational delay of task completion. Theorists understand procrastination to be an avoidance response to negative emotions. Past research suggests that depression and anxiety predict procrastination. However, only limited research has examined the unique effects of shame and guilt-self-conscious emotions-on procrastination, and no studies have examined potential mechanisms. Depressive rumination, the repetitive and maladaptive thinking about a negative event composed of brooding and reflective pondering, is uniquely predicted by shame-but not guilt-and also predicts greater procrastination. Thus, the current cross-sectional survey study examined (1) whether shame and guilt uniquely predict procrastination and (2) whether depressive rumination mediates those effects in a collegiate sample. Results supported a model wherein brooding and reflective pondering mediate the unique relationship between shame and procrastination. A second model suggested that guilt leads to less procrastination directly but greater procrastination indirectly via increased reflective pondering. Theoretical and clinical implications of the current findings are discussed.
... Utanç bu görüşlere göre genel olarak bireyin psikolojik esenliğine zarar vermektedir (Gilbert, 2000;Matos, Pinto-Gouveia, & Gilbert, 2013). Utanç duygusu ayrıca yeme bozukluklarına (Keith, Gillanders & Simpson, 2009) veya depresyona (Andrews, Qian, & Valentine, 2002;Cheung, Gilbert, & Irons, 2004;Gilbert, 2000;Kim, Thibodeau & Jorgensen, 2011) neden olabilmektedir. ...
EXTENDED ABSTRACT
The Sociology of Shame: From Tradition to Digital Age Social Control by Nuriye Çelik and Nadir Ateşoğlu examines the multifaceted role of shame as a potent tool for social control, tracing its evolution from traditional societal structures to the digital landscape of the 21st century. The authors explore how shame, historically rooted in maintaining social order and enforcing cultural norms, has been adapted and intensified through digital technologies. The work provides a critical framework for understanding the sociological, psychological, and political dimensions of shame in both past and present contexts.
Understanding Traditional Shame as Social Control
The first section, titled "The Custodian of Social Norms: Shame and Mechanisms of Control", offers a thorough exploration of shame's sociological underpinnings and its historical applications as a means of governing behavior. The authors engage with classical and contemporary sociological theories, particularly Michel Foucault’s concept of power and surveillance, to highlight how shame has been wielded by authorities to maintain societal order. Through detailed case studies, such as the persecution of “witches” in medieval Europe, the Cultural Revolution in Maoist China, Japan’s ingrained honor culture, and the enforcement of strict moral codes in contemporary Iran, the book illustrates the pervasive and adaptive nature of shame as a regulatory force.
These historical accounts serve to illuminate the coercive power of shame, demonstrating its ability to enforce compliance and marginalize dissenting voices. The authors question the ethical legitimacy of using shame as a moral guide, suggesting that while it fosters social conformity, it often suppresses individuality and perpetuates existing power hierarchies. This section also critiques the cultural and psychological effects of shame, probing its role in shaping individual identity and community dynamics. The analysis situates shame as a dual-edged phenomenon—capable of promoting ethical behavior but also serving as a weapon for social exclusion and oppression.
The Digital Transformation of Shame
The second section, "Digital Shaming in the Social Media Age: Mechanisms of Social Control", shifts focus to contemporary society, where digital platforms have redefined and magnified the impact of shame. The authors delve into how social media has become a breeding ground for public shaming, turning everyday individuals into global targets. This section draws on theories of media sociology and digital culture to examine the mechanisms through which digital shaming is propagated, such as viral outrage, meme culture, and the amplification of scandals. The concept of “cancel culture” is analyzed as a modern iteration of collective shaming, where public accountability can quickly devolve into punitive social control.
The book discusses the paradoxical nature of digital shaming: on one hand, it democratizes the ability to hold powerful individuals and institutions accountable; on the other, it fosters a culture of fear and conformity, where reputational damage can be immediate and irreparable. By examining instances of high-profile shaming events and their societal consequences, the authors reveal how digital shaming both challenges and reinforces dominant ideologies. The discussion includes an analysis of how marginalized groups can leverage digital platforms to combat systemic injustices, while also critiquing the potential for these same tools to perpetuate surveillance and regulate behavior in insidious ways.
Critical Reflections and Future Directions
The Sociology of Shame not only analyzes the evolution of shame but also engages critically with its implications for democratic society, individual freedom, and psychological well-being. The authors highlight the urgent need for a balanced approach to digital regulation that safeguards free expression while protecting individuals from the harms of public shaming. They advocate for educational initiatives that promote digital literacy and resilience, emphasizing the importance of equipping individuals with the skills to critically engage with media and resist coercive forms of social control.
The book invites further academic exploration in several key areas. One suggested avenue for future research is the psychological impact of digital shaming, particularly on vulnerable populations. Understanding the long-term effects on self-esteem, mental health, and social integration is crucial for developing effective interventions. Additionally, the authors call for interdisciplinary studies that bring together insights from sociology, psychology, media studies, and digital ethics to address the complexities of shame in the digital age.
Another significant area for exploration is the role of shame in contemporary political processes. The authors discuss how governments and political actors exploit digital platforms to enforce ideological conformity and suppress dissent. The increasing use of data-driven surveillance and algorithmic governance in shaping public opinion underscores the need for critical analysis of digital shaming practices as instruments of state and corporate power.
Conclusion
The Sociology of Shame makes a significant contribution to understanding how traditional and modern mechanisms of social control are intertwined through the enduring power of shame. By linking historical practices to contemporary digital phenomena, the authors provide a comprehensive framework for analyzing how power operates in both overt and subtle ways. The book serves as a vital resource for scholars in sociology, media studies, and political theory, as well as policymakers and practitioners interested in the ethical implications of digital communication. As societies navigate the complexities of the digital age, developing a nuanced understanding of shame and its consequences will be essential for fostering a more just and equitable social order.
... Social comparison scale (SCS; Allan & Gilbert, 1995) The SCS is a widely used measure of social rank (e.g., Cheung et al., 2004) that has previously been used with people with psychosis (Wood & Irons, 2016). Respondents rate themselves from 0 to 10 in relation to others using a series of bipolar constructs (e.g., insider-outsider), with total scores ranging from 0 to 110. ...
Objectives
The trauma and social pathways model of psychosis proposes interactions between trauma, attachment, social rank and dissociation in pathways to psychosis, though this model has yet to be empirically investigated. The primary aim of this study was to examine the overall predictive value of the trauma and social pathways model using regression analysis. A secondary aim was to delineate hypothesized pathways between trauma and positive symptoms of psychosis using serial mediation analysis.
Method
This was a cross‐sectional study of people attending mental health services for a psychosis‐related diagnosis ( N = 71). Measures of trauma, positive symptoms of psychosis, attachment, social comparison and dissociation were completed.
Results
A model of recurrent trauma, insecure attachment, social rank and dissociation predicted 23.2% of the variance in positive symptoms of psychosis. Recurrent trauma, attachment and dissociation contributed significantly to the model, while social rank did not. Further, serial mediation analysis indicated that the sequence of disorganized attachment and dissociation fully mediated the relationship between recurrent trauma and positive symptoms.
Conclusions
Results provide preliminary support for the trauma and social pathways model of psychosis, specifically as it relates to recurrent trauma, insecure attachment and dissociation. Results did not support the social rank component of this model, however. These findings provide clear targets for the development of next‐wave psychological interventions that focus on trauma‐related variables in psychosis. Future studies should replicate these findings with a larger clinical sample, and consider a measure of shame to further elucidate social processes in pathways to psychosis.
... This distress in turn has adverse effects, such as fostering fear and avoidance behaviors related to seeking dental care [20]. That is, a broad-reaching impact across multiple domains of mental health is induced, including depression, anxiety, paranoia, post-traumatic stress disorder, eating disorders, and personality disorders [21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29]. These consequences are even more recognized among older individuals, where declining oral health and tooth loss often lead to limited social interaction and diminished self-esteem [30][31][32]. ...
Aim: The objective of this study is to explore whether shame mediates the relationship between oral health and psychopathology among elder individuals. Methods: The findings of this cross-sectional study are derived from data collected from a sample of 204 patients, including 120 females and 84 males, aged between 60 and 92 years, with an average age of 74.2 years (SD = 7.1). Participants completed a sociodemographic questionnaire, the 12-item GOHAI scale, the Experiential Shame Scale (ESS), the Other as Shamer Scale (OAS), and the Symptom Checklist-90 (SCL-90). Path analysis was applied in order to test the model that was theoretically developed. In the examined path model, age, gender, medication, oral health (GOHAI) and shame (OAS, ESS), were regressed on psychopathology (GSI), while shame was positioned as mediator in the relation between oral health and psychopathology. Results: Oral health found to have a significant negative effect on both external and internal shame. In turn, both flavours of shame were significant regressors of psychopathology. A noteworthy indirect impact of age on both forms of shame through oral health was also reported as well as an indirect effect of oral health on psychopathology through both internal and external shame. Thus, the relationship between oral health and psychopathology is fully mediated by both internal and external shame. Specifically, as oral health improves, lower levels of external and internal shame are expected to induce a more favorable mental state. Conclusions: As individual's age and their oral health declines, they become more susceptible to feelings of shame, which, in turn, can have profound implications for their psychological well-being. The importance of considering oral health as an integral component of overall well-being is emphasized and its relevance in the context of mental health is highlighted. 1Research Laboratory Psychology
... This distress in turn has adverse effects, such as fostering fear and avoidance behaviors related to seeking dental care [20]. That is, a broad-reaching impact across multiple domains of mental health is induced, including depression, anxiety, paranoia, post-traumatic stress disorder, eating disorders, and personality disorders [21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29]. These consequences are even more recognized among older individuals, where declining oral health and tooth loss often lead to limited social interaction and diminished self-esteem [30][31][32]. ...
Aim: The objective of this study is to explore whether shame mediates the relationship between oral health and psychopathology among elder individuals. Methods: The findings of this cross-sectional study are derived from data collected from a sample of 204 patients, including 120 females and 84 males, aged between 60 and 92 years, with an average age of 74.2 years (SD = 7.1). Participants completed a sociodemographic questionnaire, the 12-item GOHAI scale, the Experiential Shame Scale (ESS), the Other as Shamer Scale (OAS), and the Symptom Checklist-90 (SCL-90). Path analysis was applied in order to test the model that was theoretically developed. In the examined path model, age, gender, medication, oral health (GOHAI) and shame (OAS, ESS), were regressed on psychopathology (GSI), while shame was positioned as mediator in the relation between oral health and psychopathology. Results: Oral health found to have a significant negative effect on both external and internal shame. In turn, both flavours of shame were significant regressors of psychopathology. A noteworthy indirect impact of age on both forms of shame through oral health was also reported as well as an indirect effect of oral health on psychopathology through both internal and external shame. Thus, the relationship between oral health and psychopathology is fully mediated by both internal and external shame. Specifically, as oral health improves, lower levels of external and internal shame are expected to induce a more favorable mental state. Conclusions: As individual's age and their oral health declines, they become more susceptible to feelings of shame, which, in turn, can have profound implications for their psychological well-being. The importance of considering oral health as an integral component of overall well-being is emphasized and its relevance in the context of mental health is highlighted. 1Research Laboratory Psychology
... Due to interpersonal humiliation, rejection, and blame, as well as discrimination based on gender (e.g., motherhood penalty, sexual harassment), our participants might internalize such undesirable treatment. The findings on emotional distress are congruent with research suggesting that individuals with perceived low status often blame themselves and experience shame (Cheung et al., 2004). Participants' voices for decent work and their awareness of social oppression are consistent with Kim et al. (2017) who suggest that Korean women are often exposed to invisible hazards as well as patriarchal norms in the workplace that must be rectified. ...
A college education is a means to achieve upward social mobility and secure decent employment. Yet, college education tends to be accessible for families already part of privileged groups, such as those with financial resources. With attention to systemic oppression and varying degrees of access to education and employment, this study aims to describe the experiences of job-seeking and working among Korean women with a high school diploma as their highest educational attainment. The psychology of working theory, the work precarity framework, and intersectionality informed the study, exploring interview data from 13 Korean women. Findings from the reflective thematic analysis show that struggles in seeking and maintaining employment among the participants were particularly exacerbated by mistreatment, harassment, and disrespect due to having neither college degrees nor male privilege. Participants' experiences with economic deprivation, lack of societal support and respect, and precarious work conditions led to psychological , social, and physical pain that went neglected. As they confront barriers to employment and undesirable work conditions, they affirm themselves and express the hope that the work society should better meet their fundamental needs as humans. Future research directions and practical implications are discussed.
... Selfcriticism is positively related to depressive symptoms [9] and may serve as both a precursor and maintaining factor in depression [10]. Similarly, shame is associated with depression [11], and is associated with maintaining factors in depression such as rumination [12]. ...
Soothing-rhythm breathing (SRB) is a core component of compassion focused therapy (CFT). While integral to CFT, research has yet to explore personal experiences of SRB. This study aimed to explore the experiences of individuals with depression who had practiced SRB in NHS primary care services. Interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA) was used to analyse data from individual semi-structured interviews. Three experiential themes were identified: ‘mind-body connection and bodily needs’, ‘a new relationship with the mind’, and ‘slowing down: shifting to the new and challenging’. Results highlighted the benefits of connecting with the body and the challenges of practicing SRB. Clinical implications and suggestions for further research are discussed.
... Shame memory and self-criticism have long been linked to psychopathology, particularly depression [10]. Shame puts individuals in a meditative and self-critical style, rendering them vulnerable to various difficulties [11]. According to the theory of emotional attribution, people with high vulnerability to shame tend to internalize, stabilize, and generally self-attribute to negative occurrences. ...
(1) Objective: While recent studies have shed light on the effects of shame memories on mental well-being, there is still limited understanding of the underlying mechanisms linking shame memories and depression. Based on the biopsychosocial model and cognitive therapy theory, this study examined the association between shame memory and depression and the indirect role of emotion management and self-criticism. (2) Methods: A total of 1004 junior high school students were measured with the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale, the event impact scale, the self-criticism scale of the depressive experiences questionnaire, and the emotional intelligence scale. (3) Results: Shame memory had a significant positive correlation with depression. The relationship between shame memory and depression was partially mediated by self-criticism. Emotional management was found to regulate the latter half of the mediating effect of shame memory on depression. (4) Conclusions: Self-criticism plays a mediating role in the relationship between shame memory and depression, as well as emotion management plays a moderating role between self-criticism and depression. This perspective will contribute to the growing body of knowledge about the impact of shame memories on depression among junior high school children but also offers a feasible plan for follow-up intervention.
... Se știa că există, pe de o parte, relații între ruminație și depresie, iar pe de altă parte -între rușine sau rangul social scăzut și depresie. Studiul efectuat de Cheung et al. (2004), pe 125 de studenți, a arătat că nivelul rușinii corelează semnificativ atât cu depresia, cât și cu ruminația. Cu ruminația s-a mai asociat semnificativ, în studiul citat, și comportamentul submisiv, ceea ce a contribuit la înțelegerea ruminației din cuplu (efectele condiției sociale, din plan individual, se răsfrâng asupra dispoziției emoționale a partenerilor). ...
The present study aimed to investigate the potential impact of parental divorce on emotional instability, self-esteem, and attitudes toward divorce among late adolescents. We also explored the related potential gender differences. Our sample consisted of 136 participants aged 17 to 19 (M = 17.86, SD = .80), 66.2% females. All participants were students in their last two high-school years, and 30.9% came from divorced families. Our results suggested significant negative associations between the overall self-esteem and participants' emotional instability, regardless of the parental status (married or divorced). However, data suggested that participants from divorced families and females reported lower self-esteem and higher emotional instability. We discuss our findings regarding their implications for youth mental health following parental divorce.
... Self-kindness is the emotional component of self-compassion, unconditional acceptance of oneself; common humanity is the cognitive component of self-compassion; it mobilizes the individual's thinking through processes such as social connection and comparison; mindfulness is the advanced adjustment control of self-compassion components, and it optimizes self-kindness and common humanity (Zhang et al., 2010). By activating the individual's self-comfort and self-protection functions, selfcompassion reduces the feeling of being threatened, promotes feeling of similar attachment and security, and enhances the sense of well-being (Cheung et al., 2004;Chen et al., 2011;Hu, 2013); the dimensions of self-compassion, selfkindness, and mindfulness have a significant positive correlation with subjective well-being, and there is a significant negative correlation between isolation and subjective wellbeing. There is a significant correlation between self-compassion and total scores on life satisfaction scale and positive and negative emotional scale. ...
The transition from secondary to tertiary education seems to be a stressful period for many students, since they need to adjust to the new academic environment. This paper is a systematic review of 4.285 articles. The aim of this review was to investigate the factors in the university environment associated with emotion regulation, academic buoyancy and academic adjustment of tertiary students within a self-determination theory framework in combination with the nascent third wave of Positive Psychology. 41 papers met the inclusion criteria, all of which were rated as either good or moderate quality. The bulk of the studies included in the systematic review reported individual factors, i.e. self-efficacy, intrinsic motivation, academic factors, i.e. intention to drop out, learning climate and family and social factors i.e. faculty, peer and parental autonomy support. In accordance with the third wave of Positive Psychology that focuses on how interpersonal and ecological factors create nurturing environments and positive institutions, the systematic review highlighted the factors that institutes should consider in order to help students adjust better to the academic environment.
... Self-kindness is the emotional component of self-compassion, unconditional acceptance of oneself; common humanity is the cognitive component of self-compassion; it mobilizes the individual's thinking through processes such as social connection and comparison; mindfulness is the advanced adjustment control of self-compassion components, and it optimizes self-kindness and common humanity (Zhang et al., 2010). By activating the individual's self-comfort and self-protection functions, selfcompassion reduces the feeling of being threatened, promotes feeling of similar attachment and security, and enhances the sense of well-being (Cheung et al., 2004;Chen et al., 2011;Hu, 2013); the dimensions of self-compassion, selfkindness, and mindfulness have a significant positive correlation with subjective well-being, and there is a significant negative correlation between isolation and subjective wellbeing. There is a significant correlation between self-compassion and total scores on life satisfaction scale and positive and negative emotional scale. ...
... Self-kindness is the emotional component of self-compassion, unconditional acceptance of oneself; common humanity is the cognitive component of self-compassion; it mobilizes the individual's thinking through processes such as social connection and comparison; mindfulness is the advanced adjustment control of self-compassion components, and it optimizes self-kindness and common humanity (Zhang et al., 2010). By activating the individual's self-comfort and self-protection functions, selfcompassion reduces the feeling of being threatened, promotes feeling of similar attachment and security, and enhances the sense of well-being (Cheung et al., 2004;Chen et al., 2011;Hu, 2013); the dimensions of self-compassion, selfkindness, and mindfulness have a significant positive correlation with subjective well-being, and there is a significant negative correlation between isolation and subjective wellbeing. There is a significant correlation between self-compassion and total scores on life satisfaction scale and positive and negative emotional scale. ...
Positive psychology (PP) is the scientific field that focuses on revealing, understanding,
and reinforcing the factors that make individuals and systems flourish. At first, PP research
gave emphasis on individual’s positive experiences and characteristics (Pezirkianidis and
Stalikas, 2020). Later on, the second research wave focused on the dialectic relationship
between the positive and negative aspects of one’s life, proposing that wellbeing can only be
achieved through overcoming suffering (Wong, 2019). Recently, the third wave of research
suggested PP to become more interdisciplinary and multicultural and incorporate systems’
principles (Lomas et al., 2021).
Counseling psychology (CP) and PP share their roots in humanistic psychology. Also, CP
focuses on a positive orientation toward individual development, mental health promotion
and prevention rather than pathology (Malikiosi-Loizos and Ivey, 2012). However, while US
counseling psychologists have incorporated PP principles, European ones hesitate to engage
with strength-based approaches and use PP theories and techniques (Steffen et al., 2015).
At the same time, more and more approaches in CP have emerged focusing on building
positive qualities and making use of the empirically tested positive psychology interventions
(PPIs; Carr et al., 2021). These models focus on the promotion of clients’ wellbeing and,
simultaneously, on symptom alleviation (Jankowski et al., 2020). Counseling practitioners
can offer their skills and knowledge as a fertile ground for the application of such models,
while at the same time they can benefit by integrating new techniques in their counseling
practice (D’raven and Pasha-Zaidi, 2014).
... arent-child relationship, when the parent is prone to feeling ashamed, the parent-child boundary can be blurred and can generate feelings of hostility (Tangney & Dearing, 2003). Both internal and external shame were associated with increased vulnerabilities in psychopathology and a high level of stress and depressive symptoms (Andrews et al., 2002;M. S.-P. Cheung et al., 2004;Matos & Pinto-Gouveia, 2010). Shame increases anxiety by arousing a sense of lack of control or helplessness about self-acceptance and the threat of being rejected by others. Parents prone to feeling ashamed can project this feeling onto their child so that the child becomes the factor of self-blame, leading to anxiety and negative feeli ...
Parental stress among parents of children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is well-documented in the literature. The current study investigated the relationship between the phenomenon of affiliate stigma and parental stress among parents of children diagnosed with ASD using the mediation model. This cross-sectional study involved 196 parents aged between 22 and 65 years, with a child diagnosed with ASD, their ages being between 2 and 22 years. The correlations between affiliate stigma, shame, and parental stress were confirmed. Therefore, affiliate stigma was positively associated with shame and parental stress. The results also indicated that the relationship between the phenomenon of affiliate stigma and parental stress is mediated by shame. A practical implication of our findings is that parents of children with ASD participating in stress-reducing interventions should be trained on how to
cope with feelings of shame
... (Lopez-Castro, Saraiya, Zumberg-Smith, & Dambreville, 2019). Shame is best understood as an evolved response to social threat, and is associated with humiliation, sadness, anxiety, anger and reduced help seeking (Cheung, Gilbert, & Irons, 2004;Dunford & Granger, 2017;Gilbert, 2000). Shame is part of the postnatal experience, particularly in relation to birth, infant feeding and perceptions of inadequate mothering (Dunford & Granger, 2017;Thomson, Ebisch-Burton, & Flacking, 2014) and it is predictive of postnatal depression (Dunford & Granger, 2017). ...
... NISC incorporates downward identification, which implies fear of becoming like downward comparison targets (Buunk, Taylor, Dakof, Collins, & VanYperen, 1990;Collins, 1996). So, it's not surprising that NISC has been found to be associated with negative individual outcomes such as burnout (Carmona et al., 2006), shame and embarrassment (Cheung, Gilbert, & Irons, 2004) and worry and anxiety (S. Petersen et al., 2012). ...
... La capacidad predictiva de la sumisión se ha demostrado en la depresión adulta 69 y en la depresión en la adolescencia a través de las variables de comparación social y conducta sumisa. 70 En la población general, se ha encontrado que las mujeres puntúan más alto que los hombres en depresión, conducta sumisa y vergüenza externa, 71 aunque en la población afectada se han reportado resultados contrapuestos. En un estudio de Zimmerman et al, 72 las conductas sumisas mediaron la relación entre la ansiedad social y la vergüenza en los hombres, pero no en las mujeres, mientras que Gilbert et al 73 no encontraron diferencias en la sensibilidad al rechazo, la ira, la anhedonia o la ansiedad entre hombres y mujeres deprimidos. ...
Abstract:
Antecedentes: Existe un grado de interdependencia afectiva considerado normal que solo se torna patológica cuando provoca excesivo sufrimiento, tanto para el sujeto como para sus allegados. Nuestro objetivo es validar psicométricamente una escala de dependencia afectiva abreviada y eficaz, la Escala de Dependencia Afectiva (ADS-9).
Métodos: Se utilizó una muestra de 762 participantes (clínicos: sujetos dependientes emocionales n = 212, de comparación: sujetos adictos no dependientes emocionales n = 272, y población general n = 278) para evaluar la estructura factorial, la validez de constructo psicológica y la invarianza de medida para el ADS-9 mediante análisis factoriales exploratorios independientes para cada muestra y posteriores análisis factoriales confirmatorios multigrupo.
Resultados: Nuestros resultados confirman que el ADS-9 es un instrumento psicométricamente consistente, con validez de constructo y clínica, así como invarianza configural, métrica y escalar a través de las diferentes muestras (clínica, de comparación y población general). Mediante análisis factoriales se confirmó la estructura bidimensional hipotetizada. Las dos subescalas de esta forma abreviada, Sumisión y Craving, mostraron una buena concordancia con el Inventario de Relaciones Interpersonales y Dependencias Sentimentales (IRIDS-100) previamente validado.
Conclusiones: El ADS-9 es un instrumento breve que detecta de forma fiable las componentes dependiente y patológica de la dependencia afectiva. Consta de dos subescalas, que describen la Sumisión (adaptación, acomodación y subyugación) y el Craving (necesidad imperiosa del otro con la presencia de estados perturbadores). Sugerimos que es una escala versátil que puede ser útil para clínicos e investigadores.
Palabras clave: dependencia emocional, adicción al amor, craving, amor romántico, test psicológico, sumisión.
... The predictive capacity of submission has been shown in adult depression 69 and in depression in adolescence through variables of social comparison and submissive behavior. 70 In the genral population, women have been found to score higher than men in depression, submissive behavior and external shame, 71 although in the affected population contrasting results have been reported. In a study by Zimmerman et al, 72 submissive behaviors mediated the relationship between social anxiety and shame in men but not in women, while Gilbert et al 73 found no difference in sensitivity to rejection, anger, anhedonia or anxiety between depressed men and women. ...
Background
There is a degree of affective interdependence that is considered normal and only becomes pathological if it causes excessive suffering, both for the subject and for those close to them. Our objective was to introduce and psychometrically validate a short and effective affective dependency scale, the Affective Dependence Scale (ADS-9).
Methods
We used a sample of 762 participants (clinical: emotional dependent subjects n = 212, comparison: non-emotionally-dependent addicted subjects n = 272, and general population n = 278) to assess the factor structure, the psychological construct validity and the measurement invariance for the ADS-9 by means of independent exploratory factor analyses for each sample group and subsequent multigroup confirmatory factor analyses.
Results
Our results confirm that ADS-9 is a psychometrically consistent instrument, with construct and clinical validity, as well as configural, metric and scalar invariance across different sample groups (clinical, comparison and general population). A hypothesized two-dimensional structure was confirmed by means of factor analyses. Both sub-scales of this abbreviated form, Submission and Craving, showed a good agreement with the previously validated Relationships and Sentimental Dependencies Inventory (IRIDS-100).
Conclusion
The ADS-9 is a brief instrument that appears to reliably detect the dependent and pathological components of affective dependence. It consists of two sub-scales, describing Submission (adaptation, accommodation, and subjugation) and Craving (imperative need for the other with the presence of disturbing states). We suggest that it is a versatile scale that may be useful for clinicians and researchers.
... Although the relationship between depression and SUD is clear, the mechanisms involved in this relationship are still controversial. Previous research has shown that psychological inflexibility and self-criticism are related to both depression (13,41) and addiction severity (12,25) separately. However, to our knowledge, no previous study has investigated the mediating role of psychological inflexibility and self-criticism in explaining the relationship between depressive symptoms and addiction severity. ...
Objective: Self-related problems and psychological inflexibility, which can also lead to a vulnerability to depression, often accompany substance use disorders. This study examined whether psychological inflexibility and self-criticism mediated the relationship between depression and addiction severity. Method: We examined 111 patients with Substance use disorders (SUDs) using the Addiction Profile Index (API), Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), Forms of Self-criticizing/Attacking and Self-reassuring Scale (FSCRS), and Acceptance and Action Questionnaire-Substance Abuse (AAQ-SA). Mediation analysis was conducted to examine the mediating role of psychological inflexibility on the relationship between depression and addiction severity. Results: API total score was negatively correlated with AAQ-SA and positively correlated with BDI and FSCRS. Because FSCRS did not have a significant predictive effect on addiction severity (p=0.966), only AAQ-SA was included in the mediation analysis. According to the results of the mediation analysis, depression was found to directly affect addiction severity (direct effect, p=0.007), and it constitutes 54.5% of the total effect. Also, depression predicted addiction severity (indirect effect, p<0.001) through psychological flexibility, and it constitutes 45.5% of the total effect. Conclusion: According to our findings, psychological inflexibility is an important variable between depression and addiction severity. Although patients with SUDs may have negative evaluations about self, they may not use self-criticism as a coping strategy. Psychological inflexibility may be a substantial target for interventions in patients who use substances to avoid depressive symptoms.
... When it comes to behavioral outputs, shame can produce a wide and seemingly paradoxical array of actions. For instance, shame can generate both enhanced cooperativeness and hostile tactics, such as shifting blame to victims, scapegoating third parties, and threatening or mobilizing aggression (Leach & Cidam, 2015;Fessler, 2001;Scheff, 1987;Elison et al., 2014;Zhu et al., 2019), making amends (De Hooge et al., 2008, 2018Sznycer et al., 2015), avoiding others (Barrett et al., 1993), feeling depressed (Tangney et al., 1992;Cheung et al., 2004), and attempting to improve oneself (De Hooge et al., 2010). Such heterogeneous tactics can interfere with each other if deployed concurrently (e.g., cooperation and aggression) but have the capacity to minimize the threat of devaluation if deployed in the right situations or sequences. ...
The shame system appears to be natural selection's solution to the adaptive problem of information-triggered reputational damage. Over evolutionary time, this problem would have led to a coordinated set of adaptations—the shame system—designed to minimize the spread of negative information about the self and the likelihood and costs of being socially devalued by others. This information threat theory of shame can account for much of what we know about shame and generate precise predictions. Here, we analyze the behavioral configuration that people adopt stereotypically when ashamed—slumped posture, downward head tilt, gaze avoidance, inhibition of speech—in light of shame's hypothesized function. This behavioral configuration may have differentially favored its own replication by ( i ) hampering the transfer of information (e.g., diminishing audiences’ tendency to attend to or encode identifying information: shame camouflage ) and/or ( ii ) evoking less severe devaluative responses from audiences (shame display ). The shame display hypothesis has received considerable attention and empirical support, whereas the shame camouflage hypothesis has to our knowledge not been advanced or tested. We elaborate on this hypothesis and suggest directions for future research on the shame pose.
... Whether it is by attempting to change gender nonconforming behaviors or by preventing the child from freely expressing their gendered inclinations, both models tend to teach the child that gender creativity is negative, which engenders shame and the degradation of attachment relationships (Wallace & Russell, 2013). Shame is linked to high risks of depression and other mental health problems (Cheung et al., 2004;Wallace & Russell, 2013). ...
In recent years, the suggestion that over 80% of trans and gender creative children will grow up cisgender has been strongly criticized in the academic literature. Although concerns over the methodology of these studies, known as desistance research, has shed considerable doubt regarding the validity of the reported number, less attention has been paid to the relevance of desistance research to the choice of clinical model of care. This article analyzes desistance research and concludes that the body of research is not relevant when deciding between models ofcare. Three arguments undermining the relevance of desistance research are presented. Drawing on a variety of concerns, the article highlights that “desistance” does not provide reasons against prepubertal social transition or peripubertal medical transition, that transition for “desisters” is not comparably harmful to delays for trans youth, and that the wait-and-see and corrective models of care are harmful to youth who will grow up cis. The assumed relevance of desistance research to trans youth care is therefore misconceived. Thinking critically about the relationship between research observations and clinical models of care is essential to progress in trans health care.
... Self-kindness is the emotional component of self-compassion, unconditional acceptance of oneself; common humanity is the cognitive component of self-compassion; it mobilizes the individual's thinking through processes such as social connection and comparison; mindfulness is the advanced adjustment control of self-compassion components, and it optimizes self-kindness and common humanity (Zhang et al., 2010). By activating the individual's self-comfort and self-protection functions, selfcompassion reduces the feeling of being threatened, promotes feeling of similar attachment and security, and enhances the sense of well-being (Cheung et al., 2004;Chen et al., 2011;Hu, 2013); the dimensions of self-compassion, selfkindness, and mindfulness have a significant positive correlation with subjective well-being, and there is a significant negative correlation between isolation and subjective wellbeing. There is a significant correlation between self-compassion and total scores on life satisfaction scale and positive and negative emotional scale. ...
This study explores the relationship between self-compassion and mental health of postgraduates based on the perspective of the dual-factor model (DFM) of mental health and the mediating role of help-seeking behavior. A total of 605 postgraduates were investigated with a questionnaire. The results showed that the DFM of mental health was better than the one-factor model for the mental health status of postgraduates. Among them, those with complete mental health accounted for the highest proportion (63.3%), followed by vulnerable (25.1%), troubled (9.1%), and symptomatic but content (2.5%). Self-compassion and non-professional help-seeking behavior had a positive predictive effect on positive mental health factors of the postgraduates, while self-compassion had a negative predictive effect on their psychological symptoms. Non-professional help-seeking behavior played a partial mediating role between self-compassion and positive mental health factors.
... Although the relationship between depression and SUD is clear, the mechanisms involved in this relationship are still controversial. Previous research has shown that psychological inflexibility and self-criticism are related to both depression (13,41) and addiction severity (12,25) separately. However, to our knowledge, no previous study has investigated the mediating role of psychological inflexibility and self-criticism in explaining the relationship between depressive symptoms and addiction severity. ...
... In the clinical context, shame-based well-being and health studies have been widely documented in hitherto research. Previous studies have found that shame proneness is associated with onset and chronic or recurrent depression (Cheung, Gilbert, & Irons, 2004;Tangney, Wagner, & Gramzow, 1992); individuals with current depression or with a prior history of depressive disorders report more shame in both imagined and real interpersonal situations (Thompson & Berenbaum, 2006). Several studies report a strong link between shame and social anxiety (Grabhorn, Stenner, Stangier, & Kaufhold, 2006), post-traumatic stress disorder (Lee, Scragg, & Turner, 2001), personality disorders including borderline personality disorder (Rüsch et al., 2007), and dissociative disorder (Talbot, Talbot, & Tu, 2004). ...
Drawing on various studies, we provide a holistic view incorporating different nested cultural contexts, organizational shame, and health outcomes. We introduce the concept of organizational shame and explain its two key domains: conformity and status/competition. Then, we comprehensively review prior studies on cultural approaches to shame and propose our cultural variance model of organizational shame. Our model illustrates an equilibrium, exhibiting dominant and stable patterns of shame domains formed by reinforcing relationships among three key nested contextual layers: individuals (workers), organizations (firms), and the labor market. We apply our model to discuss general and occupational implications and outline future research directions. Thus, we hope to conceptualize organizational shame within the dynamic contexts of organizations and cultures.
... . Pregled radova o povezanosti srama, krivnje i depresivnih simptoma (Kim, Thibodeau i Jorgensen, 2011) ukazuje na značajnu povezanost srama i depresivnih simptoma koja je značajno izraženija nego povezanost krivnje i depresivnosti. Ruminacije su se pokazale kao parcijalni medijator odnosa srama i depresivnosti, ali sram i dalje zadržava jedinstven doprinos u objašnjenju depresivnosti, čak i nakon kontrole ruminacija(Cheung, Gilbert i Irons, 2004).Sram može proizlaziti iz mnogih izvoratjelesnoga srama, traumatskoga srama, roditeljskoga posramljivanja, posramljivanja u svrhu kažnjavanja ili srama zbog ponižavanja ili iskustva stigme. Sva ta iskustva, uz izazivanje osjećaja srama, mogu dovesti i do pratećih internaliziranih i eksternaliziranih problema. ...
Since the issue of the metacognitive aspect of self-forgiveness has not been covered by previous research, this study examined the relationships of trait self-forgiveness, feeling of shame related to drinking, modified metacognitive model of depression and alcohol craving in a sample (N = 125) of inpatients during their treatment for alcohol dependence in psychiatric hospital. An extended metacognitive model of depression has been proposed to explain the association of these variables. The original metacognitive model was modified in such a way that depressive ruminations were replaced by ruminations related to drinking alcohol. The variables of trait self-forgiveness and feeling of shame related to drinking were added to model as antecedents, and finally alcohol craving as the outcome variable.
Multiple mediation analyses with parallel and serial mediators were used to test the extended metacognitive model of depression previously disassembled into several smaller models. The model is largely validated. Self-forgiveness has an indirect effect on positive metacognitive beliefs about ruminations through feelings of shame related to drinking, and an indirect effect on ruminations about drinking through feelings of shame related to drinking and positive metacognitive beliefs about rumination. The direct effect of self-forgiveness on the interpersonal and social consequences of rumination is also significant. The effect of self-forgiveness on depression is fully explained by the mediator of rumination about drinking, and analyses also show an indirect effect through negative metacognitive beliefs about rumination. The indirect effect of self-forgiveness on alcohol craving through feelings of shame related to drinking and rumination about drinking was also discovered. All the above effects of self-forgiveness on the mentioned criterion variables are of negative sign. Ruminations about drinking have been shown to be the most significant predictor of depression and alcohol cravings. A modified metacognitive model of depression was also confirmed in a sample of individuals on treatment for alcohol dependence. The results suggest that forgiving oneself is a much more adaptive option for dealing with feelings of shame and avoiding all other potential negative consequences such as depression and alcohol craving than it is to repeatedly think about a perceived offense that has the opposite effect.
In the second part of the study, the variables of changes in craving during treatment and trait self-forgiveness were examined as predictors of the number of days of abstinence 90 days after discharge from treatment. The repeatedly measured predictor of craving and trait self-forgiveness did not prove statistically significant in predicting the number of days of abstinence.
This research provided new insights in understanding the constructs of self-forgiveness and feelings of shame by revealing their metacognitive context. It also contributes to a better understanding of depression in alcohol addicts by suggesting that the treatment of depression in these individuals should take into account the negative affect and rumination associated with the addiction itself. Also, the results suggest that for successful abstinence, it is not enough to be inclined to forgive oneself for one’s own transgressions, nor not to feel alcohol craving during treatment. When interpreting the results, the limitations of the research described in detail in the dissertation should certainly be taken into account.
KEY WORDS: self-forgiveness, shame, metacognitive beliefs, depression, alcohol craving, alcohol recidivism
... The Social Risk Hypothesis of Depressed Mood (SRH; conceptualises submissiveness as a defensive behavioural strategy that emerges in response to perceptions of inferiority and prolonged involuntary subordination and predicts heightened interpersonal sensitivity to avert social risks. Our findings align well with these predictions, and with previous literature which has associated social processing biases Chapter 3 | General Methodology and Evidence of Affective and Social Processing Biases 104 with rumination (Cheung, Gilbert & Irons, 2004) self-harm (Gilbert et al., 2010) and selfcriticism (Sturman & Mongrain, 2010). ...
Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) is one of the most prevalent health conditions in the world, characterised by persistent low mood and disruption to education, relationships, and employment. Disruption to social functioning is a core feature of MDD, and this dimension of the disorder may offer valuable insight into its aetiology. This thesis aims to extend our understanding of social processing in MDD by testing hypotheses generated from a socio-evolutionary theoretical framework of MDD, with particular emphasis on the Social Risk Hypothesis of Depressed Mood, which conceptualises depressed mood as an adaptive response to elevated risk of social exclusion. The thesis pursues these aims utilising novel protocols and neuroeconomic games to examine social risk-taking and self-discrepancies, and by examining the role of regions of the physical pain network in social function and processing of unexpected social information. The thesis consists of nine chapters; one general methodology chapter (Chapter 3), five chapters detailing novel experimental studies (Chapters 4,5,6,7 and 8), one describing a reanalysis of existing data (Chapter 2), one introductory chapter and one discussion chapter (Chapters 1 and 9 respectively). Across these chapters, the thesis presents neural and behavioural evidence that MDD is associated with reduced social risk-taking, increased sensitivity to an exclusion-relevant context (in-group interactions) and stronger enforcement of social norms. The thesis presents neural evidence of a negative processing bias for self-discrepancies in MDD, linked to activation in the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex and anterior insula, and suggesting a role for perfectionism as a transdiagnostic sensitivity to such discrepancies. Suggestions for future research are discussed, including increased utilisation of neuroeconomic games, particularly in relation to assessing social function as a transdiagnostic marker. Overall, the thesis provides support for socio-evolutionary frameworks of affect, and highlights their unique perspective for understanding affective disorders, with some ‘deficits’ usefully reconceptualised as adaptive mechanisms.
This chapter introduces a framework elucidating the role of moral emotions in political communication, aiming to contribute to interdisciplinary understanding. It outlines research question of the volume regarding moral emotions in public discourse, particularly during the 2022 Hungarian election campaigns. Defining morality as societal codes of conduct, it explores moralising in politics and advocates a functionalist perspective emphasising moral pluralism. While acknowledging morality’s normative nature in political rhetoric, it explores its instrumentalisation and cultivation, for example, management, for persuasion and voter appeal. The chapter also discusses the use of moral language to elevate political conflicts and emphasises the collective, emotive, and discursive nature of political moralising, often aimed at bolstering one’s status and disparaging opponents.
In recent years, research has recognised the significant role of gender and culture in linking emotions with health outcomes. Despite increasing interest in the topic of shame, less effort is devoted to cross-fertilising various studies related to gender and specific types of emotions (e.g. shame), different types of cultural contexts (e.g. organisational), and health. An organisation in the Fifth Industrial Revolution (5IR) incorporates automation and efficiency, as well as a personal human touch, to achieve its goals. It is a complex social environment in which people experience different discrete emotions, such as guilt, anger, and happiness. Among these emotions, shame is one of the discrete emotions prevalent in the workplace and organisational life. The focus is to provide a holistic view of gender facets incorporating different nested cultural contexts, organisational shame, and health outcomes. The concept of organisational shame is introduced, and its two key domains are explained: conformity and status/competition. Prior studies on gender facets of organisational shame as transformational resource for health and well-being in the 5IR are comprehensively reviewed. Resource-oriented concepts, such as resilience, happiness, fortitude, and locus of control, are contextualised in the current processes of social upheaval and the 5IR transformation. The aim of the chapter is to provide an in-depth insight into gender facets of organisational shame as transformational resource within and across the new cultures created by current 5IR transformation processes in the new world of work. A qualitative approach is followed by means of a systematic review of contemporary research on the themes of gender facets of organisational shame as transformational resource for health and well-being in the 5IR. This approach will allow the author to evaluate documented research on the topic.
Objective
This study aimed to investigate the complex relationships between demographic factors, oral health indicators, self-compassion, and psychological well-being among elderly individuals by using a path model analysis.
Methods
The findings of this cross-sectional study are derived from data collected from a sample of 204 patients, including 120 females and 84 males, aged between 60 and 92 years, with an average age of 74.2 years (SD = 7.1). Participants took part in assessments including the Geriatric Oral Health Assessment Index (GOHAI) to measure oral health (physical function, psychosocial function, pain/discomfort), self-compassion scale, and measures of shame and "other as shamer" experiences. Demographic information including age and gender was also collected. Path analysis was employed to examine the direct and indirect effects of demographic variables, oral health indicators, and self-compassion on psychological well-being.
Results
Older age was consistently associated with poorer oral health outcomes across all GOHAI oral health subscales. However, resilience and self-compassion appear to exert a correspondingly large positive influence, neutralizing the negative effects of increasing age on physical and psychosocial aspects of oral health-related quality of life. Additionally, resilience was positively associated with better physical and psychosocial function related to oral health while oral health was confirmed to be related to internal and external (social) shame. However, resilience and self-compassion outperformed oral health as far as their effect on internal and external (social) shame is concerned. Gender had minimal effects on most outcome variables.
Conclusions
The findings underscore the importance of addressing both physical and psychological aspects of health in elderly care and oral health interventions. By promoting psychological resilience and self-compassion, healthcare providers can potentially enhance oral health-related quality of life and overall well-being among elderly populations. Our results also highlight that promoting social and leisure activities may be a means of improving mental well-being, enhancing oral health outcomes, and reducing shame-related distress among elderly individuals.
Objective
Exposure to social-evaluative threat (SET) can elicit greater physiological responses, including cortisol, compared to non-SET stressors. An individual's level of depressive and anxious symptoms predicts variability in cortisol responses to stressors, and other research suggests these individual differences may predict vulnerability to social evaluation. The current study integrates both lines of research, testing if there are different relationships between depressive and/or anxious symptoms and cortisol reactivity in the presence or absence of SET.
Methods
Healthy undergraduate students ( N = 158, 65% female) were randomly assigned to deliver a speech in the presence (SET) or absence (non-SET) of two evaluators. Salivary cortisol was collected throughout, and self-reported depressive and anxious symptoms were assessed. We hypothesized that in the SET condition, higher levels of depressive and/or anxious symptoms would predict dysregulated cortisol responses compared to lower levels of symptoms and/or assignment to the non-SET group.
Results
In spite of inconclusive p-values (which might be attributed to low statistical power), individuals with high depressive or high anxious symptoms appeared to have exaggerated cortisol responses in the SET condition, as indicated by more concave trajectories.
Conclusions
This study suggests that both depression and anxiety could be associated with increased cortisol reactivity to SET.
Background
Severe shame is a distressing negative emotion, accompanied by intense feelings of worthlessness that contributes to a broad panoply of psychological disorders. This study aimed to compare the effects on shame dysregulation of two transdiagnostic treatments, the Unified Protocol (UP) and Self‐Acceptance Group Therapy (SAGT). We additionally addressed the question of whether borderline personality disorder (BPD) can properly be regarded as an emotional disorder. The focus was on outcome measures, primarily shame that cut across individual diagnostic categories and capture emotional dysfunction broadly conceived.
Methods
Individuals suffering from a range of emotional disorders (including BPD) and high levels of shame were randomly allocated to treatment by either UP ( N = 280) or SAGT ( N = 282). Outcomes were measures of emotion dysfunction—shame, loneliness, neuroticism, emotional dysregulation, positive and negative affect—measured pre‐treatment, post‐treatment and at 3‐ and 6‐month follow‐ups.
Results
UP was superior to SAGT in showing better post‐treatment retention of therapeutic gains on all outcome measures over the 6‐month follow‐up period. Compared with those without a BPD diagnosis, those diagnosed with BPD showed significantly higher neuroticism and emotion dysregulation at baseline and a similar post‐treatment reduction in almost all outcomes.
Conclusions
The results support the use of both the UP and SAGT in the treatment of severe shame. The superiority of the UP over SAGT in reducing negative emotionality is interpreted in terms of the specific mechanisms targeted by the UP. The results provide support for the theoretical rationale for the UP as a treatment for dysregulated shame and for emotional dysfunction generally.
This chapter explores the intricate relationship between mental illness and parenting in the context of single-mother households. Mental health issues can significantly affect a parent's ability to provide emotional support, maintain consistency, and promote educational success and overall well-being in their children. By examining the strains, traumas, theories, impacts, and challenges faced by single mothers coping with mental illness and the experiences of their children, this chapter aims to shed light on the importance of support systems, coping strategies, and interventions to enhance the outcomes for both mothers and their children.
Purpose
Racial code-switching is an impression management behavior for people to blend into social and professional situations by adhering to norms outside their own. Drawing on the identity threat perspective, this study aims to examine the harmful effects of racial code-switching on employee psychological depression and hospitality industry turnover intentions.
Design/methodology/approach
The current study used a two-wave time-lagged survey of 286 restaurant frontline employees. Participants were asked to rate their racial code-switching, identity threat and shame in the first survey. Participants reported their depression and industry turnover intention in the second survey one week later.
Findings
The results showed that employees that engaged in racial code-switching had higher intentions to leave the hospitality industry via the sequential mediating roles of identity threat, shame and depression.
Practical implications
The findings provide practical implications on how hospitality practitioners can foster employee authenticity and tenure by evaluating impression management strategies. This paper provides a discussion, suggestions and future research directions on how to take sustainable actions toward diversity, equity, inclusion, justice and belonging.
Originality/value
Although racial code-switching is a common behavioral strategy for whites and people of color, research on racial code-switching in the hospitality industry is limited. This study is among the first to examine racial code-switching’s health and career consequences.
Self-compassion is a construct of positive psychology related to personality and cognitive factors. Perfectionism and interpersonal sensitivity are prevalent personality traits among university students and are associated with low self-compassion. Further research is required to comprehend how these mechanisms work in creating self-compassion. Consequently, the current study investigated the direct and indirect relationship between perfectionism and interpersonal sensitivity with self-compassion via repetitive negative thinking. To this end, a sample of 450 students studying in Tehran during the 2022 academic year was selected as the study sample. The results indicated that perfectionism and interpersonal sensitivity demonstrate a negative direct relationship with self-compassion, while perfectionism and interpersonal sensitivity exhibit an indirect relationship with self-compassion via repetitive negative thinking. Based on the findings, it can be concluded that the relationship between perfectionism and interpersonal sensitivity with self-compassion is not straightforward and that repetitive negative thinking can mediate this relationship. The results can be used to improve methods for increasing self-compassion and paying attention to personality, and cognitive factors can be an important step toward more effective self-compassion interventions.
Although studies have documented the relationships between physical health, health rumination/worry, and mental health, few investigations have assessed these linkages within African American communities. Using a community-based sample of residents in historically lower-income, African American communities (N = 306), this study assesses the mediating role of health rumination/worry in the physical limitation-depressive symptom relationship, and the moderating effect of gender on the relationship between health rumination/worry-depressive symptoms. Findings demonstrate that health rumination/worry explains half of the physical limitation-depressive symptom relationship, and the relationship between health rumination/worry and depressive symptoms is stronger for African American men than women. The findings underscore the importance of intersectional research for policy efforts aimed at reducing mental health morbidities within African American communities.
Although shame is largely viewed as a negative, destructive emotion, it is very commonly exercised in collectivistic cultures. Shame, an emotion thought to confront the self, often leading to maladaptive self-defensive actions, has been shown to also harbor a positive potential that can motivate people toward self-improvement. Collectivistic cultures that promote shame appear to rely on this positive potential of shame. This article reviews available literature to explore how and why shame lends itself to personal growth in the collectivistic cultures, contradicting its evidenced tendency to provoke self-defense. An extensive study of the literature uncovered four cultural differences in the perception of self, namely, in self-esteem, self-enhancement, self-concept inconsistency, and incremental belief of self which this article argues lead to self-defensiveness or self-improvement. We also argue that lower levels of self-esteem and self-enhancement observed in collectivistic cultures, as well as the propensity to perceive self as inconsistent and incremental, facilitate the positive action potential of shame, preventing self-defense reactions. We conclude that, while self-threatening shame can be more destructive than adaptive in certain cultures, collectivistic cultures tend to depend on their capacity to avail themselves of the positive potential of shame to ensure successful communal living.
There is a research gap concerning the expression of compassion and self-compassion for individuals from Black, Asian and Minority Ethnic (BAME) backgrounds. This article describes the lived experience and meaning of these concepts for Muslim Asian women living in the UK.
Evolutionary psychiatry attempts to explain and examine the development and prevalence of psychiatric disorders through the lens of evolutionary and adaptationist theories. In this edited volume, leading international evolutionary scholars present a variety of Darwinian perspectives that will encourage readers to consider 'why' as well as 'how' mental disorders arise. Using insights from comparative animal evolution, ethology, anthropology, culture, philosophy and other humanities, evolutionary thinking helps us to re-evaluate psychiatric epidemiology, genetics, biochemistry and psychology. It seeks explanations for persistent heritable traits shaped by selection and other evolutionary processes, and reviews traits and disorders using phylogenetic history and insights from the neurosciences as well as the effects of the modern environment. By bridging the gap between social and biological approaches to psychiatry, and encouraging bringing the evolutionary perspective into mainstream psychiatry, this book will help to inspire new avenues of research into the causation and treatment of mental disorders.
Background: Research suggests that male-specific psychotherapy approaches for major
depressive disorder (MDD) that consider traditional masculinity ideologies (TMI) and their impact on men’s MDD may achieve improved treatment efficacy and reduced therapy dropout. However, to date, randomized controlled studies examining male-specific psychotherapy for MDD or specific therapy aspects remain lacking.
Aim: To evaluate a male-specific psychoeducation for MDD in a randomized controlled investigation.
Methods: An anonymous online study on men’s mental health examined 152 self-reporting mentally distressed cisgender men (Mage = 25.5 ± 9.1) from German-speaking countries of Europe. After completing baseline assessments of state self-esteem, state shame, positive/negative affect, depressive symptoms, and endorsement of TMI, men were randomly assigned to read either a male-specific (n = 78) or a cognitive behavioral therapy oriented (CBT; n = 74) psychoeducation text for MDD. Subsequently, participants rated its usefulness and completed follow-up assessments.
Results: Men in the male-specific psychoeducation condition showed a decrease in shame and negative affect as compared to men in the CBT-based psychoeducation condition. Furthermore, in the male-specific psychoeducation condition an increase in prototypical depression symptoms was identified as compared to the CBT-based psychoeducation condition, whereas male-typical externalizing depression symptoms tended to decrease, although not statistically significant. The psychoeducation condition overall had no influence on TMI.
Conclusion: Male-specific psychoeducation for MDD targeting TMI may help depressed men feel less ashamed about their MDD and experience less negative affect about their condition than CBT-based psychoeducation. Furthermore, male-specific psychoeducation for MDD may elicit a shift from detrimental male-typical externalizing depression symptoms to more prototypical depression symptoms, which warrants further investigations in future studies.
Objectives:
The relationship between sensitivity to punishment (SP) and emotional eating has been previously examined. However, effective variables in this relationship have yet to be recognized. This study aimed to investigate the relationship between SP and emotional eating via facets of shame and rumination.
Design:
Serial Mediation model was proposed.
Method:
Female university students in Iran (n = 174) completed Sensitivity to Punishment and Sensitivity to Reward Questionnaire-Revised and Clarified (SPSRQ-RC), Dutch Eating Behaviour Questionnaire (DEBQ), Experience of Shame Scale (ESS) and Ruminative Responses Scale (RRS).
Results:
SP showed a significant effect on emotional eating. Moreover, we observed that the relationship between SP and emotional eating was separately mediated by shame (general, characterological and bodily shame) and rumination. We further noticed the sequentially mediating role of shame (general, characterological and behavioural shame) and rumination in the relationship between SP and emotional eating.
Conclusion:
Findings suggest that high SP can increase the risk of emotional eating through negative emotions (e.g. shame) and disturbed cognitions (e.g. rumination). Therefore, for a better understanding, it seems necessary to consider emotional eating a maladaptive behaviour adopted as a possible result of the impairment of temperamental, emotional and cognitive systems.
Full text available at https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/share/author/AXUNHXC3F26WSRJECGHI?target=10.1111/papt.12407
The aim of this study was to present the power of high school students' parents’ attitudes and
submissive behaviors' in predicting social anxiety. The study group consisted of 298 students (159
female, 139 male) from two different high schools who were studying in the 2018-2019 academic year
and voluntarily participated in the study. The study was carried out in accordance with the relational
screening model. In this study, the Social Anxiety Scale for Adolescents (SASA) was used to determine
the social anxiety levels of the participants, while the Parenting Attitude Scale (PAS) and the
Submissive Behaviors Scale (SBS) was used for determining the parents’ attitudes. Multiple regression
analysis was applied to determine the power of secondary school students in predicting social anxiety
levels. There was a medium level positive correlation found between high school students' total social
anxiety scores and submissive behaviors
We examined the relationship between ruminative and distracting styles of responding to depressed mood and the duration of mood. Seventy-nine subjects kept accounts of their moods and responses to their moods for 30 consecutive days. The majority of subjects (83%) showed consistent styles of responding to depressed mood. Regression analyses suggested that the more ruminative responses subjects engaged in, the longer their periods of depressed mood, even after taking into account the initial severity of the mood. In addition, women were more likely than men to have a ruminative response style and on some measures to have more severe and long-lasting periods of depression.
It was hypothesized that women are more vulnerable to depressive symptoms than men because they are more likely to experience chronic negative circumstances (or strain), to have a low sense of mastery, and to engage in ruminative coping. The hypotheses were tested in a 2-wave study of approximately 1,100 community-based adults who were 25 to 75 years old. Chronic strain, low mastery, and rumination were each more common in women than in men and mediated the gender difference in depressive symptoms. Rumination amplified the effects of mastery and, to some extent, chronic strain on depressive symptoms. In addition, chronic strain and rumination had reciprocal effects on each other over time, and low mastery also contributed to more rumination. Finally, depressive symptoms contributed to more rumination and less mastery over time.
In this article, we attempt to distinguish between the properties of moderator and mediator variables at a number of levels. First, we seek to make theorists and researchers aware of the importance of not using the terms moderator and mediator interchangeably by carefully elaborating, both conceptually and strategically, the many ways in which moderators and mediators differ. We then go beyond this largely pedagogical function and delineate the conceptual and strategic implications of making use of such distinctions with regard to a wide range of phenomena, including control and stress, attitudes, and personality traits. We also provide a specific compendium of analytic procedures appropriate for making the most effective use of the moderator and mediator distinction, both separately and in terms of a broader causal system that includes both moderators and mediators. (46 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Sex differences in rates of depressive disorder have not been convincingly explained, and this reflects a more general failure of research to provide a comprehensive aetiological account of depression. The difference can be used as a probe for evaluating the research base of integrative models of depressive disorder (e.g. Akiskal & McKinney, 1975). It is particularly likely to be illuminating if the causes of the sex difference do not overlap completely the causes of depression itself. While there have been many reviews in the area (Weissman & Klerman, 1977; Kessler & McRae, 1981; Wolk & Weissman, 1995; Bebbington, 1996), this point has not been adequately expressed.
Several lines of investigation are necessary for assessing the relative importance of social, psychological and biological influences: the epidemiological study of macrosocial variables and of age effects; temperament, personality, and attributional and coping styles; the experience of psychosocial adversity; and the possibility of increased susceptibility to some forms of stress in women. Both the tendency to affiliation and the requirement for social support may differ by sex. The particular strains of the roles available to women may increase their risk of depression. Possible genetic explanations of the sex difference are of special relevance because of their implications for biological differences. The latter can also be studied directly: hormonal theories in particular must be evaluated.
Two studies tested the hypothesis that women are more likely than men to focus on themselves and their mood when in a depressed mood, and that this leads them to experience longer periods of depressed mood. In both studies subjects were predominantly Caucasian college students. In our first study, a laboratory study, females chose to engage in an emotion-related task significantly more often than did males, even when this lead them to focus on an existing sad mood. In the second study, a prospective naturalistic study, females were more likely than males to evince an emotion-focused ruminative style of coping with their moods. A ruminative response style at Time 1 was a significant predictor of depression scores at Time 2, even after initial levels of depressed mood were taken into account. Furthermore, once rumination levels were controlled for, gender was no longer a potent predictor of depression outcome. The implications of these response styles for treatment are discussed.
Measures of emotional health and styles of responding to negative moods were obtained for 137 students 14 days before the Loma Prieta earthquake. A follow-up was done 10 days again 7 weeks after the earthquake to test predictions about which of the students would show the most enduring symptoms of depression and posttraumatic stress. Regression analysis showed that students who, before the earthquake, already had elevated levels of depression and stress symptoms and a ruminative style of responding to their symptoms had more depression and stress symptoms for both follow-ups. Students who were exposed to more dangerous or difficult circumstances because of the earthquake also had elevated symptom levels 10 days after the earthquake. Similarly, students who, during the 10 days after the earthquake, had more ruminations about the earthquake were still more likely to have high levels of depressive and stress symptoms 7 weeks after the earthquake.
In this article, we attempt to distinguish between the properties of moderator and mediator variables at a number of levels. First, we seek to make theorists and researchers aware of the importance of not using the terms moderator and mediator interchangeably by carefully elaborating, both conceptually and strategically, the many ways in which moderators and mediators differ. We then go beyond this largely pedagogical function and delineate the conceptual and strategic implications of making use of such distinctions with regard to a wide range of phenomena, including control and stress, attitudes, and personality traits. We also provide a specific compendium of analytic procedures appropriate for making the most effective use of the moderator and mediator distinction, both separately and in terms of a broader causal system that includes both moderators and mediators.
This paper explores the various literatures concerned with shame and guilt. Lewis' (1987) model of shame is outlined. The phenomena she suggested to be part of shame (feelings of helplessness, anger at others, anger at self, self-consciousness and feelings of inferiority) were investigated as to their relationship with shame. Strong support for these phenomena being related to shame, but not guilt, was found. Although located in separate literatures, shame and fear of negative evaluation have considerable overlap and this study set out to explore this relationship. The study further considered the role of submissive behaviour in shame and depression. Evidence was found to support the view that submissive behaviour is involved in both shame and depression.
We examined the relationship between ruminative and distracting styles of responding to depressed mood and the duration of mood. Seventy-nine subjects kept accounts of their moods and responses to their moods for 30 consecutive days. The majority of subjects (83%) showed consistent styles of responding to depressed mood. Regression analyses suggested that the more ruminative responses subjects engaged in, the longer their periods of depressed mood, even after taking into account the initial severity of the mood. In addition, women were more likely than men to have a ruminative response style and on some measures to have more severe and long-lasting periods of depression.
182 undergraduates described personal embarrassment, shame, and guilt experiences and rated these experiences on structural and phenomenological dimensions. Contrary to popular belief, shame was no more likely than guilt to be experienced in "public" situations; all 3 emotions typically occurred in social contexts, but a significant proportion of shame and guilt events occurred when respondents were alone. Analyses of participants' phenomenological ratings clearly demonstrated that shame, guilt, and embarrassment are not merely different terms for the same affective experience. In particular, embarrassment was a relatively distant neighbor of shame and guilt, and the differences among the 3 could not be explained simply by intensity of affect or by degree of moral transgression. Finally, participants generally were their own harshest critics in each type of event, evaluating themselves more negatively than they believed others did.
The social rank theory of psychopathology suggests that with the evolution of social hierarchies various psychobiological mechanisms became attuned to the success or failure in conflict situations. Specifically, subordinates and those who have lost status are at greater risk of pathology than winners and those of higher status. In this theory concepts of defeat and entrapment are seen to be of special relevance to the study of depression. We outline the role of defeat and entrapment within the social rank theory of depression.
New self-report measures of entrapment and defeat were developed and used to test predictions of the social rank theory of depression. Both a sample of students and depressed patients were assessed with these new scales and other social rank measures (e.g. social comparison and submissive behaviour).
The entrapment and defeat measures were found to have good psychometric properties and significantly correlated with depression. They were also strongly associated with other rank variables. Defeat maintained a strong association with depression even after controlling for hopelessness (r = 0.62), whereas the relationship between hopelessness and depression was substantially reduced when controlling for defeat. Entrapment and defeat added substantially to the explained variance of depression after controlling for the other social rank variables.
Defeat and entrapment appear to be promising variables for the study of depression. These variables may also help to develop linkages between human and animal models of psychopathology.
Receiving positive social support after a trauma generally is related to better adjustment to the trauma. The personality of trauma survivors may affect the extent to which they seek social support, their perceived receipt of social support, and the extent to which they benefit from social support. The authors hypothesized that people with a ruminative coping style, who tended to focus excessively on their own emotional reactions to a trauma, compared to those without a ruminative coping style, would seek more social support, and would benefit more from social support, but would report receiving less social support. These hypotheses were confirmed in a longitudinal study of people who lost a loved one to a terminal illness.
The phenomenology of dysphoric rumination and its consequences for problem solving were explored in 3 studies. In Study 1, self-focused rumination, compared with distraction, led dysphoric participants to rate their own biggest problems as severe and unsolvable and to report a reduced likelihood of actually implementing their solutions. Clues into the mechanisms behind these findings were explored in Study 2. The results showed that dysphoric ruminative thought is characterized by a focus on personal problems combined with a negative tone, self-criticism, and self-blame for problems as well as reduced self-confidence, optimism, and perceived control. Finally, Study 3 revealed a direct relationship between the negatively biased content of ruminative thoughts and reduced willingness to solve one's problems. Implications of these findings for the consequences of self-focused rumination are discussed.
Thirty-four people referred to an NHS psychotherapy department were given a modified form of Oatley and Duncan's (1992) emotion diary which included questions about whether each recorded emotion had been subsequently disclosed to anyone (for example a partner, friend or professional). One week later the diaries were collected and participants interviewed. Interviews focused, among other things, on reasons for nondisclosure of recorded emotional experiences and the relationship between shame and non-disclosure. The results indicated that a majority of the emotional incidents recorded in the diaries were not disclosed (68%). This result contrasts with studies on non-clinical samples in which only approximately 10% of everyday emotions are kept secret. Qualitative analysis of the interview data revealed that participants appeared to be habitual non-disclosers of emotional and personal experiences and that non-disclosure was related to the anticipation of negative interpersonal responses to disclosure (in particular labelling and judging responses) in addition to more self-critical factors including shame. It is suggested that these results add to the existing literature on shame by illustrating the interpersonal effects of shame in a clinical sample.
One of the most commonly reported emotions in people seeking psychotherapy is shame, and this emotion has become the subject of intense research and theory over the last 20 years. In Shame: Interpersonal Behavior, Psychopathology, and Culture, Paul Gilbert and Bernice Andrews, together with some of the most eminent figures in the field, examine the effect of shame on social behaviour, social values, and mental states. The text utilizes a multidisciplinary approach, including perspectives from evolutionary and clinical psychology, neurobiology, sociology, and anthropology. In Part I, the authors cover some of the core issues and current controversies concerning shame. Part II explores the role of shame on the development of the infant brain, its evolution, and the relationship between shame as a personal and interpersonal construct and stigma. Part III examines the connection between shame and psychopathology. Here, authors are concerned with outlining how shame can significantly influence the formation, manifestation, and treatment of psychopathology. Finally, Part IV discusses the notion that shame is not only related to internal experiences but also conveys socially shared information about one's status and standing in the community. Shame will be essential reading for clinicians, clinical researchers, and social psychologists. With a focus on shame in the context of social behaviour, the book will also appeal to a wide range of researchers in the fields of sociology, anthropology, and evolutionary psychology.
Response styles theory (Nolen-Hoeksema, 1987) provided the impetus for recent research efforts investigating the effects of rumination and distraction on depressed mood. This study elaborates on previous research by examining the sequential effects of engaging in ruminating and distracting tasks. Results from two studies indicated that initially engaging in a ruminating task maintained postinduction levels of dysphoric mood, whereas initially engaging in a distracting task reduced levels of dysphoric mood. More important, however, were the effects of task order on mood. When participants engaged in a distracting task following aruminating task, dysphoric mood, which had been maintained with a ruminating task, was reduced to premoodinduction levels. Of equal importance, individuals who ruminated after distracting maintained their current mood and did not report an increase in depressed mood. In the second study, engaging in sequential rumination tasks further prolonged depressed mood, whereas engaging in sequential distraction tasks reduced depressed mood. The results suggest that, although engaging in a rumination task maintains depressed mood and engaging in a distraction task reduces it, the order in which these tasks are performed is also important. The implications of these results for response styles theory are discussed.
Worry and depressive rumination have both been described as unproductive, repetitive thought which contributes to anxiety or depression, respectively. It was hypothesized that repetitive thought, rather than its specific forms, is a general concomitant of negative mood. Study 1 was a cross-sectional test of the hypothesis. Repetitive thought was positively correlated with anxiety and depression in students (n = 110). In patients (n = 40), repetitive thought was positively correlated with anxiety and depression, and rumination was also specifically correlated with depression. Study 2 was a prospective test of the hypothesis. In students (n = 90), there were significant cross-sectional relationships between repetitive thought and both anxiety and depression. In addition, repetitive thought at least partially predicted maintenance of anxious symptoms. Phenomena such as goal interruption, failures of emotional processing, and information processing may lead to repetitive thought which increases negative mood states, including both anxiety and depression.
It is proposed here that distorted views of self may arise and be maintained by certain social cognitions and perceptions. In particular, social comparison processes are identified as potentially important links between the social environment and evaluations of self. Social comparisons can provide much useful information to an individual, but under some circumstances, may also be very damaging. As such, several components of the social comparison process are identified to determine possible individual differences which may constitute a predisposition to chronic negative self-evaluations. Of particular importance are characteristics of the self which may render social comparisons a threatening activity. Also examined are the kinds of attributes or dimensions chosen for comparison, and the nature of the reference others selected. Preliminary evidence is then presented which suggests that depressed individuals, and individuals thought to be at increased risk for developing depressive symptoms, may exhibit differences along these social comparison dimensions. These differences are further discussed in terms of their potential role in maintaining negative self-evaluations in individuals already depressed, and in giving rise to negative self-evaluations in proposed at-risk individuals. Finally, a cognitive vulnerability model of depression is presented to highlight the potentially important role of social comparison processes in both the etiology and maintenance of depression.
Response styles theory (Nolen-Hoeksema, 1987)provided the impetus for recent research effortsinvestigating the effects of rumination and distractionon depressed mood. This study elaborates on previous research by examining the sequential effects ofengaging in ruminating and distracting tasks. Resultsfrom two studies indicated that initially engaging in aruminating task maintained postinduction levels of dysphoric mood, whereas initially engagingin a distracting task reduced levels of dysphoric mood.More important, however, were the effects of task orderon mood. When participants engaged in a distracting taskfollowing aruminating task, dysphoric mood, which had been maintainedwith a ruminating task, was reduced to premoodinductionlevels. Of equal importance, individuals who ruminatedafter distracting maintained their current mood and did not report an increase in depressedmood. In the second study, engaging in sequentialrumination tasks further prolonged depressed mood,whereas engaging in sequential distraction tasks reduceddepressed mood. The results suggest that, althoughengaging in a rumination task maintains depressed moodand engaging in a distraction task reduces it, the orderin which these tasks are performed is also important. The implications of these results for responsestyles theory are discussed.
This paper describes the development of a social comparison scale using the semantic differential approach. It also explores the relationship between this social comparison scale and psychopathology. The dimensions of social comparison measured here are derived from evolution theory and focus primarily on judgements of social rank, judgements of relative attractiveness and judgements of group fit. The factor structure of the scale appears consistent with theoretical predictions. Evidence suggests that social rank and attractiveness dimensions may be more salient for a clinical group, while group fit judgements become less important.
This study explores the associations between shame, depression and social anxiety from the perspective of social rank theory (Price and Sloman, 1987; Gilbert, 1989, 1992). Social rank theory argues that emotions and moods are significantly influenced by the perceptions of one's social status/rank; that is the degree to which one feels inferior to others and looked down on. A common outcome of such perceptions is submissive behavior. It is suggested that shame, social anxiety and depression are all related to defensive submissive strategies when individuals find themselves placed in unwanted low status/rank positions. In this study 109 students and 50 depressed patients filled in a battery of self-report questionnaires designed to measure varied aspects of shame, guilt, pride, social anxiety, depression, and social rank (inferiority self-perceptions and submissive behaviour). Results confirm that shame, social anxiety and depression (but not guilt) are highly related to feeling inferior and to submissive behaviour. It is suggested therefore that an understanding of the defensive behaviours of animals and humans who are located in unwanted subordinate positions may throw light on the underlying psychobiological mechanisms of these varied pathologies. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
The CES-D scale is a short self-report scale designed to measure depressive symptomatology in the general population. The items of the scale are symptoms associated with depression which have been used in previously validated longer scales. The new scale was tested in household interview surveys and in psychiatric settings. It was found to have very high internal consistency and adequate test- retest repeatability. Validity was established by pat terns of correlations with other self-report measures, by correlations with clinical ratings of depression, and by relationships with other variables which support its construct validity. Reliability, validity, and factor structure were similar across a wide variety of demographic characteristics in the general population samples tested. The scale should be a useful tool for epidemiologic studies of de pression.
The high prevalence of depressive disorder in women is well established. However, it has not been convincingly explained. This reflects a more general failure of research to provide a comprehensive aetiological account of depression. The examination of the sex difference can be used as a probe to evaluate how far we have gone in substantiating integrated models of depressive disorder. In this paper, I review several lines of investigation in order to assess the relative importance of social, psychological and biological influences on the sex difference in depression. These include the epidemiology of macrosocial variables and age effects, and the exploration of relevant psychological attributes, including temperament, personality, and attributional and coping styles. We must also consider the experience of psychosocial adversity, and in particular the possibility of an increased susceptibility of women to some forms of stress. Both the tendency to affiliation and the requirement for social support seem stronger in women. There is appreciable direct and indirect evidence that the particular strains of the roles available to women may increase their risk of depression. Biological explanations tend to be couched in hormonal terms. However, the most convincing hormonal correlates of depressive disorder relate not to sex hormones but to corticosteroids and their control mechanisms. These do not appear to differ by sex. However, the greatest problem for biological explanations of the sex difference lies in the failure of genetic models to account for it. It is hard to conceive of a biological substrate unaffected by genetic factors. Thus, while there seems no doubt that biological factors are involved in the emergence of depressive disorder, they do not appear to be responsible for the sex difference. All told, the evidence for environmental effects is much better for social than for physical factors, and a plausible case can be made for a developmental perspective involving the interaction of social experience and psychological attributes.
This study of 35 depressed patients was designed to replicate findings from a community sample of a relationship between childhood abuse and bodily shame, and bodily shame and chronic or recurrent depression. In addition, we investigated whether characterological and behavioural shame would also be related to early abuse and depression course. The relation between bodily shame and childhood abuse was replicated. When the other types of shame were considered, bodily shame was the most powerful correlate of early abuse, with behavioural shame showing no relationship. However, all three types of shame appeared to be related to chronic or recurrent course of depression.
The relationship between shame measures, in particular the Other As Shamer Scale (OAS), and self-report measures of psychopathology was explored in a non-clinical population. Results indicate that beliefs about negative evaluations by others is associated with measures of clinical relevance. Additionally, shame scales which tap into global negative beliefs, including the OAS, are more strongly associated with measures of psychopathology than scales which focus on shame responses to specific events.
In this book Ian Gotlib and Constance Hammen provide the most up-to-date and comprehensive review of the psychological literature on depression currently available in a single volume. They bring together the literature examining cognitive functioning of depressed persons, and also review the social context of depression, including early experience, social support, marital functioning, and the adjustment of children of depressed parents. The authors also present the most recent information on cognitive and interpersonal treatments for depression. They draw on the research outlined in the book to present a conceptualization of depression that integrates cognitive and interpersonal factors into a comprehensive framework.
This book will be an invaluable resource for practitioners, researchers and students in a wide range of professions involved in the care of depressed people—clinical psychologists, psychiatrists, psychiatric nurses, social workers and many others. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
there is converging theoretical and empirical evidence that shame and guilt have important and very different implications for subsequent motivation and interpersonal functioning / focuses on this . . . set of interpersonal issues related to shame and guilt / provide an overview of the nature of shame and guilt experiences, highlighting key similarities and key differences between these 2 frequently confused emotions / review recent phenomenological and personality studies, which indicate that shame and guilt are differentially related to a range of motivational and interpersonal features / these include a tendency toward reparative behavior vs avoidance, interpersonal empathy, and people's characteristic anger management strategies in everyday contexts (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Explores some of the components of shame, with a special focus on shame emotions and cognitions, and shame proneness. The chapter attempts to draw attention to overlapping areas of psychological theory and research; for example, the complexity of the cognition–emotion interface. It is suggested that shame researchers and theorists may be in danger of creating yet another subdivision within psychology with its own key concepts and literature, and with a risk of becoming detached from closely related fields. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Thirty-four people referred to an NHS psychotherapy department were given a modified form of Oatley and Duncan's (1992) emotion diary which included questions about whether each recorded emotion had been subsequently disclosed to anyone (for example a partner, friend or professional). One week later the diaries were collected and participants interviewed. Interviews focused, among other things, on reasons for non-disclosure of recorded emotional experiences and the relationship between shame and non-disclosure. The results indicated that a majority of the emotional incidents recorded in the diaries were not disclosed (68%). This result contrasts with studies on non-clinical samples in which only approximately 10% of everyday emotions are kept secret. Qualitative analysis of the interview data revealed that participants appeared to be habitual non-disclosers of emotional and personal experiences and that non-disclosure was related to the anticipation of negative interpersonal responses to disclosure (in particular labelling and judging responses) in addition to more self-critical factors including shame. It is suggested that these results add to the existing literature on shame by illustrating the interpersonal effects of shame in a clinical sample.
There is growing interest in the association of shame with various personality traits and psychopathology. This study modified a self-report measure to focus upon beliefs about how others evaluate the self (the “Other As Shamer” scale) and explore its correlations with other measures of shame. An initial analysis of the scale indicates satisfactory reliability and a three factor structure, with one factor called ‘inferiority’ accounting for the largest proportion of the variance. Results support the view that shame involves both self-evaluations and beliefs about how the self is judged by others.
Dysphoric people who ruminate about their negative mood experience longer and more intense depressive episodes, yet often persist in ruminating. This study investigated whether a ruminative coping style would be related to a cognitive style marked by perseveration and inflexibility. We examined the performance of ruminators and nonruminators on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST), a measure of cognitive flexibility, and tasks measuring related cognitive processes. Ruminators committed significantly more perseverative errors and failed to maintain set significantly more often than nonruminators on the WCST. On an advanced section of the WCST designed for this study, male ruminators exhibited significantly greater inflexibility than male nonruminators. These effects could not be attributed to differences in general intelligence or the presence of depressed mood. Results suggest that rumination may be characterized by, and perhaps prolonged by, an inflexible cognitive style. Peer Reviewed http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/44338/1/10608_2004_Article_227193.pdf
Peer Reviewed http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/26410/1/0000497.pdf
I propose that the ways people respond to their own symptoms of depression influence the duration of these symptoms. People who engage in ruminative responses to depression, focusing on their symptoms and the possible causes and consequences of their symptoms, will show longer depressions than people who take action to distract themselves from their symptoms. Ruminative responses prolong depression because they allow the depressed mood to negatively bias thinking and interfere with instrumental behavior and problem-solving. Laboratory and field studies directly testing this theory have supported its predictions. I discuss how response styles can explain the greater likelihood of depression in women than men. Then I intergrate this response styles theory with studies of coping with discrete events. The response styles theory is compared to other theories of the duration of depression. Finally, I suggest what may help a depressed person to stop engaging in ruminative responses and how response styles for depression may develop.
Although shame and guilt are prominently cited in theories of moral behaviour and psychopathology, surprisingly little research has considered these emotions. A key factor hindering research in this area has been a need for psychometrically sound measures of shame and guilt. Fortunately, a number of new measures have been developed in recent years. In this article, I describe the current status of the assessment of these long-neglected emotions, highlighting both conceptual and methodological issues that arise in the measurement of shame and guilt. I begin with a discussion of several definitions of and distinctions between shame and guilt, summarizing the degree to which these alternative conceptualizations have been empirically supported. This background is important when evaluating the relative strengths and weaknesses of a given measurement strategy (e.g. the degree to which a strategy is grounded in a sound conceptual framework). I then describe specific measures of shame and guilt, including dispositional measures (i.e. assessing individual differences in proneness to shame and proneness to guilt across situations) and state measures (i.e. assessing feelings of shame and guilt in the moment), offering my observations on their respective strengths and weaknesses and some suggestions for future measurement development.
A variety of behaviours have been identified as submissive (Buss & Craik, 1986). These are believed to be associated with vulnerability to psychopathology. This paper explores the construct and measurement of submissive behaviours and their association with psychopathology.
Two self-report scales were designed to measure the frequencies of (a) typical submissive behaviours (SBS) and (b) passive/withdrawal and affiliative strategies focused on conflict de-escalation (CDS). The association of these scales with psychopathology was explored in a series of questionnaire studies.
Study 1 assessed the SBS using a student sample (N = 332) and a mixed clinical group (N = 136). Of these, 177 students and 66 patients also completed the SCL-90-R. In Studies 2 and 3, the CDS and its association with depressive symptoms were assessed using a student sample (N = 154) and a depressed patient group (N = 60).
The SBS and CDS appeared reliable. There was a positive relationship between the SBS and the SCL-90-R, including interpersonal sensitivity and unexpressed hostility. The passive/withdrawal subscale of the CDS was associated with depressive symptoms. Evidence was obtained for sex differences with the affiliative subscale.
Some forms of submissive behaviour, especially those associated with passive/withdrawal and inhibition, are associated with a wide range of psychological problems.
It was hypothesized that women are more vulnerable to depressive symptoms than men because they are more likely to experience chronic negative circumstances (or strain), to have a low sense of mastery, and to engage in ruminative coping. The hypotheses were tested in a 2-wave study of approximately 1,100 community-based adults who were 25 to 75 years old. Chronic strain, low mastery, and rumination were each more common in women than in men and mediated the gender difference in depressive symptoms. Rumination amplified the effects of mastery and, to some extent, chronic strain on depressive symptoms. In addition, chronic strain and rumination had reciprocal effects on each other over time, and low mastery also contributed to more rumination. Finally, depressive symptoms contributed to more rumination and less mastery over time.
To investigate whether previous findings from interview studies of a prospective relationship between shame and psychopathology (e.g. Andrews, 1995) could be replicated using questionnaires.
A total of 163 university students participated in a longitudinal questionnaire study.
The Experience of Shame Scale (ESS), a questionnaire based on a previous interview measure, and an established shame scale (TOSCA), were considered in their relation to depressive symptoms assessed at two time points 11 weeks apart.
Both scales made significant independent contributions to depressive symptoms at time 1. However, only the ESS predicted additional significant variance in time 2 symptoms when time 1 symptoms were controlled.
It was concluded that the reason for the differential performance of the two scales was that the ESS, like the shame interview, assesses specific areas of shame related to self and performance, whereas the TOSCA assesses general shame and may therefore be more prone to mood-state effects.
Anxiety disorders and phobias: a cognitive approach
- A T Beck
- G Emery
- R L Greenberg
Beck, A. T., Emery, G., & Greenberg, R. L. (1985). Anxiety disorders and phobias: a cognitive approach. New York:
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Body shame: A biopsychosocial conceptualisation and overview, with treatment implications
- Gilbert
Gilbert, P. (2002). Body shame: A biopsychosocial conceptualisation and overview, with treatment implications. In
P. Gilbert, & J. Miles (Eds.), Body shame: conceptualisation, research and treatment (pp. 3-54). Hove: Brunner-Routledge.
Methodological and definitional issues in shame research Shame: interpersonal behaviour, psychopathology and culture (pp. 39–54)
- B M Andrews
- S.-P Cheung
Andrews, B. (1998). Methodological and definitional issues in shame research. In P. Gilbert, & B. Andrews (Eds.), Shame: interpersonal behaviour, psychopathology and culture (pp. 39–54). New York: Oxford University Press. M.S.-P. Cheung et al. / Personality and Individual Differences 36 (2004) 1143–1153
Acts, dispositions and clinical assessment
- Buss
The phenomenology of shame and guilt
- Gilbert
Why ruminators are poor problem solvers
- Lyubomirsky