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Farm characteristics in Slovene wolf habitat related to attacks on sheep

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... Electric fencing is the most effective measure for protecting livestock against wolf attacks (Ansorge and Balzer, 2019;Levin, 2000;Wam et al., 2004). The recommended heights of electric fences vary among studies, ranging from 90 to 150 cm (Levin, 2000;LfULG -Fachstelle Wolf, 2020;Reinhardt et al., 2012;Van Liere et al., 2013;Wam et al., 2004). All other forms of fencing (wooden fences and wire mesh fences) are considered less effective (Bruns et al., 2000). ...
... However, the effectiveness of livestock guarding dogs (LGD) remains unclear. Some studies have concluded that LGD do not have an additional protective effect (Van Liere et al., 2013), whereas others have demonstrated an additional protective effect (Ansorge and Balzer, 2019;Espuno et al., 2004;Iliopoulos et al., 2009;Reinhardt et al., 2012). Some livestock farmers also use other impediments such as visual, acoustic, and sensory preventives, including colourful bands , unusual sounds (Smith et al., 2000), electric collars on wolves (Hawley et al., 2009) and rubber bullets (Bangs et al., 2005). ...
... Whether a large herd favours attacks (Kaartinen et al., 2009) or prevents attacks on livestock (Janeiro-Otero et al., 2020;Kaczensky et al., 2009;Wam et al., 2004) remains unclear. Studies from Baltic countries found no correlation between herd size and attack rate but observed increased damage for larger herds (Nowak et al., 2005;Rigg et al., 2011;Van Liere et al., 2013). Regarding environmental factors, both direct and indirect effects on livestock safety have been reported, such as shrubs and steep terrain, which impede the installation of effective fences (Espuno et al., 2004). ...
... In Slovenia, sustainable livestock production in mountainous/hilly perennial grasslands with shallow soil of poor quality (Dinaric Karst area) is mainly limited to sheep and goat farming, which is also the main Slovenian habitat for wolves [37]. Small ruminants are usually pastured near forest edges, where wolves reside, further increasing the risk of attacks on livestock. ...
... Small ruminants are usually pastured near forest edges, where wolves reside, further increasing the risk of attacks on livestock. The wolf density in Slovenia of 1 wolf/100 km 2 is considered low, but as the population increases, the number of attacks on sheep also increases [37]. Domestic livestock represents 10% of the wolves' diet [38], which could serve as an entry point for a possible reinstation of EGsl from the domestic to a semi-domestic and sylvatic life cycle. ...
... In our study, the prevalence of EM did not differ between animal species (red fox vs. golden jackal), which is consistent with previous published studies from Hungary and Serbia [28,44,45]. This suggests that red fox and golden jackal have similar feeding behavior, with the main prey being small mammals (rodents), while wolves in Slovenia feed mainly on cervids, wild boar, and small domestic ruminants [28,37,38,44]. The pooled prevalence in the European wolf population is 1.4% [16], so it is not surprising, that no wolf in this study tested positive for EM. ...
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Wild carnivores are definitive hosts and potential reservoirs for the tapeworm Echinococcus sp. which can cause cystic and alveolar echinococcosis. Both are considered neglected and important food-borne pandemics. This study is the first to molecularly test Slovenian wild carnivores for Echinococcus species that can cause disease in humans. Fecal samples from 210 red foxes (Vulpes vulpes), 42 wolves (Canis lupus), 39 golden jackals (Canis aureus), 18 martens (Marten sp.), 2 Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx), 2 European badger (Meles meles), and 1 Eurasian otter (Lutra lutra) were examined for Echinococcus granulosus sensu lato (EGsl: E. granulosus sensu stricto, E. canadensis) and E. multilocularis (EM) using real-time PCR. Red foxes (29.1%) and golden jackals (18%) were positive for EM. All animals examined were negative for EGsl. Univariate analysis showed no significant differences in EM prevalence with respect to animal species (red fox vs., golden jackal) (p = 0.22), age (p = 0.12), and sex (p = 0.18). Prevalence of EM was associated with the region (p < 0.001), with regions in central and southern Slovenia having higher EM prevalence and risk of infection. Due to the increase in population and expansion of habitat, the golden jackal may soon become as important definitive host for EM as the red fox.
... Thus, the availability of sheep cannot explain why there are loners that do not kill sheep. Other researchers also showed that prey preference cannot be fully explained by availability [8,35,[101][102][103][104][105][106]. Therefore, prey preference is apparently not merely a matter of stochastic laws. ...
... As a consequence, prevention measures may be taken ad hoc, too late, and only after kills of farm animals have taken place. In addition, parent packs may have learnt to overcome prevention measures, such as electric fences [106], for instance by jumping over them. Young wolves may therefore have also learnt to overcome (electric) fences. ...
... Thus, in particular, herds near the pack should be properly protected. However, current methods such as electric fences and guarding dogs are not always effective or possible [106]. Therefore, additional methods need to be developed. ...
Article
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Transmission of experience about prey and habitat supports the survival of next generation of wolves. Thus, the parent pack (PP) can affect whether young migrating wolves (loners) kill farm animals or choose to be in human environments, which generates human–wolf conflicts. Therefore, we researched whether the behavior of loners resembles PP behavior. After being extinct, 22 loners had entered the Netherlands between 2015 and 2019. Among them, 14 could be DNA-identified and linked with their PPs in Germany. Some loners were siblings. We assessed the behavior of each individual and PP through a structured Google search. PP behavior was determined for the loner’s rearing period. Similarity between loner and PP behavior was significant (p = 0.022) and applied to 10 of 14 cases: like their PPs, three loners killed sheep and were near humans, five killed sheep and did not approach humans, while two loners were unproblematic, they did not kill sheep, nor were they near humans. Siblings behaved similarly. Thus, sheep killing and proximity to humans may develop during early-life experiences in the PP. However, by negative reinforcement that can be prevented. New methods are suggested to achieve that. As a result, new generations may not be problematic when leaving PPs.
... Usually, predation upon domestic ungulates is concentrated in the months in which the animals are present in the pasture areas (MECH & BOITANI 2003a;TROPINI 2005); however, various factors can contribute to the pronounced seasonality of the attacks (CIUCCI & BOITANI 2005). The damages to sheep occur predominantly in late summer and early autumn, usually between the months of August and October (MERIGGI et al. 1991CIUCCI & BOITANI 2005); however, VAN LIERE et al. (2013) found in Slovenia a bimodal distribution, with a first peak in early summer and a second peak in October. For cattle, the risk of predation is higher during May and June and decreases rapidly in the following months. ...
... It is therefore necessary that the limited resources available are directed exclusively towards the pastures that have a high risk of predation. The different grazing areas have varying degrees of predation risk depending on both management and environmental factors (MERIGGI & LOVARI 1996;VOS 2000;MECH & BOITANI 2003a;ESPUNO et al. 2004;TREVES et al. 2004;EDGE et al. 2011; VAN LIERE et al. 2013). From the point of view of the type of breeding, there are several factors that affect the frequency of attacks by wolves, such as the species reared and the age of grazing animals (MERIGGI et al. 2011). ...
... Some management decisions seem to increase the risk of predation: the lack of supervision of free-grazing herds, the lack of a sufficient number of guard dogs, and births asynchronous with a prolonged season, especially if these occur in the absence of control and protection (FRITTS et al. 1992;PAUL & GIPSON 1994;ESPUNO et al. 2004;CIUCCI & BOITANI 2005;EDGE et al. 2011). Even some environmental characteristics may increase the frequency of attacks, such as high forest cover and the presence of shrub in the grazing areas (FRITTS et al. 1992;MECH et al. 2000;KAARTINEN et al. 2009; VAN LIERE et al. 2013). ...
Article
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Mortality due to illegal killing is still today one of the main threats to wolf conservation, and an effective management of the conflict between wolf presence and husbandry is a key element for species conservation. The research was aimed at identifying the farm characteristics and the environmental factors that influence predation, and at formulating predictive models of predation risk. We collected and analysed the data on official predation events that occurred during the period 2005–2012 in an area of the northern Apennines, and on the characteristics of livestock farms recorded at the veterinary services. Furthermore, we mapped the grazing areas used by livestock farms and measured 23 variables of the pastures. Our results showed that the majority of predation events were upon cattle, and that grazing management significantly influences the number of predation events. In particular, the pastures that suffered predation were those in which births occur directly on the pasture, those that had at least one period of free grazing during the year, and cattle farms that were lacking in any preventive methods. The number of killed animals per event was higher for sheep than for cattle and goats and increased progressively during the study period. Predation risk increases if the farms practice free grazing at least for a period during the year, if they are not protected by any preventive method and if the degree of surveillance is regular or constant. The risk of predation also increases with the increasing complexity of pasture shape, the decrease in the percentage of coniferous forest and if the pasture is exposed to the north. The model of predation risk showed that 56.6% of the pastures in the study area are potentially exposed to wolf predation, and it allowed us to identify the grazing areas where it is worthwhile intervening with preventive methods.
... The development of foraging routines in wolves is recognized from their use of specific travel routes within their territories, linked to successful past hunting experience (Mech and Boitani, 2003). This might explain the observation that the same sheep farms are repeatedly attacked (e. g. van Liere et al., 2013). ...
... The chances that predators will detect the new site depend on several factors including the senses they use to locate potential prey and what (if any) management actions have been taken to obscure tell-tale signs. For instance, up-wind location of a flock of sheep and the presence of goats increase the chance of wolf attacks because of the wolf 's use of sound and smell (van Liere et al., 2013). ...
Article
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The full article is available in issue 20 of Carnivore Damage Prevention News: http://www.protectiondestroupeaux.ch/fileadmin/doc/International/CDP_and_General_Infos/CDPNews20_Nov2020.pdf
... Husbandry practices represent some of the most successful approaches to reduce depredations when and if they can be implemented. These include confining livestock during birthing activities (Robel et al. 1981;Oakleaf, Mack and Murray 2003); separating and protecting lambs, including shed lambing and night corrals (Rigg et al. 2011;van Liere et al. 2013); delaying turnout on open range for cow-calf pairs (Oakleaf, Mack and Murray 2003); reducing the availability of water/sources where not needed; shepherding or herder presence on open range systems (Bangs et al. 2006;Stone et al. 2008); maintaining pastures away from native herbivores and wooded areas and dingo denning sites (Treves et al. 2004); selecting stock with predator defences (Linnell et al. 1996), and appropriate and expeditious carcass disposal (Robel et al. 1981;Rigg et al. 2011;van Liere et al. 2013). ...
... Husbandry practices represent some of the most successful approaches to reduce depredations when and if they can be implemented. These include confining livestock during birthing activities (Robel et al. 1981;Oakleaf, Mack and Murray 2003); separating and protecting lambs, including shed lambing and night corrals (Rigg et al. 2011;van Liere et al. 2013); delaying turnout on open range for cow-calf pairs (Oakleaf, Mack and Murray 2003); reducing the availability of water/sources where not needed; shepherding or herder presence on open range systems (Bangs et al. 2006;Stone et al. 2008); maintaining pastures away from native herbivores and wooded areas and dingo denning sites (Treves et al. 2004); selecting stock with predator defences (Linnell et al. 1996), and appropriate and expeditious carcass disposal (Robel et al. 1981;Rigg et al. 2011;van Liere et al. 2013). ...
Article
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Where wild carnivores such as the Australian dingo interact with and impact on livestock enterprises, lethal control and landscape-scale exclusion are commonly employed. However, interest in alternative non-lethal management approaches has recently increased. This is evidenced by several reviews of non-lethal methods that can be said to be working toward improved coexistence. Nevertheless, and despite centuries of conflict, our non-lethal human-wildlife coexistence toolkit remains remarkably deficient. Innovation and evaluation of non-lethal methods should be prioritised to ensure that the economic, ecological, cultural and intrinsic values of dingoes are retained, while minimising the economic and emotional costs of conflict with livestock producers. In this paper we summarise some of the practical tools that might be effective in relation to the dingo, particularly those yet to be formally investigated, and discuss some of the possible hurdles to implementation. We conclude by suggesting pathways for human-dingo coexistence, and the steps necessary for appropriately evaluating non-lethal tools.
... Recent data indicate that the Slovenian grey wolf population has increased from 34-42 in 2010/2011 to 120 (106-147) individuals in 2020/2021 and an expansion of its territory has been observed, which is to be expected as the grey wolf in Slovenia is part of a large and viable Dinaric Balkan population. [22,45,46]. As expected, all N. caninum-positive grey wolves in our study originated from the Dinaric karst region or its vicinity (regions R3 and R6 in this study, Figure 1), where the highest grey wolf population densities in Slovenia have been recorded [45]. ...
Article
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Neospora caninum is an obligate intracellular parasite that causes reproductive disorders and major economic losses in cattle, and induces neuromuscular disorders in canids. Exogenous infections are becoming increasingly important due to disease outbreaks. The sylvatic life cycle of N. caninum interferes with the domestic dog-ruminant life cycle, but understanding of it is scarce. The population of wild canids may play an important role in parasite dispersion. Feces from 42 grey wolves (Canis lupus) and 39 golden jackals (Canis aureus) were analyzed for the N. caninum Nc5 gene using a novel real-time PCR (qPCR) with a detection limit of 5 targets/µL in clinical samples. Three wolves (3/42; 7.1%) and one golden jackal (1/39; 2.6%) tested positive, which is the first detection of N. caninum in the population of grey wolves in Slovenia and the first detection of N. caninum DNA in the feces of a golden jackal. In addition to the grey wolf, we propose the golden jackal as a potential definitive host with hypothetical epidemiological importance for the sylvatic-domestic life cycle of N. caninum, due to its proximity to human habitats and its rapid expansion throughout Europe.
... Stone et al. [41], in Idaho, compared two areas, one without prevention measures and the other with, and confirmed the clear difference in predation rates in favor of the effectiveness of preventive works. The above data confirm the theory described in this study, and in other studies such as Ambarli [42] and Van Liere et al. [43] conducted in Turkey and Slovenia, which focused on the ineffectiveness of preventive measures. These data show that the success and effectiveness of prevention measures are always closely correlated and interconnected with the environmental, socio-cultural, and geographical context in which they are applied. ...
Article
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Compensation programs are an important tool for mitigating conflicts between farmers and large predators. However, they present significant weaknesses and faults. For years, the EU has been prioritizing programs for the prevention of damage caused by large carnivores, rather than compensation programs, introducing compulsory compensation for the purposes of decision EC (2019) 772 of 29/01/19. This manuscript reports the experience with the wolf damage prevention programs in an Italian region, Emilia-Romagna, which implemented a pilot project, adopting a new method to interface with the farmers involved in the prevention programs. Methods: Starting in 2014, a project aimed at spreading prevention measures was financed through regional and European resources, accompanied by resources sharing and technical assistance with breeders from the regional body. In detail, (i) standardized types of intervention were defined and technical assistance was structured; (ii) ex post, the effectiveness of the interventions carried out was assessed; and (iii) the difficulties encountered in using the various financing instruments were analyzed. Results: Overall, 298 farms were analyzed, of which 166 applied for regional calls and 132 applied for European funds. The mitigation measures produced a reduction in predatory phenomena of 93.4%, i.e., from 528 to 35 predations over a period of 4–6 years. This study shows that more than one-third of the farmers were forced to abandon the two tenders, mainly due to the lack of liquidity in anticipating the prevention measures. Conclusion: In the years examined by this study, the prevention programs in the Emilia-Romagna region, due to the technical support offered, proved to be a functional and effective tool, capable of significantly reducing the wolf predation on livestock. However, this work highlights the high percentage of denials of mitigation measures by farmers interested in adopting these tools, stressing the need for regional agencies to focus on new policies that can provide advance economic resources to farmers and solve the authorization problems related to the various bodies with which the participant in the tenders must interface.
... If, however, the sheep stampede at night, the fence may be easily torn. Based on the research by van Liere et al. (2013), there have been no significant differences in the frequency of attacks between the farmers using electric fences and the farmers with ordinary fencing of their grasslands. The views saying that having a sheepdog fully suffices for guarding the herds represent the simplifying and one-size-fits-all approach. ...
Article
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Expansion of the wolf in the Czech Republic results in an increasing conflict between nature conservationists and other landscape users. In March 2020, the Ministry of the Environment of the Czech Republic issued the "Wolf Management Programme". The document provoked negative reactions from organisations of farmers, breeders, and hunters. The article deals with the key issues triggered by the conflict and the attitudes of actors involved. We want to clarify to what extent the solutions designed by individual parties help to mitigate the conflict and how the financial demands related to this issue have been evolving. The problem may seem marginal in the Czech Republic, but the wolf population density in some regions may already be close to its bearable maximum. Key problems are the identification of specific target numbers of wolves, the absence of zoning as a future option, and clear rules for dealing with direct encounters of wolves with humans. The benefit of wolf management is primarily the sum of preventive measures it aims to address, but the relationship with other main actors and the area of education and promotion is debatable as it represents a further increase in the absorption of public funds without guarantees of effectiveness.
... These facts might explain why we recorded no lethal encounters during our nocturnal observations and it would be interesting to monitor whether lethal encounters start emerging when/if wolf packs become larger. Wolves killing dogs, including livestock guarding dogs, even if rarely intense, is widespread (Bangs et al. 2005, Mertens & Schneider 2005, Lescureux & Linnell 2014, notably when dogs are outnumbered by wolves (Ciucci & Boitani 1998, Iliopoulos et al. 2009, van Liere et al. 2013. Such extreme interactions might damage the perception of wolves and discourage farmers from getting more livestock guarding dogs, which could threaten the coexistence between farming activities and wolf conservation (Skogen & Krange 2003, Lescureux & Linnell 2014. ...
Article
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Thirty years after the return of grey wolves (Canis lupus) to the French Alps, the number of livestock losses is on the rise despite livestock guarding dogs (LGDs) being widely used. Their relevance is, therefore, questioned by some sheep owner associations. To date, no study has investigated how LGDs interact with wolves in pastures. We present the results of a 6-year study totalling 3,300 hours of direct night-time observations to record the nature, frequency and outcomes of LGD-wolf interactions in the southern French Alps. We recorded 476 wolf events in the presence of LGDs, including 175 interactions, 66% of which were agonistic. Most (65%) of the interactions occurred at a distance > 100 m from the flock and on average involved more LGDs than wolves. In the presence of LGDs, wolves approached the flocks 134 times resulting in no attack (65%), attacks with no sheep victim (24.6%), or attacks with ≥ 1 sheep victim (10.4%). Our results suggest that LGD-wolf interactions are complex and do not simply occur in the immediate vicinity of the flock. We recommend using groups > 6 LGDs and reinforcing the presence of LGDs in a wider radius around the flock to limit the presence of isolated groups of sheep and to improve protection against wolf attacks.
... However, multiple studies have demonstrated problems with poor designs, incorrect construction and poor maintenance of fences Wam et al. 2003) indicating that it is crucial to provide technical assistance to farmers to ensure that fences are correctly constructed and maintained. Additional safety can be obtained if livestock are brought indoors at night or are placed in an even more securely constructed night-time enclosure because most attacks occur at night (Mattiello et al. 2012;Stoynov et al. 2014;van Liere et al. 2013). ...
Technical Report
This study surveys the current status of large carnivores in Europe and assesses their impact on livestock from the available data on compensation payments and from field research. Recommendations on livestock protection measures are provided, as well as on the integration of these into locally adapted holistic management systems.
... Both the behavior and biology of the species being managed needs to be fully understood and then non-lethal control methods can be effectively employed [118]. A study of sheep farms in Slovenia found that 78% of wolf attacks took place at night showing the importance of understanding wolf behavior and the necessity of protecting livestock at night [119]. ...
Article
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The control of predators, on land and in the sea, is a complex topic. Both marine and terrestrial mammal predators come into conflict with humans in Europe in many ways and yet their situations are rarely compared. Areas of conflict include the predation of livestock and farmed fish, and the perceived competition for wild prey (for example wolves competing with hunters for deer and seals competing with fishermen for salmon). A lethal method (shooting) and non-lethal methods of conflict reduction (including enclosures, guarding, and aversion) used for terrestrial large carnivores (e.g., bear, wolf, wolverine, lynx) and marine mammals (seals) are discussed. Control measures tend to be species- and habitat-specific, although shooting is a widely used method. Potential impacts on predator welfare are described and welfare assessments which have been developed for other wildlife control scenarios, e.g., control of introduced species, are considered for their potential use in assessing predator control. Such assessments should be applied before control methods are chosen so that decisions prioritizing animal welfare can be made. Further work needs to be carried out to achieve appropriate and widely-accepted animal welfare assessment approaches and these should be included in predator management planning. Future research should include further sharing of approaches and information between terrestrial and marine specialists to help ensure that animal welfare is prioritized.
... De nombreux auteurs se sont par ailleurs intéressés aux outils zootechniques permettant de limiter l'impact des prédateurs. Si certaines études se penchent sur l'efficacité des mesures de protection des troupeaux, telles que la présence du berger, des chiens et de parcs de nuit (Andelt et al., 1999;Eklund et al., 2017;Gehring et al., 2010;Huygens and Hayashi, 1999;Miller et al., 2016;Poinsot, 2009;van Liere et al., 2013;Wam et al., 2004), d'autres se focalisent plutôt sur le contrôle direct du prédateur : tires létaux ( Hawley et al., 2009;Parmely et al., 1989;Rossler et al., 2012;Shivik, 2004), relocalisation d'individus à problèmes (Armistead et al., 1994;Blanchard and Knight, 1995;Bradley et al., 2005;Campbell, 1999;Linnell et al., 1997;Mansfield, 1988;Shivik, 2004), mise en place de site de nourrissage (Boertje, 1992;Kavčič et al., 2013;Shivik, 2004;Ziegltrum, 1994) ou encore marquage territorial (Ausband et al., 2013). ...
Technical Report
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While nature and culture can no longer be thought independently, the return of large carnivores in Europe, particularly in France, challenge our ability to coexist with other living beings. From this perspective, understanding how human and non-human interact in a given space according to a specific relationship is a major challenge. The present exploratory research project seeks to understand interactions between the brown bear and extensive sheep farming in the French Pyrenees. Combining environmental anthropology and behavioral ecology at once, this action-oriented research focuses specifically on the mountain pasture of Ourdouas, a 850 hectares’ territory in the heart of the Biros valley, in the Ariège district (France). Two complementary methodologies have been implemented throughout 2019: on the one hand, participant observation and semi-structured interviews with pastoralists allowed us to carry through an ethnography of herding practices in the area; on the other hand, setting about thirty cameras provided data to evaluate bear visits on the mountain pastures. Several aspects constrain spatiotemporal use of mountain pastures by pastoralists: grass quality, meteorological elements, presence of water, topography and landscape restrictions, as well as gregarious behavior of sheep. Bear presence is entangled in these elements bringing complexity to shepherd’s decision-making regarding herding practices. Gathered data suggests that bears privilege certain areas and certain periods. Specifically, while bear visits tend to occur in the upper part of the pasture and peak visits ensue around the month of August, collected data suggests an absence of visits at the end of the season. Herd protection is complex and responds to specific micro-local factors to the area of research. On the one hand, the lower part of the pastures seems to be effectively protected by the complementary presence of the shepherd, the electrified fence and protection dogs. On the other hand, the upper part has shown a greater difficulty in grouping the herd due to the distance at which the shepherd's hut is located and the topographic conditions, thus increasing the risk of predation in this area. This analysis allows us to show how bears and humans interact within the same territory and maintain a unique relationship, specific to these mountain pastures, while developing a "negotiation" between the parties. Understanding the circumstances and details of this relationship is an important challenge in our future research. On the one hand, there is a need for understanding the complexity of factors influencing decision-making by pastoralists. On the other hand, it is urgent to better understand the behavior of the bear, particularly in relation with the protection measures implemented.
... Potentially, dogs are expected to be more effective in protecting sheep and goats grazing in compact flocks than cattle which usually disperse. Also, even aggressive and well-trained guarding dogs can fail to deter wolves, or even be killed by wolves, when the number of wolves in an attacking pack is much higher than the number of dogs (Ciucci and Boitani, 1998;Iliopoulos et al., 2009;Van Liere et al., 2013). ...
Article
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Wolves (Canis lupus) can kill domestic livestock resulting in intense conflicts with humans. Damage to livestock should be reduced to facilitate human-wolf coexistence and ensure positive outcomes of conservation efforts. Current knowledge on the effectiveness of livestock protection measures from wolves is limited and scattered in the literature. In this study, we compiled a dataset of 30 cases describing the application of 11 measures of protecting cattle and smaller livestock against wolves, estimated their effectiveness as a relative risk of damage, and identified the best measures for damage reduction. We found that: (1) lethal control and translocation were less effective than other measures, (2) deterrents, especially fladry which is a fence with ropes marked by hanging colored flags that sway in the wind and provide a visual warning signal, were more effective than guarding dogs; (3) deterrents, fencing, calving control and herding were very effective, but the last two measures included only one case each; and (4) protection of cattle was more effective than that of small stock (sheep and goats, or sheep only) and mixed cattle and small stock. In all of these cases, the relative risk of damage was reduced by 50-100%. Considering Germany as an example of a country with a recovering wolf population and escalating human-wolf conflicts, we suggest electric fences and electrified fladry as the most promising measures, which under suitable conditions can be accompanied by well-trained livestock guarding dogs, and the temporary use of deterrents during critical periods such as calving and lambing seasons. Further research in this field is of paramount importance to efficiently mitigate human-wolf conflicts.
... If, however, the sheep stampede at night, the fence may be easily torn. Based on the research by van Liere et al. (2013), there have been no significant differences in the frequency of attacks between the farmers using electric fences and the farmers with ordinary fencing of their grasslands. The views saying that having a sheepdog fully suffices for guarding the herds represent the simplifying and one-size-fits-all approach. ...
... I found no evidence of the use of these measures in practice to prevent from wolf damage in Turkey. Although some local studies report opposing results (Rigg et al. 2011;van Liere et al. 2013) and wolf attacks to livestock cannot be prevented completely in open lands, still, using such fences can be promoted around corrals and barns in addition to trained LGDs active during the night time to reduce wolves' depredation rates. Besides, further research on effective preventive and mitigation measures should be supported by the Department of Wildlife. ...
Article
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The wolf (Canis lupus) is a keystone and damage-causing carnivore species around the world. Although the species is widespread in Asia, there is limited information on its ecology and interactions with the humans in this continent. This paper presents the conditions and consequences of wolf-human conflicts in Turkey between 2002 and 2017, based on data from 234 incidents compiled from the archive of national media and ISI Web of Science. Most conflicts (90.6%) were portrayed in a negative light in the news. Most incidents (64.1%) were related to domestic animals and attacks on humans (24.8%). Mostly sheep and goats were killed by wolves (79.3% attacks on domestic animals). The wolf depredation rates were significantly higher in open lands and relatively protected corrals. Attacks on livestock were likely to happen at night and those on people during the day. The presence of livestock guarding dogs did not significantly change the wolf depredation rate. There was no significant difference among years and preventive measures against the wolf damage on livestock. A total of 58 human-wolf encounters resulted in attacks on humans and caused 12 deaths and 107 injured people. Those incidents were significantly related to rabid wolves (63.8%). To prevent rabies transmission in canids and thus rabid wolf attacks, we recommend enclosing dump sites in rural areas and vaccination of canid species especially in eastern Turkey, where wild canids and feral dogs encounter more frequently. To develop effective mitigation measures, a database which will provide conflict data should be established, and further researches for effective precautions should be supported.
... Livestock predation has been associated with management practices in studies carried out in Namibia (Marker et al., 2003), Kenya (Ogada et al., 2003), Botswana (Gusset et al., 2009), Brazil (Mazzolli et al., 2002;Conforti and Azevedo, 2003;Michalski et al., 2006;Lopes et al., 2015: Tortato et al., 2015, Slovenia (Van Liere et al., 2013), India (Karanth et al., 2013), Nepal (Aryal et al., 2014) and Cameroon (Van et al., 2007). Some authors have mentioned that improvement in livestock management can contribute to the conservation and recovery of large carnivores (Ogada et al., 2003;Van et al., 2007;Gusset et al., 2009). ...
Article
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The conservation of large carnivores has been undermined in areas where livestock herding is conducted. Livestock becomes potential prey, leading to conflicts, which is one of the main causes of carnivore extinction. We analyzed the management practices and characteristics of the ranches, in the communities around Calakmul Biosphere Reserve, where livestock predation by large felids occurs. We interviewed ranchers about socioeconomic aspects, losses and livestock management. One hundred one ranches with predation cases were compared with 40 without predation. The ranches with cases of predation had more water sources, although more distant, as well as a greater proportion of forest area, compared with ranches without predation. Only 25% of ranchers reported attacks to the authorities and at least 50% opted to kill the predator to solve the problem. The availability of water near ranches or in low-risk areas, mainly during dry season, could be a measure to reduce the losses by predation. Other measures to reduce retaliation are necessary, in addition to the compensation, mainly related to management of livestock. © 2018 Associação Brasileira de Ciência Ecológica e Conservação
... This is in accord with the lower use of livestock species that we found in the pack diet compared to that of dispersing wolves; structured packs hunt on their territory and know where to find wild prey, whereas dispersing individuals, new to the area, do not know it and hunt the first potential prey they encounter. The number of pastures had a positive effect on consumption of livestock because if the pastures are fragmented and scattered in the forests, the contact zone between woods and pastures increases and this can enhance the predation risk facilitating the attacks by wolves (Dondina et al., 2014;Kaartinen et al., 2009;van Lière et al., 2013). Prevention methods negatively affected the livestock consumption; the effect of the adoption of different methods (nocturnal shelter, presence of shepherds and dogs, electric fences) of herd and flock protection in reducing predator attacks and their success was demonstrated by several studies even if in some cases they fail or are impossible to adopt (Dondina et al., 2014;Espuno et al., 2004;Landry et al., 1999;Mech and Boitani, 2003;Miller, 2015). ...
... Because every operation has its own set of challenges, ranches should be individually assessed to determine which methods are most applicable to their livestock system given the time of year and sites where depredations are occurring or have occurred (30,36). Personal contact with producers coupled with a monthly reporting system, which reduces reliance on memory, greatly increases the accuracy and reliability of the livestock loss data gathered (1,21,29,30,32,36,39,52,53). To aid with depredation management, there are a variety of nonlethal conflict avoidance strategies managers can employ. ...
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The predation of livestock by gray wolf (Canis lupus; hereafter, wolf) is a problem throughout eastern Europe and poses a threat to sustainable pasture-based livestock production in some areas. In Croatia, farmers have alarmed the public with news of frequent wolf attacks in the last decade, and wolves, as protected animals, are perceived as a pest and a threat. The aim of this study was to analyze and present the frequency of attacks and killed/injured domestic animals in Croatia. During the ten-year period (2010–2020), 13,359 attack events were reported, where it was determined, with certainty, that the attack was by the wolf. In these attacks, 19,111 domestic animals were killed and 4634 were injured. Predation events occurred predominantly (92.71%) in three counties located in southern Croatia (sub-Mediterranean Croatia), whose total area is 11,170 km2 (19.74% of the total area of Croatia). The most frequently killed species were sheep (64.78% of all killed animals), which was followed by goats (19.28%) and cattle (9.59%). The highest frequency of attacks and animals killed was recorded in the summer followed by spring and autumn, and the lowest was in winter. The majority of attacks (79.57%) occurred in the morning and during the day. The animal with the highest average number killed per attack was sheep (1.64), which was followed by goats (1.38), cattle (0.99), horses (0.94), donkeys (0.95), and guardian dogs (0.92). During the studied period, in the three counties with the most frequent attacks, 11.72% of the average goat population, 6.34% of the cattle population, and 5.61% of the sheep population were killed. Wolf predation in sub-Mediterranean Croatia presents a threat to the population of domestic ruminants dominantly kept in pastoral livestock systems, and additional efforts need to be made to achieve co-existence between the wolf population and farmers.
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Open Access for 50 days: https://authors.elsevier.com/a/1h2iJ1R%7EeSm9%7E Abstract Livestock depredation is the primary driver of wolf-human conflict worldwide, threatening wolf conservation and impacting human livelihoods. Most countries implement relevant compensation programs, which are however rarely accompanied by proactive husbandry practices vetted with scientific research. We investigated the influence of husbandry practices on wolf depredation losses for 70 sheep/goat and 68 cattle herds with quantitative modeling of data from semi-structured interviews of livestock farmers along a livestock damage gradient in NW Greece. Sheep/goat herds were better protected than cattle herds in seven preventive measures and annual losses of sheep/goat livestock units were three times lower than losses of cattle livestock units in our study area. Furthermore, according to national compensation data from Greece, costs paid for cattle have doubled in recent years, whereas they have been cut in half for sheep/goats. Our modeling identified three core preventive measures that significantly reduced wolf depredation risk for both herd types, namely increased shepherd surveillance, systematic night confinement, and an adequate number of livestock guardian dogs (optimal ratio was 3 Greek guardian dogs per 100 sheep/goats and 7 guardian dogs per 100 cattle). Keeping young livestock in enclosures and not abandoning livestock carcasses in pastures were additional effective preventive measures for cattle herds. Our study provides evidence to inform the subsidizing policy put forth in the Common Agricultural Policy of the European Union. It can also serve to inform or revise wildlife-livestock conflict mitigation policy in countries challenged with the competing goals of conserving large carnivores while maintaining traditional grazing regimes.
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The return of wolves to Swiss mountains and the damage they cause to sheep and goat herds in the region have raised concerns about a consequent wave of farm closures. In this paper, we examine the relationship between wolf attacks and the decline of Alpine summer farms, a specific high‐altitude farm type. We collected farm structure data and monitoring data on wolf attacks between 2004 and 2021 and analysed them using a causal random forest method, enabling a detailed analysis of the relation between wolf attacks and the number of different types of Alpine summer farms at a regional level. The results show that the farming systems are unaffected by incidental and infrequent wolf attacks, but that a high number of wolf attacks in a region is related to faster decrease in number of grazing systems where sheep are most vulnerable to such attacks. In contrast, systems that allow for better herd protection tend to show an increase in areas with frequent wolf attacks.
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Sharing space with large carnivores on a human-dominated continent like Europe results in multiple conflictful interactions with human interests, of which depredation on livestock is the most widespread. We conducted an analysis of the impact by all four European large carnivores on sheep farming in 10 European countries, during the period 2010-2015. We ran a hierarchical Simultaneous Autoregressive model, to assess the influence of several ecological factors on the reported depredation levels. About 35,000 (SD = 4,110) sheep kills were compensated in the ten countries as caused by large carnivores annually, representing 0.5% of the total sheep stock. Of them, 45% were recognized as killed by wolves, 24% by wolverines, 19% by lynx and 12% by bears. We found a positive relationship between wolf distribution and the number of compensated sheep, but not for the other three species. Depredation levels were lower in the areas where large carnivore presence has been continuous compared to areas where they disappeared and returned in the last 50 years. Our study shows that a few large carnivores can produce high damage, when the contribution of environmental, social, and economic systems predisposes for it, whereas large populations can produce a limited impact when the same components of the system reduce the probability that depredations occur. Time of coexistence plays in favour of a progressive reduction in the associated costs, provided that the responsible agencies focus their attention both on compensation and co-adaptation.
Chapter
Despite the generally positive trend of European populations, the wolf (Canis lupus) is still today a challenging species to conserve, particularly in the most anthropogenic southern European countries, because of its conflict with humans. In this chapter we summarize the dynamics of wolf distribution in Italy, one of the most densely populated European countries, over the last 50 years. We track changes in the wolf’s diet by comparing its change in Italy with other countries, with the aim of understanding how these changes may have affected the evolution of the human-predator conflict in Italy. In particular, we summarize the results of studies both in Italy and in other European countries to clarify the true impact of wolf predation on both livestock and wild ungulates, which represent the two main causes of predator-human conflict. In order to provide specific insight about the past and the current distribution and feeding habits of the wolf in Italy, and to take stock of the conflict between wolves and humans, we present three case studies. All were carried out over recent decades in northern Italy, i.e. in the area where wolf packs, and particularly their ability to produce dispersing individuals, could affect the future of the entire Italian population. Finally, we consider how to mitigate wolf-human conflict and suggest effective management of wolf populations.
Thesis
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The following study tested the viability of managing wolf populations via the presence of managed "wolf restaurants". Wolf restaurants in this context refers to supplementary feeding of wolves in close proximity to their den or areas where wolves frequent within their territory. An individual based model was built using the Netlogo software. The model was used to computationally test this theory as it has not yet been attempted in the field. This form of management was tested in two simulated wilderness areas; a large area (3000km 2 ) and a smaller area (312km 2 ). This study found that in a large wilderness area with a stable wolf population and medium densities of wild prey, nutrition management was effective in reducing dispersion by 33% and livestock depredation by 55%. The model was then tested for a smaller wilderness area. It was discovered that when prey density was high and wolf restaurants were present, livestock depredation was reduced by 450% and movement ecology was reduced by as much as 300% compared to unmanaged wolves in the same environment. The results of this model suggest that wolf nutrition management is possible to mitigate instances of wolf-human conflicts in large wild communities, but that smaller ecological islands of wilderness with high prey density is where it has the potential to work best. The smaller simulated wilderness area emulates that which wolves are moving into throughout Europe. Wolf nutrition management can be used as a tool to enhance the success of future wolf reintroductions and re-establishments.
Thesis
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The following study tested the viability of managing wolf populations via the presence of managed "wolf restaurants". Wolf restaurants in this context refers to supplementary feeding of wolves in close proximity to their den or areas where wolves frequent within their territory. An individual based model was built using the Netlogo software. The model was used to computationally test this theory as it has not yet been attempted in the field. This form of management was tested in two simulated wilderness areas; a large area (3000km 2 ) and a smaller area (312km 2 ). This study found that in a large wilderness area with a stable wolf population and medium densities of wild prey, nutrition management was effective in reducing dispersion by 33% and livestock depredation by 55%. The model was then tested for a smaller wilderness area. It was discovered that when prey density was high and wolf restaurants were present, livestock depredation was reduced by 450% and movement ecology was reduced by as much as 300% compared to unmanaged wolves in the same environment. The results of this model suggest that wolf nutrition management is possible to mitigate instances of wolf-human conflicts in large wild communities, but that smaller ecological islands of wilderness with high prey density is where it has the potential to work best. The smaller simulated wilderness area emulates that which wolves are moving into throughout Europe. Wolf nutrition management can be used as a tool to enhance the success of future wolf reintroductions and re-establishments.
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Widespread damage by large mammalian predators to human assets (e.g., livestock, crops, neighborhood safety) requires the application of non-invasive (i.e., without direct contact with predators) and targeted interventions to promote predator conservation and local livelihoods. We compiled 117 cases from 23 countries describing the effectiveness of 12 interventions designed to protect human assets from 21 predators. We found: (a) the most effective interventions were electric fences, guarding animals, calving control, and physical deterrents (protective collars and shocking devices); (b) the most effectively protected asset was livestock; and (c) the most effective interventions being used were to protect assets from cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus), Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx), gray wolves (Canis lupus), and lions (Panthera leo). In all of these cases, the relative risk of damage was reduced by 50-100%. We combined these outcomes into a novel framework of most effective practices and discussed its structure, practicality, and future applications.
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Large carnivores, once widespread across much of Europe, between the nineteenth and twentieth centuries have suffered a dramatic decline that brought them close to extinction in many parts of Europe. Since the '70s, factors such as legal protection, improved habitats quality and mountains depopulation enabled the recovery of several predator populations. Wolf recovery in areas from which was eradicated, or was occasionally present, has been followed by an intensification of the conflict with human activities, in particular with animal husbandry. Many farmers were unprepared to deal with this new situation having abandoned over the years the use of fences, guard dogs and the practice of monitor the stock. This research was carried out within the territory of Grosseto province, where, following the recent expansion of the wolf population, livestock activities and predator range have overlapped again leading to a situation of great conflict. The same problem occurred in different parts of the world, as demonstrated by the growing number of scientific publications on this topic. Although wolf-livestock conflict is a complex issue, its mitigation is partially fostered by damages reduction. This research shows how the analysis of the ecological context helps in preventing livestock losses. In recent years the use of models to predict the depredation risk has grown dramatically, suggesting how this technique will be increasingly applied to take management information to mitigate the human-carnivore conflict. Therefore I proposed a new three-step method to predict wild canid (wolves and wolf-dog hybrids) depredation risk using presence-only data on wild canid detections and confirmed depredation events in the study area. As a first step, wild canids probability of occurrence was predict; second, I made a prediction on where depredation events were more likely to occur; third I performed an ensemble model integrating the two previous models following an ad-hoc procedure. Models’ outputs obtained from two different approaches to species distribution modeling: Maximum Entropy (Maxent), widely used, and Bayesian for Presence Only Data (BPOD), recently proposed, were compared testing their ability to predict the occurrence of events. The ecological niche factor analysis (ENFA) was used to assess the importance of each environmental variable in the description of the presence points. Results showed that the presence of wild canids was mainly related to forests (M = 0.78). Whereas depredation events were most likely to occur close to farms (M = -0.83) where sheep densities were higher (M = 8.1) and more accessible (M = -1.46). Higher depredation risk zones were characterized by proximity to forested areas and the presence of landscape features that allowed wild canids to reach pastures with minimum effort such as the network of smaller watercourses. Although the majority of livestock within Grosseto province graze extensively and is thus potentially available for predators, only 15% sheep farms fall within higher risk areas. This suggests that at the provincial level, depredation was facilitated by environmental conditions (e.g. closeness to the woods or steams) rather than the availability of domestic prey. Overall BPOD performed better than Maxent in terms of sensitivity, suggesting that BPOD could be a promising approach to predict probability of occurrence using presence-only data. In many parts of the world, livestock guarding dogs (LGDs) are considered one of the most powerful prevention tools against carnivore depredation on domestic animals. As wolf populations are recovering their use is expected to increase. Although LGDs defend livestock against predators, they could negatively impact on some wild species and in some situations could be even a potential hazard to humans. Therefore how these dogs behave when left unsupervised with their flock on pastures is of utmost importance. 29 LGDs with GPS collars were monitored in order to investigate their space use and association with their livestock, analyzing two parameters: the dog-sheep distance and the overlap between dog and sheep movement ranges. The first parameter was evaluated by measuring the real distance between pairs of dog-sheep locations taken in less than five minutes apart to ensure the simultaneity of the two events. In addition linear mixed models were implemented to evaluate how dog-sheep distance was influenced by environmental, dog-related, and farming-related variables. UDOI (Utilization Distribution Overlap Index) and the VI (Volume of Intersection) Index for 50% and 95% kernel isopleths were calculated to quantify the overlap and the similarity in the use of space for the core area and for the whole movement range of sheep and dogs. Finally the usefulness of GPS pet collars in dogs and sheep husbandry was tested. LGDs did not leave the flock unattended when left unsupervised. They spent the majority of their time close to livestock, sharing the same areas but using the space in a different way (mean VI 95% = 0.65 ± 0.16; mean UDOI 95%= 1.31 ± 0.56). Dog-sheep distance was mostly influenced by environmental variables and the age of the dog. Dogs and sheep tended to separate more in pastures surrounded by woods (β = 1.669, p <2.2e-16) or located in heterogeneous agricultural areas (β = 1.204, p = 1.33e-05), and less in pastures close to inhabited areas (β = -1.730, p = 2.34e-07). Older dogs were more associated to the flock compared to younger individuals (β = -0.438, p = 0.002). Some of the variability linked to the dog-sheep distance was explained by the importance of the random components of the models, namely: the differences among individual dogs working in pastures with different extension (p<2.2e-16); the day when the sampling was done (p<2.2e-16); and the differences among farms (p=4.87e-07). The effectiveness of guarding dogs as a prevention tool is not only affected by the environmental features or by LGD’s characteristics and training. In fact, to be effective, livestock guarding dogs should work in conditions that allow them to protect the entire livestock. Comparing 79 sheep farms with at least one adult (> 1.5 years old) guarding dog, were highlighted the conditions that decrease the efficacy of these animals in reducing depredations. For each farm were measured: 1) the number of adult livestock guarding dogs; 2) the distance between the farmer's house and the night shelter; 3) night shelter permeability to predators; 4) flock size; 5) shepherd presence; 6) the number of depredation events over the last six months; 7) the depredation risk. Farms were classified on whether or not they experienced depredation over the last six months. The two groups were then compared using non-parametric tests and logistic regressions. Depredated and non-depredated farms differed only by the night shelter-farmer’s home distance value (W = 455, p-value = 0.005). The model averaging showed a significant positive correlation between damage occurrence and night shelter-farmer’s home distance length (β = 4.695 e-04, p-value = 0.0218). These results suggest that in environmental conditions that determine a similar depredation risk, human presence is the main feature that enhances the effectiveness of guarding dogs as a tool against canid attacks on flocks. Investigating the role of some of the ecological variables involved in depredation events helps to ensure that the wolf-livestock interactions occur in a sustainable manner. Indeed depredation risk maps could be a useful tool for farmers and manager for the timely apply prevention techniques that reduce depredation and for policymaker could be a support to allocate financial resources. Additionally conservation projects may benefit from these maps to select areas of intervention. Moreover results from this work provided some hints for farmers and conservationists to improve the use of LGDs for an effective livestock protection: some of the recommendations affected the dog management, while other the livestock husbandry practices. Finally this research introduced a new way to manage LGDs using GPS pet collars. With these devices farmers could be able to check the position of their dogs and their flock at any time, preventing wrong dog behaviors, conflicts with neighbors and accidents.
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Carnivore predation on livestock often leads people to retaliate. Persecution by humans has contributed strongly to global endangerment of carnivores. Preventing livestock losses would help to achieve three goals common to many human societies: preserve nature, protect animal welfare, and safeguard human livelihoods. Between 2016 and 2018, four independent reviews evaluated >40 years of research on lethal and nonlethal interventions for reducing predation on livestock. From 114 studies, we find a striking conclusion: scarce quantitative comparisons of interventions and scarce comparisons against experimental controls preclude strong inference about the effectiveness of methods. For wise investment of public resources in protecting livestock and carnivores, evidence of effectiveness should be a prerequisite to policy making or large-scale funding of any method or, at a minimum, should be measured during implementation. An appropriate evidence base is needed, and we recommend a coalition of scientists and managers be formed to establish and encourage use of consistent standards in future experimental evaluations.
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Mitigation of large carnivore depredation is essential to increasing stakeholder support for human–carnivore coexistence. Lethal and nonlethal techniques are implemented by managers, livestock producers, and other stakeholders to reduce livestock depredations by large carnivores. However, information regarding the relative effectiveness of techniques commonly used to reduce livestock depredations is currently lacking. We evaluated 66 published, peer-reviewed research papers that quantitatively measured livestock depredation before and after employing 4 categories of lethal and nonlethal mitigation techniques (livestock husbandry, predator deterrents and removal, and indirect management of land or wild prey) to assess their relative effectiveness as livestock protection strategies. Effectiveness of each technique was measured as the reported percent change in livestock losses. Husbandry (42–100% effective) and deterrents (0–100% effective) demonstrated the greatest potential but also the widest variability in effectiveness in reducing livestock losses. Removal of large carnivores never achieved 100% effectiveness but exhibited the lowest variation (67–83%). Although explicit measures of effectiveness were not reported for indirect management, livestock depredations commonly decreased with sparser and greater distances from distant vegetation cover, at greater distances from protected areas, and in areas with greater wild prey abundance. Information on time duration of effects was available only for deterrents; a tradeoff existed between the effectiveness of tools and the length of time a tool remained effective. Our assessment revealed numerous sources of bias regarding the effectiveness of techniques as reported in the peer-reviewed literature, including a lack of replication across species and geographic regions, a focus on Canid carnivores in the United States, Europe, and Africa, and a publication bias toward studies reporting positive effects. Given these limitations, we encourage managers and conservationists to work with livestock producers to more consistently and quantitatively measure and report the impacts of mitigation techniques under a wider range of environmental, economic, and sociological conditions.
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Wildlife may adapt activity patterns to daily and seasonal variations in environmental factors and human activity. At the daily scale, diurnal or nocturnal activity can be a response to variations in food availability and/or human avoidance. At the seasonal scale, variation in prey vulnerability underlies the influence of predators on prey population dynamics, which is of management concern when predation affects domestic species. We analyzed the movement patterns of 133 GPS-collared brown bears in three study areas in Sweden in spring, when bears prey on the calves of domestic reindeer and moose, and in summer-early fall, when bears rely mostly on berries, in three areas with a gradient of human disturbance. In spring, the bears' daily movement patterns and time of predation on ungulates overlapped. In summer-early fall, when bears are hyperphagic to store fat for hibernation and reproduction, variation in the degree of nocturnal behavior among study areas likely reflected behavioral adjustments to reduce the risk of encountering people. Flexibility in daily movement patterns by large carnivores may help them survive in human-dominated landscapes, but behavioral changes may also reflect environmental degradation, for example human disturbance influencing foraging opportunities. Diurnal human activity disturbs the carnivores, but that does not hinder depredation on reindeer, because it occurs mostly at night. Thus, ideally carnivores and reindeer should be separated spatially to reduce depredations. A zoning system prioritizing carnivore conservation and reindeer herding in different areas might help reduce a long-lasting conflict.
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INTRODUCTION: In recent times, conflicts involving wildlife have increased in importance and magnitude. Conservation conflicts occur when two or more parties with strongly held opinions clash over conservation objectives, and when one party is perceived to assert its interest at the expense of another. Conservation conflicts usually emerge from "wildlife impacts", defined as circumstances where people, consciously or unconsciously, negatively impact wildlife, or alternatively where wildlife negatively impacts the well-being or livelihoods of people or biodiversity. In Europe, the most frequent and intense conservation conflict associated with the management of mammals is likely that involving predators. For example, large carnivores depredate on livestock and game species, but at the same time these are flagship-species for European nature conservation. Therefore, conflicts about how these species should be managed emerge frequently. The management of overabundant ungulates that negatively impact natural vegetation as well as that of small mammals that damage crops also lead to frequent clashes between stakeholders in Europe. The global conservation status of most conflictive European mammals is rather good. However, some of their populations are threatened, at least partially by illegal killing and poaching. From this perspective, efforts are needed to mitigate conservation conflicts in these areas. In addition, promoting the investigation of conservation conflicts that incorporates multidisciplinary approaches is essential to increase the understanding of such conflicts and ultimately to mitigate them.
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The present guideline for dealing with wolves (Canis lupus) in Germany was elaborated in the project “Scientific concept for a wolf management in Germany” initiated by the Federal Agency for Nature Conservation. It is supposed to be the scientific basis on which to develop a management plan for wolves in Germany, that has to be coordinated among and agreed on by the authorities and the interest groups. The first part of the manual contains background information concerning the status of wolves in Germany and Europe, as well as management approaches already applied. The second part presents in detail the scientific basis and recommendations for a wolf management in Germany. Currently reproducing wolves are restricted to North-Eastern Saxony, bordering Bran-denburg and Poland. The nearest larger wolf population is found in Eastern Poland. In the course of the project a human dimensions study was conducted, showing that the majority of Germans has a positive attitude towards wolves. However, a minority is strongly against wolves. Analysis of all articles published since 2001 in daily or weekly newspapers revealed, that the clear majority of articles had a neutral or positive tenor. The distribution of areas in Germany that resemble those that are inhabited by wolves today concerning habitat, overdevelopment and population density was analysed in a GIS study. Especially in the Northeast, the low mountain areas and the Southeast of Germany similar areas are widespread. Furthermore it was analysed for the whole country on district level which potential for conflicts has to be expected if wolves estab-lish themselves. In this respect the number of livestock and the way they are kept (if known) as well as the relative abundance of ungulates were compared for each district. The occurrence of wolves in the border area and even more the expected expansion of the strictly protected species, needs a coordinated approach of the states and nations involved. The goal envisaged by law is a viable German-Western Polish wolf population. The guideline recommends for Germany a pragmatic approach to reach this goal. Interference with the development of the population should be kept to a minimum. The wolf population should constantly be closely monitored by scientific standards. Conflicts that occur should be identified early on and minimized as much as possible. Of overall importance are the implementation of a nationwide coordinated concept for prevention and compensation of livestock damages, an intensive engagement in public relations and a close co-operation with the relevant interest groups. The manual analyses the complex and problematic issue of hunters, wolves and game species and recommends ways to minimize the conflicts. The question of public safety is thoroughly dealt with, the problem of possible hybridisation between wolves and dogs is discussed and recommendations are given for the handling of injured and dead wolves. Also aspects of keeping wolves and wolf-dog-hybrids in captivity are addressed. Last but not least, the guideline deals with the problem of illegal actions against wolves and stresses the need to push though the legal requirements. Concrete suggestions are given for the long-term organisation of monitoring and management of wolves in Germany, for international co-operation and applied research.
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The foraging and feeding ecology of gray wolves is an essential component to understanding the role that top carnivores play in shaping the structure and function of terrestrial ecosystems. In Yellowstone National Park (YNP), predation studies on a highly visible, reintroduced population of wolves are increasing our understanding of this aspect of wolf ecology. Wolves in YNP feed primarily on elk, despite the presence of other ungulate species. Patterns of prey selection and kill rates in winter have varied seasonally each year from 1995 to 2004 and changed in recent years as the wolf population has become established. Wolves select elk based on their vulnerability as a result of age, sex, and season and therefore kill primarily calves, old cows, and bulls that have been weakened by winter, Summer scat analysis reveals an increased variety in diet compared with observed winter diets, including other ungulate species, rodents, and vegetation. Wolves in YNP hunt in packs and, upon a successful kill, share in the evisceration and consumption of highly nutritious organs first, followed by major muscle tissue, and eventually bone and hide. Wolves are adapted to a feast-or-famine foraging pattern, and YNP packs typically kill and consume an elk every 2-3 d. However, wolves in YNP have gone without fresh meat for several weeks by scavenging off old carcasses that consist mostly of bone and hide. As patterns of wolf density, prey density, weather, and vulnerability of prey change, in comparision with the conditions of the study period described here, we predict that there will also be significant changes in wolf predation patterns and feeding behavior.
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The Casentinesi Forests, in the northern Apennines, harbour a rich community of wild ungulates, with the wolf representing the largest predator in the area. Between 1993 and 2000, wolf pack distribution in the area was monitored and estimates of pack size were obtained by wolf-howling surveys, snow-tracking, and occasional observations. Three to five packs were detected yearly, with sizes averaging 4.2 � 0.9 wolves (maximum 7). The overall density in the area was 4.7 wolves per 100 km 2 with an average distance between adjacent packs of 11.1 km. The high wolf density in the Casentinesi Forests is mostly related to abundance and size of wild prey. In this, like in other areas at low latitudes, wolf density depends mainly on the number of packs, as pack size is rather small and recruitment limited by early dispersal and high mortality. Three homesites used in several years by resident packs were discovered. Homesite fidelity and pack reproductive success were higher in fully protected rather than harvested areas. Establishing a network of protected areas with high ungulate diversity and abundance is proposed as the main factor for allowing a full recovery of the wolf population in Italy. 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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The mobile herds of sheep and goats were the focus of study to compare the general behavioural patterns and the maternal behaviors. The study area was Bharmour, located in District Chamba of Himachal Pradesh in the north-west Himalayas. To compare the behaviour of sheep and goats techniques of naturalistic observation, using ethograms of macro-and micro-units of behaviour were used. Student's t-test was used to compare the sheep and goats on these units of behaviour. It was found that the two species differed on all macro-units of general behaviour patterns except one. The sheep and goats differed on 10 micro-units of maternal behaviour, but there was no difference on two behaviours. The goats grazed on the hind legs but the sheep grazed head down. The goats had lower score on moving in contact/proximity than the sheep, along with that the goats moved and rested alone to a greater degree than the sheep. The suckling was the most common behaviour in mother-infant interaction. Goat mothers were more udder rejecting than the sheep. While goats emitted greater number of low pitched bleats than the sheep; the sheep on the other hand, emitted greater number of high pitched bleats. In addition sheep exhibited greater amount of tongue manipulation of the palate and smelling than the goats.
Technical Report
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Because of the large scales at which large carnivores live, their conservation cannot occur only within protected areas. They must therefore be conserved within multi-use landscapes where conflicts with humans occur. Conflicts are diverse and include depredation on livestock and competition for wild ungulates. However, one of the most serious is the fear of being injured or killed by a large carnivore. Man-killing by tigers, lions, leopards, pumas and bears (brown bear, black bear, polar bear and sloth bear) occurs on a regular basis with hundreds of people being killed annually on a worldwide basis. Although the danger that wolves pose to human safety remains controversial, may people that live in wold range report that they are afraid of wolves. This report attempts to examine the existing data about wolf attacks on humans during the last few hundred years around the world.
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Wolves (Canis lupus) (9 females and 2 males from 4 packs), were radio-tracked in a large Polish woodland in Bialowieża Primeval Forest in 1996-1999. Based on 360 days of radio tracking with locations taken at 30- or 15-min intervals, daily movement distances (DMDs) of wolves and their utilization of territories were analyzed. DMDs averaged 22.1 km for females and 27.6 km for males. In reproductive and subadult females, DMDs varied seasonally, with the shortest daily routes in May and the longest in autumn-winter. Little seasonal variation was observed in nonbreeding and unsuccessfully breeding adult females. An adult male covered the longest DMDs in February (mating season). The mean speed of travelling wolves was 2.2 km/h. Wolves' hunting activity affected the length and speed of their movements, both of which were higher before than after a kill was made. With growing abundance of prey, DMDs of wolves became shorter. Snow cover and rainfall had a negligible effect on wolf travel. The mean straight-line distance between consecutive daily locations (SLD) was 4.4 km, i.e., on average, 21% of the actual route covered by wolves. Daily ranges utilized by wolves averaged 21.4 km2, or 9% of the whole territory. Variation in SLDs and daily ranges was shaped predominantly by mating, breeding, and pup rearing. The pattern of territory use by wolves differed between seasons. In spring-summer, their movements concentrated around the breeding den and rendezvous sites, and the areas used on consecutive days overlapped extensively. In autumn-winter, wolves moved widely and utilized their territory in a rotational way, returning to the same parts every 6 days, on average. Rotational use is related to intense patrolling and defense of territory, but may also help wolves to avoid behavioral depression of prey availability.
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With the successful recolonization and reintroduction of wolves (Canis lupus) in parts of the western United States (Bangs and Fritts, 1996; Bangs et al., 1998) and the natural expansion of wolves in the upper Midwest (Fuller et al., 1992; Thiel, 2001), managing conflicts between wolves and livestock is a growing issue for livestock producers, resource professionals, and the general public (Mech, 1996). Unlike the coyote, (Canis latrans) where a great deal is known regarding the biology and ecology of depredation and methods for managing it (Knowlton et al., 1999), very little is known regarding patterns and processes of wolves preying on livestock and effective ways to mitigate this conflict. Understanding the ramifications of growing wolf populations for livestock production and successfully managing these problems will require knowledge of depredation patterns, wolf ecology, livestock husbandry, and the effectiveness of different tools and techniques to manage wolves. As wolf populations expand into more agricultural areas (Mech et al., 2000) such knowledge will become increasingly important. Here historic records were compared to current data on wolf depredation rates and wolf management techniques relative to the wolf’s status on the endangered species list. The objectives were to synthesize the history of wolf depredation and management, present current data of wolf impacts on livestock, and speculate on the future management of wolves so that producers can consider the ramifications of a growing wolf population and possible mechanisms for decreasing the threat.
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Recolonization by wolves (Canis lupus) of areas of extensive sheep breeding in the French Alps in the early 1990s led to intense conflicts over losses of domestic livestock. We used data on depredations and sheep herd management from 45 pastures of the Mercantour Mountains of the French Alps to build models of attack and kill rates and to quantify the efficiency of using livestock-guarding dogs and of gathering or confining herds at night to prevent damage. Efficiency of livestock-guarding dogs was lowest when sheep were ranging freely and highest when sheep were confined at night. The effect of livestockguarding dogs on depredations was heterogeneous across pastures. When sheep were confined at night, presence of 3 to 4 dogs was predicted to prevent a large majority (>95%) of kills that would have occurred in the absence of dogs for 81% of pastures. No effect of dogs was found for the other 19% of pastures. Confining or simply gathering sheep at night in the presence of 5 livestock-guarding dogs was predicted to prevent most kills (94% and 79%, respectively) that would have occurred in similar conditions but with free-ranging sheep. Efficiency of each of these 2 techniques was drastically reduced when they were not used jointly. This study suggested that confining sheep in the presence of several livestock-guarding dogs can prevent a large majority of livestock losses to wolves in the southern French Alps.
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Conflicts with human interests have reappeared following recovery of large carnivores in Europe. Public acceptance is higher than historically but there is a need to identify effective, acceptable techniques to facilitate coexistence. We present a case study of predation on livestock in Slovakia. Damage, mitigation measures and public opinion were assessed using compensation records, analysis of farm conditions, questionnaire surveys, semi-structured interviews, diet analysis and on-farm trials of livestock-guarding dogs. Economic damage was inconsequential on a national scale but high locally: c. 80% of reported losses occurred at 12% of sheep flocks. Grey wolves Canis lupus were held responsible for four to six times more damage than brown bears Ursus arctos, although livestock occurred in only 2 of 78 wolf faeces during spring–autumn, when sheep and cattle were most vulnerable. Losses to Eurasian lynx Lynx lynx were negligible. Compared to other sectors of society shepherds had the most negative attitudes, particularly towards wolves, despite compensation payments. Appropriate use of livestock-guarding dogs was associated with fewer losses: median loss at trial flocks with predation was 70% lower than at control flocks. We conclude that identifying vulnerable farms and targeting them for mitigation could reduce damage, although lack of motivation and awareness are obstacles. This study shows that damage levels need not be excessive despite high predator densities in human-dominated landscapes. Conflicts were unevenly distributed, with much of the variation explained by local conditions and husbandry practices, especially preventive measures. Livestock-guarding dogs are particularly appropriate where wolves are present in proximity to unfenced pastures.
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Depredation on livestock and wolf pack Canis lupus distribution was investigated in the province of Arezzo, Tuscany, from 1998 to 2001. Although livestock was uniformly distributed, damage level and distribution were focused in the mountainous area inhabited by wolf packs hence there were huge differences between areas with and without wolves. In the whole province a few farms were persistently affected by predation (6%), and they reported 38% of the total attacks and 37% of the total losses. Surplus killing phenomena involved only sheep and goat farms, affecting 18% of the total. Thirty-five attacks (14% of the total attacks) reported 536 kills (44% of the total livestock killed in the whole province of Arezzo). During the period 1998–2001, compensation costs in the province averaged 86 863 Euros (range: 68 805–99 318 Euros). In the same period, no farmer requested prevention funding from the Tuscan region. During the study period wolf population was stable: wolf packs were distributed on 47% of the whole province (1504 km2), with a density estimated at 2.9±0.7 wolves 100 km−2.
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Abstract As wolves (Canis lupus) recover in Poland, their depredation on domestic animals is increasing, as have conflicts between wolves and farmers. From 1998 to 2004, I investigated spatial and temporal patterns of 591 verified incidents of wolf depredation in the eastern part of the Polish Carpathian Mountains. The wolf population I surveyed covered an estimated range of 4,993 km2. Depredation occurred over 1,595 km2 of that area. Sheep accounted for 84.8% of domestic animals killed by wolves. Depredation on sheep and number of sheep farms attacked by wolves increased between 1998 and 2004 (r2 = 0.61, P = 0.04 and r2 = 0.89, P = 0.02, respectively). The number of wolf attacks on sheep farms in a given year were negatively correlated to red deer (Cervus elaphus) population numbers (R2 = 0.69, P = 0.02). The amount of depredation caused by each of the 4 monitored packs was best explained by farm density in their territories (R2 = 0.59, P = 0.004). Number of attacks recorded on farms was positively correlated to distance from the farm to the pack's den and rendezvous sites (R2 = 0.16, P = 0.04). Of depredation recorded in the 4 pack's territories I surveyed, 77% occurred in 4 farms with no or inadequate protection. I concluded that wolf depredation in the studied area is opportunistic. Wolf predation intensity is a function of decreasing abundance of red deer, the density of sheep farms, and proximity of farms to the summer activity centers of wolf packs, and it is facilitated by poor husbandry practices. These results can aid in preventing wolf depredation and provide a foundation for a wolf management plan.
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Studies on predation by the wolf (Canis lupus) have often reported contradictory results about the role of prey density and vulnerability on wolf prey use. We investigated dietary response and prey selection by wolves in a high-density and multi-species ungulate community, analysing scats collected over a period of 11years in the Casentinesi Forests, Italy. The second most abundant species, wild boar (Sus scrofa), was found to be the main wolf prey, and we did not observe any dietary response of wolves to variations in the density of either primary or secondary prey species. Selection patterns were uniform throughout the study period. Wolves strongly selected for wild boar piglets, while roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) fawns and adults, red deer (Cervus elaphus) adults and fallow deer (Dama dama) adults were avoided. Wolf preference for wild boar was inversely density dependent. Within each species, juveniles were preferred to adults. Medium-sized, young individuals of both wild boar and roe deer were optimal prey, although with different selection patterns related to the different anti-predator strategies adopted by each prey species. The results of this study suggest that in productive ecosystems with high density and high renewal rates of prey, selection patterns by wolves are determined by prey vulnerability, which is connected to prey age and body size. The different patterns of wild boar versus cervids use by wolf across Europe seems to be related to their relative abundances, while the strong selection of wild boar in Italian Apennines with respect to the more frequent avoidance in central-eastern Europe is better explained by higher piglet productivity and smaller body size of adults boar in Mediterranean temperate forests. KeywordsAge-specific selection– Canis lupus –Prey vulnerability–Wild boar–Wolf diet
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Home-range sizes, movements, and daily activity of wolves (Canis lupus L. 1758) were studied in Dalmatia, Croatia in 1998–2001. The total home ranges (100% MCP) of two packs were 160 km2 and 141km2, mean=150.5km2. Core areas (50% kernel) were 26.2 km2 and 3.3km2, respectively. Differences in core area sizes were influenced by human activity—hunting and sheep grazing. Compared with random locations, wolf locations were closer to the nearest water source (mean=937m) and farther from houses (mean=653m). Wolves were significantly more active during the night than during the day (activity indexes were 0.53 vs. 0.35), and night activity was higher during summer (0.58), and lower during winter (0.48). A correlation was found between distances traveled and activity index (r=0.58, p=0.003). Home range, seasonal variations in home-range size, habitat use, and activity of wolves in Dalmatia were oriented to make the compromise from danger of proximity to humans and also to benefit from human-related food sources.
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Wolves (Canis lupus) have recently expanded their distribution range into western and southern Finland, which has not hosted breeding wolves for over 100years. This has raised concerns and public debate over wolf-livestock conflicts. Between 1998 and 2004 there were 45 wolf attacks on sheep on 34 farms. To assess the risk wolves may pose to sheep husbandry, we used data on depredation, sheep management, landscape structure and moose and wolf populations from continental Finland outside the area of reindeer husbandry to build models of the factors that may predispose sheep farms to wolf depredation. Our results provided evidence that sheep farms with the highest risk of wolf depredation were those located in regions where wolves were abundant. These farms were usually located close to the Russian border where the landscape is a mosaic of forest, wetlands and clear cut areas. These regions are sparsely populated by humans and farms are located far from each other. Finally, we generated probability maps based on generalised additive modelling to predict the risk of wolf predation on livestock in farms of southern Finland.
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SummaryTo verify food habit flexibility of wolf populations under different ecological conditions, scats collected year round were analysed in three study areas and diet composition of resident packs was compared. The three study areas, representing Alpine (SV), Apennine (PM) and Mediterranean (CV) ecosystems, are rich in wild ungulates, which differ in number of species and relative abundance; livestock is also present. Wild ungulates were the main source of food, accounting for 89.4%–95.1% of the diet. Livestock, instead, scarsely reached 8% of annual mean percent volume in any one area, and only in the Alps did they play a major role in autumn. Other food items constituted less than 5% of annual mean percent volume. Variations in the proportions of use of wild ungulate categories were observed among the study areas, although some patterns of intraspecific selection emerged in each area. Finally, differences both in the relationships between utilisation and availability of preys, and in trophic niche breadth were discussed in relation to environmental features and colonization patterns.
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We studied the predator-prey relationships among wolves Canis lupus Linnaeus, 1758, wild ungulates, and livestock in the managed mountain forests of the Western Carpathians (S Poland). Though roe deer Capreolus capreolus dominated in the community of wild ungulates and livestock was abundant within the study area, the three wolf packs preyed mainly on red deer Cervus elaphus (42% of food biomass), and next on the roe deer (33%). In both species of deer, wolves preferred killing females and juveniles more frequently than expected from their respective shares in the populations. Wild boar Sus scrofa made up 4% of the food biomass, in accordance with its low share in the ungulates community. Despite the easy access of wolves to numerous unprotected sheep flocks pastured on meadows among woods, livestock constituted only 3% of the wolf food biomass. Wolves preyed mostly on sheep (88%), killing on average 34 per year. Most cases of livestock depredation occurred in August–September, on pastures located most often >50 m apart from buildings. Usually, lack of proper guarding was conducive to wolf attacks.
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Europe and North America share a similar history in the extirpation and subsequent recovery of large carnivore and ungulate species. Both continents face challenges and opportunities for managing human-wildlife conflict at the junction of livestock production and wildlife conservation. Predation of livestock and disease transmission between wildlife and livestock is an ongoing and escalating worldwide issue. In order to manage this conflict, producers need effective tools, and they have used livestock protection dogs (LPDs) for reducing predation for well over 2000 years. We review the history of the use of LPDs, including the loss of information on their use and the paucity of scientific research on their effectiveness. We discuss the potential for LPDs to be integral components in modern-day livestock husbandry and outline future directions to pursue.
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The foraging and feeding ecology of gray wolves is an essential component to understanding the role that top carnivores play in shaping the structure and function of terrestrial ecosystems. In Yellowstone National Park (YNP), predation studies on a highly visible, reintroduced population of wolves are increasing our understanding of this aspect of wolf ecology. Wolves in YNP feed primarily on elk, despite the presence of other ungulate species. Patterns of prey selection and kill rates in winter have varied seasonally each year from 1995 to 2004 and changed in recent years as the wolf population has become established. Wolves select elk based on their vulnerability as a result of age, sex, and season and therefore kill primarily calves, old cows, and bulls that have been weakened by winter. Summer scat analysis reveals an increased variety in diet compared with observed winter diets, including other ungulate species, rodents, and vegetation. Wolves in YNP hunt in packs and, upon a successful kill, share in the evisceration and consumption of highly nutritious organs first, followed by major muscle tissue, and eventually bone and hide. Wolves are adapted to a feast-or-famine foraging pattern, and YNP packs typically kill and consume an elk every 2-3 d. However, wolves in YNP have gone without fresh meat for several weeks by scavenging off old carcasses that consist mostly of bone and hide. As patterns of wolf density, prey density, weather, and vulnerability of prey change, in comparison with the conditions of the study period described here, we predict that there will also be significant changes in wolf predation patterns and feeding behavior.
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THE FIRST REAL BEGINNING to our understanding of wolf social ecology came from wolf 2204 on 23 May 1972. State depredation control trapper Lawrence Waino, of Duluth, Minnesota, had caught this female wolf 112 km ( 67 mi) south of where L. D. Mech had radio-collared her in the Superior National Forest 2 years earlier. A young lone wolf, nomadic over 100 km2 (40 mi2) during the 9 months Mech had been able to keep track of her, she had then disappeared until Waino caught her. From her nipples it was apparent that she had just been nursing pups. "This was the puzzle piece I needed," stated Mech. "I had already radio-tracked lone wolves long distances, and I had observed pack members splitting off and dispersing. My hunch was that the next step was for loners to find a new area and a mate, settle down, produce pups, and start their own pack. Wolf 2204 had done just that."
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We examined wolf Canis lupus attacks on domestic dogs C familiaris in six Finnish wolf territories occupied by mated pairs and packs. Most incidents (76%, N = 21 confirmed cases) took place inside one territory. The wolves mostly (70%) attacked dogs in house yards. It appeared that wolves in the territory were actively seeking for dogs rather than killing them as a result of random encounters. A strong tendency to attack dogs seemed to be adopted by pups born to the wolf pack. We did not find evidence that the density of primary prey or resident dogs were associated with the risk of wolf attacks.
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Wolves (Canis lupus) were once common throughout North America but were deliberately exterminated in the lower 48 United States, except in northeastern Minnesota, primarily because of depredations on livestock. Wolves remained abundant in areas with few livestock such as most of Canada and Alaska. Sixty years after being nearly exterminated, the gray wolf was listed under the United States Endangered Species Act (Act) in 1974. The combination of natural recovery in NW Montana, and reintroduction in central Idaho and the Greater Yellowstone area (NW Wyoming, eastern Idaho, and SW Montana) has resulted in an expanding wolf population (Bangs et al. 1998). In this paper we discuss our attempts to minimize conflicts between wolves and livestock and to build human tolerance for restoring wolf populations.
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Results from a ten-year study of livestock guarding dogs show that the dogs are an effective tool for reducing predation. Average reduction attained by five strains of dogs (Anatolian Shepherds, Maremmas, Shar Planinetz, Anatolian/ Shars, Maremma/Shars) was 64%, with predation reduced to zero for 53% of reporting producers in 1986. Variations in trustworthy, attentive and protective behavior of the dogs were breed-specific, and offer mechanisms for improving the system.
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The ethical milieu in which wildlife biologists and livestock producers work continues to change as the concepts of environmentalism and animal rights and welfare have become introduced and normalized (Singer, 1975). The American public, including livestock producers, are mired within a typically human psychological quagmire of having a high demand for benefit, but a low tolerance for cost — that is, economic forces. Americans tend to demand a cheap, reliable food supply, while simultaneously demanding the existence of animals that, through predation activities, drive up production costs. Ironically, members of the urban public who may find fault with food and fiber production practices are also the customers on which livestock producers are dependent. In the United States, predation management has evolved from an attempt to eradicate or limit predator populations to the application of focused approaches for minimizing the damage done by predators. For coyotes, very large scale population suppression (using 1080), was restricted and sometimes apparently ineffective (Wagner, 1988). Other authors could find little correlation between the number of coyotes removed and the number of sheep kills at a California ranch (Conner et al., 1998). Further studies suggested that at least in some areas, dominant territorial coyotes are responsible for most sheep predation but typical lethal control methods tend to bias capture toward coyotes that are less likely to be livestock killers, thus, typical lethal methods such as trapping, snaring, and using M-44s are sometimes inefficient for solving depredation problems (Sacks et al. 1999, Blejwas et al. 2002). Lethal control methods are also often at odds with conservation needs (Shivik et al., 2003; Haber, 1996) and the general public favors the use of nonlethal methods of predation management in many situations (Reiter et al., 1999). Non-lethal methods provide a means of keeping predators established, while protecting livestock from predation and thus, a great amount of effort has been spent identifying and evaluating non-lethal predation-management options (Linnell et al., 1996). Effects of territoriality may improve efficiency of non-lethal methods relative to lethal control. Because predators, such as coyotes and wolves, are territorial and relatively long-lived, multi-year effects of management actions are possible, in contrast to lethal control which tends to be required annually (Bromely and Gese, 2001a,b). One goal of nonlethal methods with territorial species is to develop a bioexclusive effect such that resident predators do not kill livestock themselves, but further prevent losses by excluding other predators from the area. The field and body of knowledge on non-lethal techniques is growing, and a need exists to categorize and understand the plethora of methods that are being advertised by both scientists and charlatans. The objective of this paper is to provide a descriptive outline of nonlethal methods for predation management and to identify hindrances to their use and future development. I have performed a basic search of non-lethal methods that are available. These methods have been categorized and then discussed. Note that inclusion of a method in this paper is not an endorsement or guarantee of effectiveness of the technique; the effective application of any management method will depend upon the particulars of the management situation. Many methods that are applicable in small pasture situations, for instance, may have little or no applicability in large, open-range situations.
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This book contains 16 chapters that are divided into 2 main parts. The first part discusses the study and applications of animal behaviour; the genetic and physiological aspects of behaviour; the evolution of behaviour; the effects of domestication on animal behaviour; motivation and organization of behaviour; learning and cognition; social and reproductive behaviour; abnormal behaviour, stress and welfare and human animal relationships. The second part contains chapters that describe the species-specific behaviours of poultry, horses, cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, dogs, cats and laboratory mice and rats.
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We investigated wolf (Canis lupus)- and dog-livestock conflicts (1992-1995) and costs of compensation (1991-1995) in the Tuscany region of central Italy. The regional indemnity program cost US $345,000 (± 93,000 SD) annually. Most depredations (95.2%) involved sheep, with a mean (± SD) annual loss of 2,550 ± 730 sheep, or 0.35% of the regional stock. Sheep lost to predators by province were correlated with sheep density within areas containing wolves (r(s)= 0.88, n = 9, P = 0.0015), but marked geographical and temporal fluctuations were reported in compensation costs. Highest levels of conflict were observed in the provinces at the border of the regional wolf range, where livestock was left unattended most of the year and sheep density reached its highest regional levels. Based on 527 reports of approved claims during 1992-1995 from the National Health System, depredations were highly seasonal, increasing steadily from spring to early fall, possibly following trends in sheep availability on pastures and density fluctuations of local wolf packs. An average of 3 sheep (range = 1-18) were killed per attack (n = 483), and 42% of the attacks involved killing of ≤2 sheep. Additionally, 21-113 sheep were killed or attacked in mass slaughters which comprised 2.3% of the depredation events and 19% of the sheep lost. Depredations also resulted in 35% (n = 168) of sheep injured and 33% (n = 158) missing. Most sheep depredations occurred during the night, in pastures interspersed with wood or vegetative cover, and involved free-ranging flocks unattended by either the shepherd or guard dogs. High levels of conflict occurred in localized areas of intensive sheep production; 6% of the affected farms and 8% of the affected municipalities accounted for 32% of the sheep lost to both wolves and dogs at the regional level. Compensation programs alone were not effective in reducing the conflict or in preventing illegal, private efforts to control wolf numbers. Improved husbandry should be encouraged and facilitated through financial incentives and public education.
Article
Field tests to evaluate electric fencing for protecting pastured sheep from coyote predation were conducted in North Dakota and Kansas in 1977 and 1978. In 1979, 37 western sheep producers using electric fences to exclude coyotes were interviewed and relevant data were recorded and analyzed. An all-electric 12-wire, 168-cm-high fence with alternately charged and grounded wires spaced 13 and 15 cm apart stopped ongoing coyote predation on the two North Dakota test sites. Four or five strands of electrified wire, offset 13 cm from existing woven and barbed wire sheep fences, effectively prevented further coyote predation at two Kansas sites. Sheep producers interviewed expressed a high to moderate degree of satisfaction with the use of electric fencing as a coyote management technique. However, sheep management practices on two-thirds of the ranches remained unchanged after electric fence installation and nearly all producers continued to use other control methods. Sixty percent of the producers stated that they experienced some type of maintenance problems but many of these problems may have been due to poor construction techniques or a failure to check their fences periodically. Cost-benefit factors associated with the use of electric fencing, study limitations, and further research needs are discussed.
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We interviewed 21 sheep farmers and evaluated their electric fences to identify problems and determine efficacy of electric fences to prevent coyote (Canis latrans) predation. Modified woven wire fences and fences of 9 high-tensile smooth wires alternating charged and grounded were most effective in preventing coyote predation. The most serious problems in fence design and maintenance were a) bottom charged wire too high above ground level, b) wires spaced too far apart, and c) inadequate vegetation control.
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Wildlife species have an important role in our environment and they provide many recreational, economic, and aesthetic benefits. Management of these species is necessary, however, when they cause damage to agricultural, industrial, and natural resources, and threaten personal property, public health, and safety. Published estimates indicate that commensal rodents, field rodents, and predators combined, cause >$2 billion in damage in North America annually. Because of the social and economic impacts of wildlife damage, there is a need for up-to-date information on the prevention and control of wildlife damage for producers, resource managers, administrators, and the public. The book, "Prevention and Control of Wildlife Damage," edited by Robert M. Timm (1983) (Handbook) has served as the principal reference in this field. The Handbook currently contains 65 chapters (650 pages) by 45 authors who are recognized as authorities in wildlife damage management. Over 8,500 copies have been sold and are being used by personnel from the U.S. Department of Agriculture -Extension Service (ES) and Division of Animal Damage Control (ADC), natural resources agencies, municipalities, private pest control operations and others throughout the United States, as well as other countries. The Handbook has been reprinted four times and was recognized by the Natural Resources Council of America as "Outstanding Book for 1983." Previous Handbook sponsors include the University of Nebraska-Cooperative Extension (UNCE), ES, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the Great Plains Agricultural Council.
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Improving traditional fencing with electric wires significantly protected sheep from wolf attacks in an area experiencing high losses in Norway 2002. The attack frequency on pastures with traditional fencing was 5-6 times higher than on pastures with improved fences. Also, attacked pastures lay farther from houses than pastures not attacked, which supports the use of night closures near farmyards.
Article
Wolf (Canis lupus) depredations on livestock cause considerable conflict and expense in Minnesota. Furthermore, claims are made that such depredations are fostered by the type of animal husbandary practiced. Thus, we tried to detect factors that might predispose farms in Minnesota to wolf depredations. We compared results of interviews with 41 cattle farmers experiencing chronic cattle losses to wolves (chronic farms) with results from 41 nearby "matched" farms with no wolf losses to determine farm characteristics or husbandry practices that differed and that therefore might have affected wolf depredations. We also used a Geographic Information System (GIS) to detect any habitat differences between the 2 types of farms. We found no differences between chronic and matched farms in the 11 farm characteristics and management practices that we surveyed, except that farms with chronic losses were larger, had more cattle, and had herds farther from human dwellings. Habitat types were the same around farms with and without losses. The role of proper carcass disposal as a possible factor predisposing farms to wolf depredations remains unclear.
Article
Thirty-four electric and nonelectric wire fence configurations were evaluated for deterrent effect to coyotes (Canis latrans). Tests of fences were conducted using a conditioned test regime or live prey to elicit fence-crossing responses from 15 captive coyotes during 980 exposures to fences. Fence height and mesh size were important factors in controlling jumping over and crawling through, respectively. Overhangs and aprons were necessary to preclude climbing over and crawling under fences. Electric fences generally were not effective deterrents under test conditions. Construction of a fence necessary to deter all methods of crossing is described. Subsequent field tests have verified the suitability of such a fence to control losses of sheep to coyotes.
Article
Highlight: An electric fence with alternating ground and charged wires was tested for anti-coyote properties. Under the conditions tested, the fence was coyote proof. The fence may evolve as an effective, nonlethal method of preventing coyote depredation of domestic livestock. Fencing as a means of excluding canid predators from domestic livestock has received continued interest for many years. Modern use of barrier fencing as a nonlethal method for controlling canid depre-dation on domestic livestock began in Australia about 1900. By 1908, 9,012 km of dingo (Canis dingo) fencing had been built in South Australia (McKnight 1969). In the United States, "coyote proof" fencing for protecting sheep was described in 1911 (Jardine). Al-though a "coyote proof" fence conceivably could have beendesigned, the fence configuration developed by Jardine (19 11) certainly was not ' 'coyote proof. ' ' Since that time, various researchers have tested a multitude of fence designs to deter coyotes (Canis lutrans). Because of the relatively low cost involved, electric fencing has been a concept of particular interest. Unfortunately, the results of research on electric fencing have been discouraging. Shelton (1973) concluded that poor grounding of the coyote and the insulating effect of vegetation and fur on the animal's body reduced the electric shock to the extent that the electric fences tested were ineffective in deterring coyotes. Thompson (1976) evaluated 18 electric fence configurations and observed that in 466 tests, coyotes responded to the electric shock only 13 times. Consequently, he concluded that electric fences were generally ineffective for controlling coyotes. Occasional undocu-mented reports of effective use of electric fencing for warding off coyotes and dogs (Canis~umiliuris) are heard of. These reports have kept alive interest concerning eventual development of practical, effective electric anti-predator fencing. The obvious attributes of such a fence would be (1) relatively low cost, (2) environmental accepta-bility, and (3) immediate availability. The purpose of this study was to develop and evaluate practical electric fencing that would effectively protect sheep from coyotes.
Article
Wolves (Canis lupus) (9 females and 2 males from 4 packs), were radio-tracked in a large Polish woodland in Bialowieza Primeval Forest in 1996–1999. Based on 360 days of radio tracking with locations taken at 30- or 15-min intervals, daily movement distances (DMDs) of wolves and their utilization of territories were analyzed. DMDs averaged 22.1 km for females and 27.6 km for males. In reproductive and subadult females, DMDs varied seasonally, with the shortest daily routes in May and the longest in autumn–winter. Little seasonal variation was observed in nonbreeding and unsuccessfully breeding adult females. An adult male covered the longest DMDs in February (mating season). The mean speed of travelling wolves was 2.2 km/h. Wolves' hunting activity affected the length and speed of their movements, both of which were higher before than after a kill was made. With growing abundance of prey, DMDs of wolves became shorter. Snow cover and rainfall had a negligible effect on wolf travel. The mean straight-line distance between consecutive daily locations (SLD) was 4.4 km, i.e., on average, 21% of the actual route covered by wolves. Daily ranges utilized by wolves averaged 21.4 km2, or 9% of the whole territory. Variation in SLDs and daily ranges was shaped predominantly by mating, breeding, and pup rearing. The pattern of territory use by wolves differed between seasons. In spring–summer, their movements concentrated around the breeding den and rendezvous sites, and the areas used on consecutive days overlapped extensively. In autumn–winter, wolves moved widely and utilized their territory in a rotational way, returning to the same parts every 6 days, on average. Rotational use is related to intense patrolling and defense of territory, but may also help wolves to avoid behavioral depression of prey availability.
Article
The study determined the species components of the diets of small ruminants grazing mountain ranges of the Montseny Biosphere Reserve (Catalunya, NE Spain). Three mixed flocks of sheep and goats, led by shepherds, were monitored for a year. Animals grazed a mountain rangeland composed of Qeurcus ilex woodland and Calluna-Erica heathland during the day and were returned to their corrals every night. Diet selection was estimated using fecal analysis. Of the 111 species that were identified, 71 were common to both sheep and goat. Of these, 23 were represented in proportions of more than 1% of the annual diet. Even though goats and sheep grazed together, their diets were significantly different (p < 0.0001), the animal factor accounting for 18% to 60% of the total variation among the main diet components. Variation between seasons was also a major (5% to 56%) highly significant factor, while differences between flocks accounted for a significant, but relatively small part (3% to 10%) of the total variation in diet. The outstanding difference was the avoidance of the tree, Quercus ilex, by the sheep while the goats selected it throughout the year. Sheep selected graminoids throughout the year while goats tended to avoid them. For the rest there.was substantial overlap in species composition between the diet of sheep and goats, especially when analysed over an entire cycle.
Article
Heathlands in the northwest of Spain have been traditionally used by domestic herbivores as a food resource. However, their abandonment in the past decades has promoted a high incidence of wildfires, threatening biodiversity. Sheep and goats exhibit different grazing behavior, affecting rangelands dynamics in a different way, but the botanical and structural composition may also affect such dynamics. The aim of this article was to compare the grazing effects of sheep and goats on three different heathland types: previously burned grass- or gorse (Ulex gallii Planchon)-dominated and unburned heather (Erica spp.)- dominated shrublands. Two grazing treatments (sheep or goats) were applied in each vegetation type in a factorial design with two replicates (12 experimental plots). A small fenced area was excluded from grazing in each plot (control treatment). The experiment was carried out from 2003 to 2006, and the grazing season extended from May to October–November. Plant cover, canopy height, and phytomass amount and composition were assessed in each plot. Results showed that goats controlled shrub encroachment, phytomass accumulation, and canopy height more than sheep in either burned grass– and gorse– and unburned heather–dominated shrublands. It was accompanied by a higher increase of herbaceous species under goat grazing. Nevertheless, plant dynamics showed different trends between the three vegetation types studied. Grazing effects were more important in previously burned grass-dominated heathlands than in unburned heather-dominated shrublands. At the end of the experiment (May 2006), shrub cover, height, and woody phytomass were significantly higher in the ungrazed enclosures than in the grazed plots. Small ruminant grazing, especially with goats, is proposed as an efficient tool to reduce shrub encroachment and woody phytomass accumulation in heathlands, thus reducing fire hazard, although these grazing effects depend on heathland composition.
Article
Chronic stress occurs when animals are unable to deal with a persistent stressor with species-typical responses, or when several stressors are present concurrently. Chronic stress is most frequently considered in intensive systems, but it may also be a welfare concern for extensively managed species, such as the sheep. Here we review behavioural and physiological responses of sheep to experimentally induced chronic stressors to determine relevant indicators of chronic stress. Neuroendocrine responses to chronic stress are difficult to interpret because initial responses are followed by an apparent normalisation. Thus, cortisol or catecholamines may be at or below pre-stress levels during chronic stress, but this varies with different stressors. Chronic stress can also affect reproductive function, impair body and wool growth and meat quality, reduce immune function, and is associated with greater parasite burdens in sheep. Chronic stress induces alterations in behaviour patterns, particularly activity and feeding, and circadian rhythms of behaviour. Stereotypic behaviours, however, are infrequent in sheep and may occur only in experimental conditions of social isolation. Behavioural and physiological data suggest that rough handling and sheepdogs may be sources of chronic stress for sheep. Social subordination and weaning also act as chronic stressors, leading to higher parasitism in these animals and a greater response to additional stressors. Lameness and parasitism are associated with physiological and behavioural responses indicating that these are severe forms of chronic stress in sheep. It is unclear whether environmental stressors, such as weather and food availability, induce chronic stress in sheep. Under-nutrition may, however, be a welfare concern through its impact on lamb survival. The existence of many sources of chronic stress in the management of sheep suggests that the welfare of this species requires more attention than it has currently received.
Article
To use behaviours as indicators of stress it is important to understand their underlying causation. For a prey animal in the wild, such as a sheep, behavioural responses have evolved to evade detection and capture by predators. The behavioural responses of the wild ancestors of domestic sheep to the threat of predation are characterised predominantly by vigilance, flocking, flight to cover and behavioural inhibition once refuge has been reached. Some limited defensive behaviours are seen, mainly in females with young against small predators. Vigilance and flight distance are affected by the animal's assessment of risk and are influenced by the environment, social group size, age, sex and reproductive condition, as well as by previous experience with potential predators. Under conditions of stress, domestic sheep show similar behavioural reactions to wild sheep, although the threshold at which they are elicited may be elevated. This is particularly evident when comparing less selected hill breeds with more highly selected lowland breeds, and suggests that a continuum of responsiveness exists between wild and feral sheep, through hill breeds to the lowland sheep breeds. However, this may be confounded by the previous experience of the breeds, particularly their familiarity with humans. Behavioural and neurobiological evidence suggests that, although the behavioural response to predators (vigilance, flight) is innate, the stimuli that elicit this behavioural pattern may have a learned component. Since vigilance and flight distances are affected by the animal's perception of threat, they may be useful indices of stress in sheep and, as graded responses, give some indication of the level of threat experienced by the sheep. Thus they may indicate the amount of fear or distress experienced by the sheep and hence hove the potential to be used in the assessment of welfare states. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
We investigated wolf feeding habits in relation to the abundance of wild and domestic ungulates to test the hypothesis that large prey are preferred and that their abundance affects the use of other food categories and diet breadth. We determined diet composition by scat analysis from December 1987 to December 1992. The research was carried out in three study areas located in northern Italy and characterised by marked differences in wild and domestic ungulate abundance. In study area A (low wild and domestic ungulate availability) fruits, livestock, other vertebrates and wild ungulates made up the bulk of the diet (71% in volume). In area B (high availability of livestock) wolf diet was mainly based on sheep and wild boars (80% in volume). In study area C (high availability of wild ungulates) wild ungulates were the main food of wolves (90% in volume). Significant differences were found among study areas in the mean percentage volume of all food categories and in particular for wild ungulates, livestock, other vertebrates and fruits (p < 0.0001 in all cases). Diet breadth decreased in areas with high availability of large wild and domestic herbivores. The use of livestock species was lower where there was high abundance, richness and diversity of the wild ungulate guild. Selection for wild ungulate species was partially affected by their abundance: however other factors as prey social behaviour, adaptability to the habitat (for introduced species), and body size could have an important role in species selection by wolves. In particular in area C wild boars were selected for, roe and red deers avoided, and fallow deers and mouflons used as available. Livestock species were used in relation to their abundance and accessibility, in particular sheep were selected for and cattle avoided; but if calves bom in the pastures were considered as the only available cattle, they were selected for and sheep were used as available.
Article
1. The recent recovery of the wolf in southern Europe has not yet removed the risk of local extinction. Wolf populations are fragmented and often comprise fewer than 500 individuals. In North America, northern and eastern Europe, wolves feed mainly on wild herbivores. In southern Europe, this canid has apparently adapted to feed also on fruit, rubbish, livestock, small and medium-size mammals. 2. The main conservation problem lies with predation on domestic ungulates, which leads to extensive killing of wolves. The reintroduction of wild large herbivores has been advocated as a means of reducing attacks on livestock, but predation on the latter may remain high if domestic ungulates are locally abundant. 3. Our synthesis of 15 studies, published in the last 15 years, on food habits of the wolf in southern Europe, has shown that ungulates have been the main diet component overall. A significant inverse correlation was found between the occurrence (%) of wild and domestic ungulates in the diet. The presence of relatively few wild ungulate species was necessary to reduce predation on livestock. 4. Selection of wild and domestic ungulate prey was influenced mainly by their local abundance, but also by their accessibility. Feeding dependence on rubbish was local and rare. In Italy, the consumption of rubbish/fruit and that of ungulates was significantly negatively correlated. Diet breadth increased as the presence of large prey in the diet decreased. 5. The simultaneous reintroduction of several wild ungulate species is likely to reduce predation on livestock and may prove to be one of the most effective conservation measures.
Article
The Casentinesi Forests, in the northern Apennines, harbour a rich community of wild ungulates, with the wolf representing the largest predator in the area. Between 1993 and 2000, wolf pack distribution in the area was monitored and estimates of pack size were obtained by wolf-howling surveys, snow-tracking, and occasional observations. Three to five packs were detected yearly, with sizes averaging 4.2 ± 0.9 wolves (maximum 7). The overall density in the area was 4.7 wolves per 100 km2; with an average distance between adjacent packs of 11.1 km. The high wolf density in the Casentinesi Forests is mostly related to abundance and size of wild prey. In this, like in other areas at low latitudes, wolf density depends mainly on the number of packs, as pack size is rather small and recruitment limited by early dispersal and high mortality. Three homesites used in several years by resident packs were discovered. Homesite fidelity and pack reproductive success were higher in fully protected rather than harvested areas. Establishing a network of protected areas with high ungulate diversity and abundance is proposed as the main factor for allowing a full recovery of the wolf population in Italy.
Ocena naravne plenske baze volka in priporočila za upravljanje s plenskimi vrstami
  • I Kavčič
  • M Stergar
  • H Potočnik
  • M Krofel
  • K Jerina
Kavčič, I., Stergar, M., Potočnik, H., Krofel, M., Jerina, K., 2011. Ocena naravne plenske baze volka in priporočila za upravljanje s plenskimi vrstami. Poročilo akcije A.3 projekta Life+ SloWolf. http://www.volkovi.si/images/stories/Irena/a.3 plenska%20bazafin. pdf, (05.11.12).
Analiza odškodninskih zahtevkov zaškodozaˇzaškodo, ki so jo povzročilě zivali zavarovanih vrst v letu
ARSO, 2005–2010. Analiza odškodninskih zahtevkov zaškodozaˇzaškodo, ki so jo povzročilě zivali zavarovanih vrst v letu 2005–2010.
V Sloveniji smo volkove spremenili v poligamno vrsto (interview). Dnevnik
  • M Krofel
Krofel, M., 2012. V Sloveniji smo volkove spremenili v poligamno vrsto (interview). Dnevnik, 10 Oct 2012, p 7.