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Training methods and owner–dog interactions: Links with dog behaviour and learning ability

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Abstract

The methods by which owners train their pet dogs range widely, with some exclusively using rewards, and others using a combination, or only punishment-based methods. This paper examines links between the way in which owners reported to have trained their dogs and observations of the dogs’ subsequent behaviour. It also explores associations between behaviour of owner and dog when tested in their own home. A total of 53 owners were surveyed about their preferred methods for training each of seven common tasks, and were each filmed interacting with their dog in a series of standardised scenarios. Dogs owned by subjects who reported using a higher proportion of punishment were less likely to interact with a stranger, and those dogs whose owners favoured physical punishment tended to be less playful. However, dogs whose owners reported using more rewards tended to perform better in a novel training task. Ability at this novel task was also higher in dogs belonging to owners who were seen to be more playful and who employed a patient approach to training. This study shows clear links between a dog's current behaviour and its owner's reported training history as well as the owner's present behaviour. High levels of punishment may thus have adverse effects upon a dog's behaviour whilst reward based training may improve a dog's subsequent ability to learn.

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... Further, data indicate that the family dog (Canis familiaris) is a reliable and valid animal model to study complex human functions 23 not only at the behavioural but also at the neural level (for review, see 24,25 ). Training methods 26 , training styles 27,28 , duration and frequency of training sessions 29 , and the type of activity after learning 30,31 have all been reported to influence the dogs' memory performance. Consistent with the human and rodent literature [32][33][34] , in dogs, mild stress enhances 35,36 whereas strong stress impairs learning 28 . ...
... Training methods 26 , training styles 27,28 , duration and frequency of training sessions 29 , and the type of activity after learning 30,31 have all been reported to influence the dogs' memory performance. Consistent with the human and rodent literature [32][33][34] , in dogs, mild stress enhances 35,36 whereas strong stress impairs learning 28 . Further, both pro-and retroactive interference effects were also apparent in the case of dogs, particularly in the context of olfaction 37 and spatial learning 38 . ...
... For instance, differences in dog personality traits, level of motivation, owners' style of training, or the dogs' prior experiences in training and working with unfamiliar trainers may have contributed to variance in the data. However, in dog research these cofounding factors usually contribute to mild variance 28,67,68 , to attenuate most of the effect of these unaccounted factors, dogs were carefully selected and balanced with permissive and strict owners and training levels within conditions. Dogs, being popular companion animals, live in close proximity with humans. ...
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In dogs, as in humans, both emotional and learning pretreatment affect subsequent behaviour and sleep. Although learning often occurs in an emotional-social context, the emotion-learning interplay in such context remain mainly unknown. Aims were to assess the effects of Controlling versus Permissive (emotional factors) training (learning factors) styles on dogs’ behaviour, learning performance, and sleep. Family dogs (N = 24) participated in two command learning sessions employing the two training styles with each session followed by assessment of learning performance, a 2-h-long non-invasive sleep EEG measurement, and a retest of learning performance. Pre- to post-sleep improvement in learning performance was evident in dogs that received the Permissive training during the second learning session, indicating that dogs that experienced a more rewarding situation than expected (positive expectancy violation) during the second training session showed improved learning success after their afternoon sleep. These results possibly indicate an interactive effect of expectancy violation and sleep on enhancing learning.
... While many studies acquired information about the owners' behavioral characteristics using questionnaires (e.g. 8,9,10,11 ), only few studies used behavioral observations to analyze the way dog owners interact with their pet dogs 12,13,14,15,16,17,18 . However, these latter studies investigated the behavior of dog owners in only a few contexts (ranging between one 12,13,15,17 and three 16 , and mainly contexts with positive valence (e.g. ...
... 8,9,10,11 ), only few studies used behavioral observations to analyze the way dog owners interact with their pet dogs 12,13,14,15,16,17,18 . However, these latter studies investigated the behavior of dog owners in only a few contexts (ranging between one 12,13,15,17 and three 16 , and mainly contexts with positive valence (e.g. play 12,14,15 )), and only three of these studies were conducted in a standardized environment 14,15,17 . ...
... play 12,14,15 )), and only three of these studies were conducted in a standardized environment 14,15,17 . Moreover, most studies focused on training methods 4,11,16,19 , applied by owners in specific contexts, like teaching a dog a specific behavior or modifying undesired ones. However, formal training is just one way that owners interact with their dogs and it may depend not only on the owners' own characteristics but also on the dog school they attend. ...
... Beyond immediate welfare effects, dogs exposed to aversive training methods were less successful at completing a novel training task and showed a more pessimistic bias on a spatial cognitive bias test than those trained with non-aversive methods [10,11]. Dogs trained with aversive methods were less interactive during play solicited by an owner and were less likely to interact with a stranger in a relaxed environment [11]. ...
... Beyond immediate welfare effects, dogs exposed to aversive training methods were less successful at completing a novel training task and showed a more pessimistic bias on a spatial cognitive bias test than those trained with non-aversive methods [10,11]. Dogs trained with aversive methods were less interactive during play solicited by an owner and were less likely to interact with a stranger in a relaxed environment [11]. Similarly, dogs trained with aversive methods spent less time gazing at their owners during training and showed avoidance behavior whereas those in non-aversive conditions did not [8]. ...
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While there has been recent attention in the scientific community on the ethical and welfare implications of different dog training methods, less research has investigated what methods and training tools United States dog guardians use, where they obtain information about dog training, and the reasons they give for their choices of method. We conducted two surveys with nearly 800 Arizona State University undergraduate students to gain a more realistic look into how dog guardians in the United States train their dogs and where they are receiving their training information. Only 5% of respondents reported utilizing a trainer when they had concerns regarding their dog’s behavior; 60% would ask a friend or family member or seek advice online. Few reported taking their dog to any training classes; 70% reported either training the dog themselves or not implementing any formal training. When asked general questions, most respondents reported using rewards-based methods but, when asked about specific problem behaviors, 57% of respondents noted that they would use auditory or physical corrections. Respondents who trained with rewards-based methods reported that these methods of training were more effective significantly more frequently than those who trained with mixed methods reported that those methods were most effective (Fisher’s Exact Test, p < 0.01).
... When designed from a multidisciplinary perspective including cognition, ethology, welfare, and behavior analysis, interventions can modify interactions between animals and their conspecifics or humans [18][19][20][21], resolve unwanted behaviors [22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34][35][36][37], temporarily increase enrichment usage, and expand the learner's behavioral repertoire [38] while ensuring good welfare. When an intervention's scope does not consider how the intervention impacts the learner, interventions focus on the elimination of behavior via punishment and aversive control [39], leading to outcomes that include fear, anxiety, pain, stress, aggression, and a negatively impacted dog-handler relationship [18,32,34,[40][41][42][43][44][45]. ...
... Further, while most dogs demonstrated reduced welfare after experiencing harsh training methods, some did not. Many factors may contribute to this finding, including but not limited to the dog's breed [99,109,165,169,170], physical conformation [99], temperament [99], sex [171], age, [36], physiological measures, medical conditions including behavioral diagnosis [172], rearing and learning history [18,33,34,40,99], overall quality of life before, during, and after training, owner attachment and caregiving style [172][173][174][175], dog's motivation to perform the skill being trained, if the skill being trained with shock ultimately allowed for greater access to reinforcement, level of shock or type of aversive, number of aversive applications, inclusion of reinforcement, training methodology (appropriate criteria setting, correct timing, etc.), and procedural integrity. In military dogs, suspicion of previous rough handling, along with less time spent with the handler, was associated with fear and aggression, while dogs that lived with their handlers were more social [174]. ...
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Simple Summary Pet dogs are more prone to exhibit challenging behaviors than ever before. Dog trainers are increasingly tasked with helping pet owners resolve behavior issues, not just teach their charges good manners. The interventions used by professionals to help ameliorate behavior complaints must be evidence-based and include the effectiveness of the intervention, how the intervention is perceived by the learner, and how the intervention affects the learner’s quality of life before, during, and after behavior intervention procedures. The objective of this paper is to review literature from multiple scientific disciplines and demonstrate how concepts from applied behavior analysis and the animal welfare sciences can be used together to ensure that the animal undergoing intervention experiences good welfare during the training process. Abstract Social validity refers to the social significance and acceptability of intervention goals, procedures, and outcomes. Animal practitioners, who are often guided by the principles of ABA, lack the benefit of verbal participants (at least with respect to target animals) with which to assess a client’s needs and preferences. The study of a learner’s welfare is useful for determining areas where intervention is needed or how the learner feels about an intervention that is underway. Three tenets of animal welfare measurement include physiological function, naturalistic behavior, and affect, where affect refers to private events, including emotions, which are a function of the same variables and contingencies responsible for controlling public behavior. The development of new technologies allows us to look “under the skin” and account for subjective experiences that can now be observed objectively. We introduce the reader to tools available from the animal welfare sciences for the objective measurement of social validity from the learner’s perspective.
... Multiple studies have demonstrated that the relationship between a dog and human caretaker can influence the dog's social behavior, including behavior towards unfamiliar people (Barrera et al. 2010). Rooney and Cowan (2011) found that owners who were less patient while teaching their dog a new task and engaged in more physical punishment with their dogs owned dogs that spent less time with an unfamiliar person and were less playful with their owner. Another study found that increased risk of aggression in dogs towards a familiar and unfamiliar person was associated with the use of physical punishment or negative reinforcement when the dogs were trained (Casey et al. 2014), a finding that has been supported in other studies (Blackwell et al. 2008;van Kampen 2015). ...
... Research has also shown that many dogs will persist at a task for longer durations when encouraged to do so by their owners (Udell 2015). Dogs that have owners who have high levels of patience, positive interactions (such as play behaviors), and engage in less physical punishment and more positive reinforcement have been shown to be more successful at learning new tasks (Rooney and Cowan 2011). This is consistent with findings from the human literature, where children with authoritative parents have been found to be more successful and motivated in academic pursuits and more persistent in challenging situations compared to children with authoritarian, permissive, or uninvolved parents (Baumrind 1967;Dornbusch et al. 1987;Spera 2005;Cipriano and Stifter 2010). ...
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The behavior and cognition of pet domestic dogs (Canis lupus familiaris) has drawn increasing scientific attention over the last several decades. One area of focus has been the influence of lifetime variables, including the home environment and prior experiences, on the social and problem-solving behavior of dogs. While the human–dog relationship has become an important area of study, only a few studies have empirically investigated how the quality of that relationship may influence a dog’s performance on behavioral or cognitive tasks. In the current study, we asked if a human caretaker’s self-reported expectations and patterns of responding towards their dog (Pet Parenting Style) would predict the dog’s social and problem-solving behavior. Owners who had previously been asked to complete a Pet Parenting Style survey were later invited to have their dogs participate in three behavioral tests: The Secure Base Test, a Sociability Test and the Solvable Task. Consistent with the human development literature, results indicated that Pet Parenting Styles did predict patterns of dog behavior and cognition on these tests. On average, dogs with authoritative owners (high expectations, high responsiveness) had the highest rate of secure attachment, were highly social, sensitive to social context and were more persistent and successful on the problem-solving task than dogs with authoritarian owners (high expectations and low responsiveness) and permissive owners (low expectations, low responsiveness). These findings suggest that the quality and style of individual dog–human relationships, including Pet Parenting Style, may be relevant when evaluating and interpreting outcomes of canine cognition research.
... Korku veya anksiyeteye bağlı saldırganlık durumlarında potansiyel hedefler hayvandan uzak tutulmalıdır. 27,28,30 Evcil hayvanın uyaranlara sürekli maruz kalması hayvanda bu duruma alışmanın aksine duyarlı hale gelmeye neden olmaktadır. Köpekler korku yaratan uyarana karşı, düşük seviyede kontrollü bir şekilde maruz bırakılarak karşıt koşullandırma ve sistemik duyarsızlaştırma (hayvanda kaygı oluşturan herhangi bir nesne veya duruma karşı yavaş yavaş maruz kalma programı) çalışmaları yapılmalıdır. ...
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ÖZET Kedi ve köpeklerde anksiyete "geleceği beklenen tehdit" için duyulan kaygıyı tanımlar. Anksi-yetenin hangi durumlarda problem haline geleceği, uyaranların ve çevrenin bu duruma katkısı, anksiyetenin teşhisinde nelere dikkat edileceği, tedavisinde kullanılabilecek ilaçlar ve davranışsal değişiklikler hakkında bilgi verilmeye çalışılmıştır. Anahtar Keli meler: Anksiyete; korku; davranış; kedi; köpek ABSTRACT Anxiety in cats and dogs defines worry about the 'anticipated threat'. It has been tried to give information about when anxiety will become a problem, the contribution of stimuli and the environment to this situation, what should be considered in the diagnosis of anxiety, the drugs that can be used in its treatment and behavioral changes...BİRDANE,Fatih M. ; KAYA, Emre (2023). Affektif Bozukluklar (Anksiyete Bozuklukları, Duygu Durum Bozuklukları).. Affective Disorders (Anxiety Disorders, Mood Disorders). In: Kedi ve Köpeklerde Psikiyatrik Hastalıklar ve Tedavileri. Ed:Duygu DALĞIN. Türkiye Klinikleri. Veteriner iç Hastalıkları Özel Sayı- 9, 2, 58-6
... Besides studies that have focused on e-collar use, several studies have examined more general impacts of aversive training methods and have reported that dogs experiencing aversive training may have less attachment to their owners [14], show a more pessimistic perspective [15][16][17], and have overall poorer welfare than dogs trained with strictly positivereinforcement methods [18,19]. ...
Article
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Controversy surrounds the efficacy and welfare implications of different forms of dog training with several studies asserting that electronic shock collars have negative welfare impacts while not being more effective than non-aversive methods. However, these studies did not specify the schedule and intensity of punishment used or the effectiveness of the training method. In the current study, we attempted to train dogs across six sessions to desist from chasing a fast-moving lure in one of three randomly assigned conditions and then tested for retention and generalization in four further test trials. Group A was trained with e-collars; Group B was trained with non-aversive methods and the lure moving as with Group A; and Group C was trained as for Group B but with the lure initially moving slowly before its speed was progressively increased. All dogs in Group A stopped running towards the lure after one or two sessions, and none chased the lure in the first three tests: 67% of these dogs chased the lure in the final test in a novel arena. None of the dogs in the either Group B or C successfully refrained from chasing the moving lure in training or any test. Video behavior coding indicated few stress-related behaviors across the training groups.
... Together with a changing human-dog relationship throughout the twentieth century and an increasing consideration of ethical questions in humananimal interactions, new understandings of learning and teaching methods have led to drastic changes in dog training, away from punitive methods toward reward-based training and mutual understanding (Greenebaum 2010;Pręgowski 2015). Studies on different approaches in dog training have also shown that positive reinforcement leads to better results in dog-owner relationships and dog behavior than punitive methods (Rooney and Cowan 2011). In contemporary approaches to dog training, humans and dogs are often considered equals with mutual respect where mutual understanding is the central goal. ...
Article
Pets using “talking buttons” to ostensibly tell their owner about their thoughts and needs have become a huge success on social media. With buttons that upon activation play a prerecorded message, these devices are marketed as tools in teaching human language to animals in order to allow them to “speak their minds.” This article investigates these practices of technologically mediated human-dog interactions through the analysis of social media videos and examines the claim that these button-based interactions are illustrative of animals’ language acquisition. This article concludes that “talking buttons” in human-dog communication should rather be understood as semiotic assemblages in which meaning is collaboratively constructed through the dynamic, situated interaction of bodies, linguistic resources, objects, and touch.
... er benefit (Doré & Mercier, 1992;Rendine et al., 2018). Reinforcements are associated with improved abilities to learn (E. J. Blackwell et al., 2008;Ziv, 2017). To type of reinforcement can be used: the positive reinforcement and the negative one. The latter may increase aggressiveness and fear and should therefore be avoided (Rendine et al., 2018;N. Rooney & Cowan, 2011;Ziv, 2017). Moreover, a positive reinforcement leads to the creation of a strong relationship between a dog and its handler. While negative reinforcement is associated with distraction and lower obedience (Rendine et al., 2018) . Despite these observations, the type of reinforcement remains a matter of debate among handlers: it is still ...
Thesis
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The decomposition of a human corpse is a complex process in which the body’s building blocks (e.g., carbohydrates, proteins, lipids) are broken down into by-products thank to chemical reactions mediated by bacterial activity. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are quickly released, but their diversity and abundance are changing over the course of the decomposition. Although several studies have attempted to characterize its composition, the methodologies used would greatly benefit from being optimized. The characterization of the so-called “the smell of death” can lead to several applications, including the training of police dogs specialized in the location of human remains. Unfortunately, this research topic is still largely understudied. During the present PhD thesis, we have performed two reviews of the scientific literature: (i) on the odor profile of human cadavers and (ii) on the selection and training procedures of “cadaver dogs”. Then, we have set three specific -but complementary- objectives: (i) Optimizing methods for collecting cadaveric compounds, especially in complex environments, and at the same time deciphering the impact of the environment a corpse decays in on the emission of VOCs; (ii) Developing a gas chromatography method to characterize cadaveric VOCs of freshly deceased people; and (iii) Optimizing training conditions for police dogs in order to improve their performance when searching for human bodies. In the first experimental chapter of this thesis, we have evaluated the impact of three environmental conditions on the decomposition of vertebrate cadavers, using rats as surrogate human models: open-air decomposition, underground decomposition, and underwater decomposition. We have developed original methodologies to collect the cadaveric VOCs. In all scenarios, sulfur and nitrogen containing compounds were highlighted. During the open-air decaying process, we found necrophagous insects not only hasten the decaying process, but also impact the diversity of volatiles released at the beginning of the decomposition. When studying underground decomposition, we found the texture of the soil to influence the diffusion of VOCs in surrounding soil layers, where most decomposition VOC could be identified. Finally, while studying immersed vertebrate remains, we collected less cadaveric compounds than in other scenarios, suggesting that many could be dissolved in the water. No influence of the water salinity has been observed on the odor profile released at the water surface. Investigating human cadaveric profile remains a major issue, which justifies the use of animal models (i.e., pig and rats) Limitations in the existing literature dealing with human cadaveric volatilome include the small sample size and the high variability of investigated decomposition stages. In the second experimental chapter, we developed a target ion gas chromatography method to characterize the VOCs profile released by freshly deceased people, a decomposition stage barely studied. We succeeded in identifying 30 cadaveric compounds among which those containing sulfur were the most abundant. The use of dogs to locate decaying remains is common. However, we have very limited information to understand what make these dogs efficient or how they could be efficiently trained to perceive specific cadaveric odors. In the third experimental chapter, we explored the post-training abilities to locate cadaveric volatiles in human remains detection dogs. For the first time, a definition of an efficient detection dog is suggested as well as a method to assess dogs’ performance. Behavioral assays performed on police dogs also highlighted that sulfur containing compounds drive the target recognition, and that they could either belonged to cadaveric compounds or not. To conclude, the results of this thesis provide new and complementary information on the cadaveric volatile profile, as well as on the behavior of human remains detection dogs.
... Again, this finding may be related to the dogs' unmet physical activity needs or lack of consistency in physical activity. As discussed in the Hypotheses on Caretaker Personas Section, under exercised dogs may also become overstimulated and agitated, which can result in high energy levels (Mariti et al., 2018;Herron et al., 2014;Rooney & Cowan, 2011). In addition, the trainability scores of dogs in this group were also lower than other personas. ...
Thesis
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In the last ten years, wearable technologies for animals have become increasingly popular, and activity monitoring systems are one of the most commonly used types of technology. However, there is a limited amount of research on dog activity monitoring systems and their impact on the lives of caretakers and their awareness, despite the growing number of studies on wearable technologies for humans. This thesis aims to fill this gap by conducting a longitudinal study with 30 participants, exploring the dimensions of interaction with dog activity monitoring systems, caretaker personas related to the use of these systems, and their potential to contribute to the caregiving of dogs. The study involves participants using a specific dog activity monitoring device for six weeks, along with in-depth interviews, experience sampling method, and complementary questionnaires. The findings are used to develop the Dog Activity Monitoring Systems-mediated stage-based awareness model that explains how dog activity systems can mediate the human-dog relationship and support the caregiving of dogs.
... However, when considered in the broader context of being fed from the table and possibly subjected to punishment, this might suggest an inconsistent style of dog-owner interaction that may contribute towards the development of HDA rather than specific training effects. Some research [69,70] has claimed that training based on positive reinforcement improves the dog-owner relationship more than the use of aversive training methods. However, any form of effective training will likely involve some form of consistent dog-owner communication and thus potentially increase the dog's autonomy in the environment and reduce frustration. ...
Article
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Human-directed aggression by domestic dogs is a major worldwide public health problem. The causes of aggression are complex, and research in this area often has to balance ecological validity with pragmatic controls; accordingly, it often does not meet the thresholds for quality typically used in reviews applying a classical “evidence-based” approach. Here, we propose a method of literature assessment that makes the “best use” of available evidence to identify and synthesise evidence relating to the most likely risk factors reported in the scientific literature. We used a systematic review process to initially identify relevant literature relating to potential early life experience (i.e., in the first six months of life) risk factors in the dog for human-directed aggression in the adult animal. Fourteen papers met our initial screening process and were subsequently analysed in detail, with data extracted and effect sizes calculated where possible. This highlighted the potential importance of the source of the animal, the age at which it was rehomed, the reason for the acquisition, the experience level of the owner, the animal’s socialisation experiences, the consistent husbandry and management practices, the training, the sex ratio of the litter and the history of dogs that display aggression in the pedigree as risk factors. Taken together, it seems that early experiences which limit the ability to develop effective coping strategies and routines may be particularly important. We provide guidance for the future standardised reporting of risk related to human-directed aggression by dogs to allow greater synthesis of the literature in the future.
... One potential explanation could stem from the historical use of aversive training processes in demonstrating high levels of obedience in dogs, resulting in a vast array of welfare concerns, including low affect; sometimes manifesting as a "shut down" disposition (Casey, Naj-Oleari, Campbell, Mendl, & Blackwell, 2021;Castro et al., 2020). Despite growing evidence on the benefits (Rault, Waiblinger, Boivin, & Hemsworth, 2020;Rooney & Cowan, 2011) of positive reinforcement training techniques (both in terms of behavior, and overall emotional welfare), outdated methods continue to dominate popular culture. This may help explain the view of obedience and personality as interconnected, highlighting potential difficulties resulting from inconsistent human expectations. ...
Article
Whilst dogs are adored companions worldwide, high numbers continue to be relinquished each year due to perceived behavioral concerns. Subsequently, this paper addresses the question; What are guardian's expectations of canine behavior and companionship? A total of 175 participants responded to a qualitative semi-structured survey, distributed online. Following a reflexive thematic analysis , five themes are discussed; A well-balanced dog, Obedient, Affection and Connection, Shared Interests, and Commitment. The findings highlight a wide range of expectations typically moving beyond realistic behavior and capabilities for both dogs and guardians. Resultantly, we call for clearer conceptualization of canine behavior, particularly in relation to the distinction between observable behavior and behavioral interpretations (personality, temperament etc.). Clarification on the facets of dog behavior, in addition to better understanding guardian expectations, will aid the development of educational materials aimed at supporting existing human-dog relationships and the adoption matching process within canine adoptions. Cumulatively, this would aid successful human-dog bonding, reducing the risk for relinquishment. These findings build on the recently proposed Perceived Canine Reactivity Framework.
... A review in 2017 concluded that the use of force in training negatively risks the dog's physical or mental health, while force-free training was just as effective, or possibly even more effective, than training with aversive methods (Ziv, 2017). Use of force, even in conjunction with positive reinforcement increases the likelihood of undesirable behaviours such as fear, aggression and decreases the ability to learn novel tasks (Rooney and Cowan, 2011;Casey et al., 2014). Essentially, the use of force in training, even by a single individual involved in a puppy's training regimen risks "inverse proximal processes" -interactions negatively related to healthy and positive development (Merçon-Vargas et al., 2020). ...
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The use of an ecological model in puppy development research can help to capture the real-world complexity of development factors and outcomes. Using a modified version of Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model, we explored the real-world experiences of 20 Australian adults who had acquired and were subsequently raising a puppy in their home for companionship purposes. Our participants’ experiences offered insights into several gaps in the current literature and potential opportunities for future research. These insights included: (1) researchers should be wary of viewing a puppy’s household as uniform, or static. Each individual within a household provides unique interactions and development opportunities and therefore cannot be a reliable representative of the household at large; (2) knowledge is unlikely to be uni-directional, or deriving from only a single source, even in environments such as puppy classes. How knowledge is transferred, trusted, interpreted, and applied is likely affected by the individual’s own ecological system (such as biases), as well as the characteristics of the relationship between the individuals involved; and (3) puppies both are affected by, and have an effect on, those around them. The arrival of a puppy into a household is likely to change the existing dynamics of that household. These changes may be positive or negative in nature, or both simultaneously. Further research into these findings may help researchers better understand the complex nature of puppy development.
... Domestic dogs have remarkable communicative skills with humans (Hare and Tomasello, 2005) and are a particularly trainable species (e. g., Bray et al., 2021). This may explain why, besides their traditional role as pets in human homes, they are often trained to carry out a wide variety of tasks, both recreationally and with working purposes (Rooney and Cowan, 2011). These abilities are achieved through different training methods and comprise a wide array of behaviors. ...
Article
Prior research with highly trained dogs suggests they may be more successful than pets in independently solving problems when it is possible, yet they may engage in social strategies involving human partners when they face unsolvable tasks. One of the factors underlying these differences may be their persistence, which is usually studied as motivation towards a task. However, highly trained dogs often need to perform long behaviors with no reinforcement, highlighting the need for research focusing on their performance under extinction conditions. In this sense, persistence can be also examined as resistance to extinction. We compared 26 trained and untrained adult dogs of various breeds and mixes on a gazing task and a non-social problem solving task, each following a pattern of acquisition and then extinction. Results indicate that trained dogs exhibited a greater resistance to extinction than untrained dogs in both tasks. This increase in persistence could be beneficial for their performance, particularly when they need to conduct lengthy chains of behaviors with no immediate reinforcement.
... In modern western dog-training culture, punishment of juvenile domestic canids (i.e., hitting or other pain-based stimuli) is seen as counter-productive, as it is thought to commonly result in the dog developing abnormal social behaviours as an adult, especially increased reactivity and/or human-directed aggression (e.g., [124,125] and references therein). However, there have been no studies of the relative merits of rough-handling versus non-rough-handling methods of rearing domestic dogs in the context of contemporary Indigenous Australian communities. ...
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Historical sources and Indigenous oral traditions indicate that Australian Aboriginal people commonly reared and kept the wild-caught pups of dingoes (C. dingo) as tamed companion animals. A review of the available evidence suggests Indigenous communities employed an intense socialisation process that forged close personal bonds between humans and their tame dingoes from an early age. This was complemented by oral traditions which passed down awareness of the dangers to children posed by wild or unfamiliar dingoes, and which communicated the importance of treating dingoes with respect. Together, these practices resulted in what can be interpreted as substantially altered behaviours in tamed dingoes, which, despite their naturally high prey drive, were not considered a serious threat to children and were thus able to be maintained as companion animals in the long term. This relationship is of importance for understanding the original domestication of the dog, as it demonstrates a means by which careful and deliberate socialisation by foragers could both manage risks to children’s safety posed by keeping wild canids in the domestic realm and retain them well into reproductive maturity—both issues which have been highlighted as obstacles to the domestication of dogs from wolves.
... Further differentiation can be seen when examining training methodology by trainer gender. Unlike previous research on dog training which has been heavily skewed toward female respondents (e.g., Koski & Bäcklund, 2015;Rooney & Cowan, 2011;Wlodarczyk, 2018), in this sample, the ratio of male to female trainers was 41-56, with three businesses not specifying the gender of their head trainer. This near 50:50 ratio might be a result of who primarily owns and operates businesses in the United States. ...
Article
Dog trainers’ word choice may provide information about how a trainer understands and relates to the dogs they work with. To date, there has been little analysis of the words trainers use or whether specific words or phrases can readily differentiate the type of training methodology practiced. We gathered demographic and educational information and the stated training philosophy from the websites of 100 dog trainers from 10 US cities, identified by a popular consumer review site, to determine whether there was a difference in word use between training methodologies, if women practiced non-aversive techniques more than men, and if non-aversive trainers were more often certified than aversive trainers. Trainers were identified as using either non-aversive methods (utilizing positive reinforcement and no use of aversive leash tools) or aversive methods (may use positive reinforcement but will also utilize aversive methods to punish) by trainer self-identification or training-tool use. We then qualitatively analyzed the website texts outlining training philosophy using the text analysis software MAXQDA. Specific words or phrases that were selected based on their importance within training were turned into 20 codes that were examined for their context and frequency of use across the 100 philosophies. Some codes differentiated between training methodologies, particularly those related to training-tool use. For example, aversive trainers referred to corrective collars as “electronic collars” and explained their use; non-aversive trainers called the same tool a “shock collar” and stated that it was never used in their training. We found women practiced positive reinforcement training significantly more often than men (χ(2)2 = 12.79, p < 0.05). Positive reinforcement trainers were also significantly more likely to be certified than balanced trainers (χ(2)2 = 18.75, p < 0.01). This shows that there is a wide variability in word use by dog trainers, which leads to inconsistencies in information provided to the public. The low rate of certification also raises concerns about the scarcity of licensing and lax oversight of dog trainers in the USA leading to potential safety risks for both owners and dogs.
... Craig (1918) framed anticipation within a pleasure cycle, representing dopamine dependent anticipatory ('wanting'/positive reward seeking), consummatory ('liking') and satiety (learning) phases (Cabanac, 1992;Sapolsky, 1994;Berridge and Kringelbach, 2011;Schultz, 2015;Cook et al., 2016;Csoltova and Mehinagic, 2020). It is perhaps unsurprising therefore, that positive reinforcement training and interaction (Pet Professional Guild, 2022) has resulted in dogs' attentiveness to owners (Deldalle and Gaunet, 2014), strong dog-owner bonds (de Castro et al., 2019) and better performance at novel training tasks than dogs trained using aversive methods (Rooney and Cowan, 2011); as Cabanac (1992) stated, 'Pleasant is useful'. ...
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Domestic pet dogs typically spend a large amount of time inside the home environment, including hours alone. An audio/food dispensing automated device (an artificial agent, hereafter agent) was evaluated for enrichment potential. The agent issued owner-spoken verbal cues to dogs, and food rewards for correct behavioural responses. The dogs’ welfare during interaction was examined using Qualitative Behavioural Assessment (QBA), and results were compared with quantitative behavioural measurements. QBA is a ‘whole animal’ measure, which describes and quantifies the emotionally expressive quality of an animal’s demeanour in a specific context, using descriptive terms such as ‘excited’ or ‘curious’. Adult pet domestic dogs (n = 17) were observed in two experimental conditions: 1) Agent; researcher and owner present (A+RO); 2) Agent; researcher and owner absent (A-RO). The agent was remotely triggered to call each dog by name and issue up to four repeated, randomised and previously trained verbal cues e.g., ‘spin’, ‘roll’, ‘sit’, ‘up’ (maximum 16 cues). In a baseline condition (Owner; researcher and agent present) (O+RA) the dog’s owner replaced the agent’s role. QBA using a fixed list of 20 descriptors was performed by three observers for each dog in each condition, using video recordings (51 clips) and Principal Component Analysis (PCA) applied. QBA principal component 1 (PC1) was the same in all conditions, characterising dogs as ranging from ‘attentive/interested/anticipating’ to ‘conflicted/apathetic’, with the majority of dogs at the former end. QBA PC2 revealed variability in dogs’ interactive styles, ranging from ‘calm/concentrating’ to ‘aroused/excited/persistent’ in agent conditions, and ‘calm/wary’ to ‘excited/aroused’ in baseline. Inter-observer agreement was high on all PCs (e.g., PC1 A+RO Kendall’s W = 0.88; PC1 A-RO W = 0.83; PC1 O+RA W = 0.77). Quantitative continuous behaviour sampling revealed no significant differences in state behaviour between conditions; ‘looking up’ (p = 0.494); ‘ears up’ (p = 0.662); ‘cued response behaviour’ (p = 0.630); these behaviour categories correlated significantly with QBA PC1 in each condition (average r = 0.800; r = 0.780; r = 0.793 respectively). Indicators of positive anticipation, sustained engagement, competence, and motivation were identified throughout testing and in all conditions. These findings suggest that positively reinforcing interactions with an agent or an owner are equally rewarding for dogs within the context of testing. This study is the first to assess welfare during interaction with an automated device and, using a novel application of QBA, suggests the overarching experience is pleasurable for dogs.
... En adición con lo anterior, Jamieson et al. (2018) señalan que cuando un canino es manejado por una persona desconocida para el animal, existe más probabilidad de tener comportamientos indeseados causados por estrés, lo cual aumenta la distracción y afecta negativamente el rendimiento en la detección, e incluye una nueva variable de influencia en el perro de trabajo. Al ser el perro un animal social, su conducta puede verse alterada por elementos del entorno y la relación con el ser humano, independientemente del dispositivo que se esté utilizando para el aprendizaje (Herwijnen et al., 2018); en este sentido, deben tenerse en consideración aspectos como la experiencia previa del canino en tareas de entrenamiento (Marshall et al., 2009;Marshall et al., 2016), el método de refuerzo (Hiby et al., 2004;Rooney & Cowan, 2011) y el comportamiento del propietario o entrenador (Arhant et al., 2010). ...
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El entrenamiento de los caninos de trabajo emplea diversos mecanismos de condicionamiento, los cuales permiten un rendimiento posterior superior, contrarrestando el sistema de drogas ilícitas, las organizaciones criminales, los grupos armados organizados (GAO) y residuales (GAOr), garantizando la seguridad y convivencia ciudadana en Colombia. Por lo anterior, se propone un enfoque cualitativo empleando una revisión sistemática de la literatura, con el objetivo de analizar el rol de la tecnología y aparatos para adiestrar caninos detectores, entre los años 2000 y 2020 dentro de las bases de datos Scopus, Elsevier y Scielo. Como resultados, se observa un aumento en la producción de artículos entre los años 2000 y 2019 (pasando de seis artículos a 86, respectivamente). Además, dentro de las herramientas empleadas en los estudios se encuentran las cajas; clickers; collares electrónicos y carruseles, los cuales discriminan el olor, utilizando sistemas de refuerzo, con diferencias dependiendo del tipo de estudio, el número de animales y el objetivo de entrenamiento. Como conclusión, es necesario desarrollar prototipos adecuados según las necesidades de entrenamiento en cada contexto, continuando con estudios que integren efectivamente los estímulos y los sistemas de recompensa para impactar los resultados en el rendimiento del perro de trabajo.
... En adición con lo anterior, Jamieson et al. (2018) señalan que cuando un canino es manejado por una persona desconocida para el animal, existe más probabilidad de tener comportamientos indeseados causados por estrés, lo cual aumenta la distracción y afecta negativamente el rendimiento en la detección, e incluye una nueva variable de influencia en el perro de trabajo. Al ser el perro un animal social, su conducta puede verse alterada por elementos del entorno y la relación con el ser humano, independientemente del dispositivo que se esté utilizando para el aprendizaje (Herwijnen et al., 2018); en este sentido, deben tenerse en consideración aspectos como la experiencia previa del canino en tareas de entrenamiento (Marshall et al., 2009;Marshall et al., 2016), el método de refuerzo (Hiby et al., 2004;Rooney & Cowan, 2011) y el comportamiento del propietario o entrenador (Arhant et al., 2010). ...
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Over its fifty years of established existence beginning in 1967, the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) has expounded its consolidated and integrated model in political relations, economic developments, and cultural values. However, confronted by threats to global security, ASEAN has also faced the complex impacts of transnational narcotics trafficking (TransNT). The study uses grey literature as secondary data to illustrate the current situations of TransNT in Southeast Asia by way of examining drug trafficking starting from the original countries (Myanmar) through the transit points (Vietnam) to final destination countries (Malaysia). Besides reviewing more than four decades of collaboration, the paper analyses ASEAN’s milestones in building its cooperative mechanism and assesses its institutional framework for combatting TransNT with specific initiatives. The study notes the main barriers and practical challenges that constrain the process of regional cooperation. Some brief recommendations are also suggested for further research in the near future to enhance regional cooperation in combatting transnational crimes.
... fear, panic, pleasure of seeking novelty, play, per Panksepp 2004) is still gaining acceptance, but may result in subsequent prioritization of activities that promote not just physical fitness, but also the mental health of non-human animals (Grandin, 2018). There is a growing body of research identifying the performance benefits in dogs when people reduce negative emotional experiences for dogs (such as fear in training), and promote positive canine welfare experiences (Hiby et al., 2004;Gaines et al., 2008;Rooney et al., 2009Rooney et al., , 2016Rooney and Cowan, 2011;Deldalle and Gaunet, 2014;Ziv, 2017). Differences across industry sectors highlight the value that guidance for care provision at a regulatory legislation level can offer. ...
Article
There is public interest for the welfare of dogs that spend at least part of their lives housed in kennel facilities, such as working, shelter and sporting dogs. The impacts of living in environments that limit social, physical, and behavioral opportunities are generally well understood in other animals, such as livestock and zoo animals. Research exploring the effects of the kennel environment and its enrichment on the behavior and physiology of dogs is emerging. However, human perceptions concerning what is important to the welfare of kenneled dogs have been overlooked. What people believe is important will influence their behavior, with direct relation to care provided to animals and the underlying social license of related industries to operate. This study evaluated the perceived importance of specific kennel management practices relating to canine health, kennel facility design and routine, social interactions, and environmental enrichment. Over 2,000 self-selected adults completed a voluntary, internet-based questionnaire. Differences in beliefs and attitudes were identified based on kennel facility experience, employment role, age, and gender, highlighting potential areas of discordance that may contribute to occupational stress and staff turnover. The results also suggest that research findings published in the scientific literature may not be successfully translating into evidence-based changes in industry practice. Future models to assess animal welfare should include the critical dimension of human-animal interaction. The beliefs, attitudes, and consequent behaviors of people interacting with dogs housed in kennels will determine how living in captivity impacts upon the experiences and welfare of the resident dogs.
... Dogs learn from their caregiver in both active and passive manners. On the one hand, they are educated in direct, teaching-like manners of what to do and what not to do [14], which allows learning about rules, causally opaque actions and conventions. Especially if performed by the caregiver in an ostensive, teaching-like manner, dogs learn to obey and follow [15,16]. ...
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Overimitation, the copying of causally irrelevant or non-functional actions, is well-known from humans but completely absent in other primates. Recent studies from our lab have provided evidence for overimitation in canines. Previously, we found that half of tested pet dogs copied their human caregiver’s irrelevant action, while only few did so when the action was demonstrated by an unfamiliar experimenter. Therefore, we hypothesized that dogs show overimitation as a result of socio-motivational grounds. To test this more specifically, here we investigated how the relationship with the caregiver influenced the eagerness to overimitate. Given the high variability in the tendency to overimitate their caregiver, we hypothesized that not only familiarity but also relationship quality influences whether dogs faithfully copy their caregiver. For this purpose, on the one hand we measured the overimitation tendency (with the same test as in the two studies before) and on the other hand the relationship quality between the dogs and their caregivers. Although we found no significant correlation between the two test results, our data might suggest that, on average, dogs who overimitated seemed to show more referential and affiliative behaviours towards the owner than dogs who showed less or no copying of the irrelevant action. Notably, as a group, those dogs that showed the highest level of copying accuracy of the irrelevant action showed the highest level of gazing and synchronization towards the owner.
... Lindsay [15] and Rajecki et al. [16] suggest that owners use punishments when problem behaviours are ascribed to internal motivations, e.g., an internal emotional drive, such as spite. As punishment-based training methods are implicated in poor canine welfare [17][18][19], understanding factors linked to canine emotional attributions is therefore potentially important in identifying dogs at risk of poor welfare. ...
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Assumptions about dogs’ personality are influenced by their appearance, which may lead to differences in ownership styles and subsequent canine welfare. The influence of canine appearance on observers’ emotion attributions to dogs remains largely unexplored. This study investigated whether canine head shape is related to how both dog owners and non-dog owning adults in the U.K. attribute emotions to still images of dogs, and in the case of dog owners, to their own dogs. Attachment, respondent personality and dog trainability were assessed as potential influences on emotional attribution in owners. Overall, 2451 participant responses were received. Still images of mesocephalic dogs were attributed primary and positively valenced emotion with more strength and frequency than other groups. Mesocephalic images were also attributed negatively valenced emotions less frequently and with less strength than other groups. Apart from empathy, no significant differences were found in emotional attribution to owned dogs of different head shapes; however, human personality influenced attribution of emotions to owned dogs. The finding that some dogs are attributed emotions more readily based on their appearance alone has applied importance, given, for example, the potential for misattribution of positive emotions to dogs in negative emotional states, and potential prejudice against dogs considered in negative emotional states.
... Dogs learn from their caregiver in both active and passive manners. On the one hand, they are educated in direct, teaching-like manners of what to do and what not to do [14], which allows learning about rules, causally opaque actions, and conventions. Especially if performed by the caregiver in an ostensive, teaching-like manners, dogs learn to obey and follow [15,16]. ...
Preprint
Overimitation, the copying of causally irrelevant or non-functional actions, is well-known from humans but completely absent in other primates. Recent studies from our lab have provided evidence for overimitation in canines. Previously, we found that half of tested pet dogs copied their human caregiver's irrelevant action, while only few did so when the action was demonstrated by an unfamiliar experimenter. Therefore, we hypothesized that dogs show overimitation as a result of socio-motivational grounds. To test this more specifically, here we investigated how the relationship with the caregiver influenced the eagerness to overimitate. Given the high variability in the tendency to overimitate their caregiver, we hypothesized that not only familiarity, but also relationship quality influences whether dogs faithfully copy their caregiver. For this purpose, we measured on the one hand the overimitation tendency (with the same test as in the two studies before) and on the other hand the relationship quality between the dogs and their caregivers. Although not significant, results revealed that dogs who overimitated seemed to show more referential and affiliative behaviours towards the owner (like gazing, synchronization and greeting) than dogs who showed less or no copying of the irrelevant action. Possible reasons for these findings are discussed.
... These results suggest that the dog-handler interaction may have influenced the dogs' behaviours, either by the nature of the interaction itself and/or by the training method utilized in the programme (Rooney & Cowan, 2011). ...
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Background Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) symptoms include re-experiencing, avoidance, hyperarousal, and cognitive deficits, reflecting both emotional and cognitive dysregulation. In recent years, non-pharmacological approaches and specifically animal-assisted therapy have been shown to be beneficial for a variety of disorders such as Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder, Autism Spectrum Disorder, and PTSD. However, little is mentioned in the literature about the reciprocal effects of the animal–human interaction. Objective To evaluate the effects of a one-year dog training programme on PTSD symptomatology in youngsters with PTSD and on dogs’ behaviour. Methods Fifty-three adolescents, previously exposed to interpersonal trauma, were clinically diagnosed with PTSD and assigned to a dog-training programme group (n = 30) and a control group (n = 23) that engaged in other training programmes (e.g. cooking, hairstyling, etc.). Both groups were evaluated at baseline and following 12-months by The Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale for DSM-5 in Children and Adolescents (CAPS-CA-5) and Beck-Depression Inventory (BDI). Additionally, we physiologically measured both emotional and attention dysregulation. Results Post-12-months training, a significant alleviation of PTSD symptomatology accompanied by lower depression severity was observed in the dog-training group, compared with a insignificant recovery in the control group. Furthermore, improved emotional and attentional regulation was observed in the dog-training group. Measuring the dogs’ behaviour revealed increased anxiety and decreased selective attention performance, which was inversely correlated with the beneficial effects observed in the dog-training programme group. Conclusions Our findings emphasize the role of emotional and attentional regulations on the dog–handler interface, as evidence-based support for the beneficial effects of the dog-training programme, as either a non-pharmacological intervention or as complementary to anti-depressants treatment of PTSD. Though pharmacological treatments increase the patients’ well-being by treating certain PTSD symptoms, our suggested dog-training programme seems to influence the PTSD diagnostic status, thus may be implemented in civilians and veterans with PTSD.
... Assuming that a positive, reward-based method of training is employed, dogs who participate in such training with their owners may show an increased aptitude for future learning 13 , and are less likely to exhibit behaviors associated with anxiety or fear (i.e., lip licking, yawning, tense body posture. ...
... 'Positive reward-based' practices rely predominantly on positive and negative reinforcement, with a food reward often being used as the reinforcer (Chiandetti et al., 2016;Gillaspy et al., 2014;Gilis et al., 2012;Mills, 2005). It has even become a mainstream animal management and husbandry strategy, in that animals are being 'rewarded' for performing innate and necessary physiological functions, one example being rewarding dogs with food for excreting faeces and eliminating urine outdoors during house training (Rooney & Cowan, 2011). Meanwhile, any behaviour which is deemed undesirable is 'ignored', with no social communication, reminiscent of the emotionally unhealthy tactic of 'stonewalling' in human inter-personal relations described by Horan et al., (2015). ...
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In this paper, I examine the way humans interact with domestic companion animals, with a focus on 'positive reward-based training' methods, particularly for dogs. From a biosemiotic perspective, I discuss the role of animal training in today's society and examine what binary reward-based reinforcement schedules communicate, semiotically. I also examine the extent to which reward-based training methods promote better welfare, when compared to the more traditional methods which rely on aversive stimuli and punishment, if and when they are relied upon excessively. I conclude that when used as the primary means of communication, they have the potential to be detrimental to animal welfare, because the underlying social signal is control and resource dominance. As an alternative view to behaviourist-based learning theory and conditioning, I outline how enactivist theories of cognition support a semiotic approach to interspecific human-animal communication. I therefore propose a move toward a dynamic semiosis and mutual understanding based upon Peirce's phenomenology, resulting in a more balanced merging of Umwelten. The aim is to create rich and more complex semiospheres around humans and domestic animals, which allow for individual agency and autonomy.
... Recently, pet parenting styles have been identified among dog caretakers (van Herwijnen et al., 2018;Brubaker & Udell, in prep), and preliminary evidence suggest that there is likely a relationship between pet parenting style and dog-human attachment style. More broadly, positive factors within a human-dog relationship (such as play, positive reinforcement training, and lack of punishment) have been found to profoundly influence the human-dog bond, including correlations between attachment reported by the human caregiver and pro-social behaviors by the dog, dog training success, and reduced problem behaviors in dogs (Hiby et al., 2004;Rehn et al., 2013Rehn et al., , 2014Rehn et al., , 2017Rooney & Bradshaw, 2002;Rooney & Cowan, 2011). Therefore, with more research it may be possible to predict likely attachment outcomes for dog-human pairs based on parenting style and human behavior, and perhaps to educate humans on best practices for establishing a secure relationship with their dog, similar to the promotion of positive parenting practices when parenting human children. ...
Chapter
The capacity for dogs to form attachment bonds to humans has been recognized by scientists for over two decades. However, evaluations of dog-human attachment styles, including to what extent dogs experience attachment security with their human caregivers, are relatively new. In humans, the development of secure attachments is considered a predictor of social wellbeing and positive cognitive outcomes including future relationship success, persistence, mental wellbeing and executive functioning. A better understanding of dog-human attachment relationships could have important scientific and applied implications. Here we provide an overview of attachment research as it relates to the dog-human bond, and take a closer look at one experimental approach, the Secure Base Test (SBT), currently used to evaluate dog-human attachment styles.
Chapter
Smell is a well-developed and predominant sense in dogs and so it is unsurprising that olfaction is tightly linked to dog welfare. The extent to which a dog can use their olfactory abilities and the types of odours they smell, have been shown to affect their behaviour, memory, and wellbeing, and similarly an animal’s state of health and welfare impacts upon its olfactory ability. There are several natural scents whose effects upon dogs have been well studied. Lavender has been shown to induce calm and resting behaviour, whilst there is some evidence that peppermint, rosemary, and laurel may lead to increased activity in kennelled dogs. Several olfactory-administered products have sought to mimic these natural calming effects and have been marketed to mitigate fear and anxiety in dogs. Pet Remedy a Valerian-based product and synthetic Dog Appeasing Pheromone (DAP) are relatively well tested. Whilst some studies present promising findings of their potential benefits, particularly of DAP in puppies, the body of research remains unconvincing regarding the efficacy of both products especially for adult dogs. With the increasing array of scent-based tasks that dogs are trained to perform, the way they are reared, housed, trained, and cared for all have the capacity to affect their welfare. There is evidence of the value of a range of aspects of housing and husbandry that can improve welfare. Research on the interface between olfaction and welfare although growing, remains in its infancy, which we see as evidence of sensory biases in human approaches to dog behaviour and welfare.
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Rehoming is a potentially stressful process for dogs retired from commercial breeding (CB) kennels, as they may struggle to cope with the myriad novel factors associated with transitioning to a home environment. Failure to adapt may increase the risk of an unsuccessful adoption, jeopardizing dog welfare and the benefits of rehoming programs. Little is known about relationships between welfare in the kennel of origin and a dog’s ability to transition to a family home. This study aimed at investigating the welfare states of dogs retiring from CB kennels in relation to varying management practices across kennels, and understanding how behavioral and management factors might be associated with rehoming outcomes. A total of 590 adult dogs from 30 US CB kennels were included in the study. Dog behavioral and physical health metrics were collected through direct observation, while management information was obtained through a questionnaire. One month after adoption, 32 dog owners completed a follow-up questionnaire (CBARQ). A principal component analysis extracted four behavioral components (PCs) which included food interest, sociability, boldness, and responsiveness. Factors such as sex, housing, breed, and the number of dogs per caretaker were reported as significant sources of variation for some of those PC scores (p<0.05). For instance, lower dog to caretaker ratio was linked to better health, sociability, and food interest scores. Significant relationships were also found between in-kennel PC scores and CBARQ scores (p<0.05). Most interestingly, higher levels of sociability in the kennel were associated with lower levels of social and non-social fear, and higher trainability after rehoming. Overall, dogs were found to be physically healthy, and a moderate proportion showed fearful responses toward either social or non-social stimuli. Results suggest that a comprehensive behavioral assessment of rehoming candidates while in the kennel may help identify dogs that may have more difficulty coping during rehoming. The implications for developing management strategies and necessary interventions that support positive dog welfare outcomes within the kennel and when rehomed are discussed.
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El objetivo de este artículo fue verificar la influencia del temperamento de perrosrescatados en el aprendizaje de comandos básicos y tasas de adopción. Se evaluaron30 perros. Los datos de temperamento se recopilaron utilizando el método demuestreo focal de animales en tres entornos diferentes. También se aplicó unaselección de 7 elementos de comando de entrenamiento a las tareas básicas deobediencia y recuperación para mejorar el rendimiento individual general de los perroscon el tiempo. Se utilizó el análisis de componentes principales seguido del coeficientede correlación de Spearman para analizar las puntuaciones de temperamento de losperros en cuanto a la tasa de adopción y el tiempo que les tomó a los perros aprendercada comando de entrenamiento. Acostarse se correlacionó positivamente con lapermanencia (r=0,4, p<0,02), patear (r=0,5, p<0,002) y gatear (r=0,4, p<0,009). Latasa de adopción se correlacionó negativamente con acostarse (r=-0,54, p<0,02),quedarse quieto (r=-0,8, p<0,03) y gatear (r=-0,8 p<0,05). El tiempo que les tomó alos perros aprender comandos de entrenamiento específicos fue un indicadorimportante que reflejaba su temperamento e influía en la tasa de adopción.
Chapter
With an increasing recognition of the importance of behavioral health, a growing number of shelters provide some type of behavioral treatment for animals in their care. This chapter describes a variety of specialized interventions ranging from basic training of behaviors intended to make shelter dogs more attractive to potential adopters to behavior modification programs designed to rehabilitate complex behavior problems, including intraspecific aggression, fearfulness, and excessive arousal. Studies of how changing shelter dogs’ behavior influences adopters continue to produce conflicting results, and little research exists on the effectiveness of behavior modification with shelter animals. More research is needed to determine which behavior problems in shelter dogs need treatment and what are the most efficient, effective ways to provide that treatment so shelters can make the best use of available resources to improve quality of life, increase adoptability, reduce length of stay, and place more animals successfully in loving homes.
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Husbandry training and environmental enrichment are both important advancements associated with current behavioural welfare practices. Additionally, the use of training procedures has been proposed as a form of enrichment, with the implication that training can produce beneficial behavioural welfare results. This paper examines the concept of training as enrichment through three distinct ways training procedures could enrich: (i) training facilitates enrichment usage; (ii) training modifies interactions, conspecific or otherwise; and (iii) training expands behavioural repertoires. Within each category, the paper focuses on past research that provides empirical support for training functioning as enrichment, as well as related areas of research that provide additional evidence. Previous studies support the claim that training is enriching, with additional research necessary to better understand how prevalent and under what conditions training procedures function as enrichment. Future training research should examine these potential enrichment effects, including methodology that allows for comparisons to traditional enrichment, the use of welfare diversity/variability indices, and the effects of learning on trainers and trainees alike.
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Livestock guarding dogs (LGDs) are used all over the world to help in carnivore conservation by mitigating human-wildlife conflict. In Namibia, LGDs are used in cheetah conservation to prevent depredation of stock and reduce retaliatory killings. However, behavioral problems in the dogs, such as chasing wildlife and harassing livestock, exist leading to poor dog performance and farmer dissatisfaction. In most other types of working dogs, behavior tests for suitability are reported and/or validated within the scientific literature. To date this has not been done for LGDs. In this paper, we design a composite behavioral test and a questionnaire to rate the dogs’ effectiveness as an LGD. This test was used on 14 LGDs, seven of which were operational and seven of which were being used as breeding stock. In total, 16 behavioral variables were measured. A Principal Components Analysis reduced these to five underlying personality traits: ‘Playfulness’, ‘Trainability’, ‘Independence’, ‘Sociability with people’ and ‘Reactivity’. When 14 dogs were tested three times, 20 days apart, the traits ‘Playfulness’, ‘Trainability’ and ‘Independence’ were found to be consistent. ‘Trainability’ was negatively correlated to dog age. Dogs with a higher ‘Trainability’ and lower ‘Reactivity’ showed a tendency to be rated as more effective by their herdsman. Dogs scoring higher for ‘Playfulness’ were more likely to be reported to harass stock, and dogs that chased a moving object under experimental conditions were generally rated higher for tendency to chase predator wildlife when working. This study suggests that there are personality attributes which can be measured and are consistent across time in LGDs. Several of these are linked to better performance in trained dogs. Whether these are predictive of later performance in untrained dogs, is yet to be ascertained.
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Historically, pet dogs were trained using mainly negative reinforcement or punishment, but positive reinforcement using rewards has recently become more popular. The methods used may have different impacts on the dogs’ welfare. We distributed a questionnaire to 364 dog owners in order to examine the relative effectiveness of different training methods and their effects upon a pet dog’s behaviour. When asked how they trained their dog on seven basic tasks, 66% reported using vocal punishment, 12% used physical punishment, 60% praise (social reward), 51% food rewards and 11% play. The owner’s ratings for their dog’s obedience during eight tasks correlated positively with the number of tasks which they trained using rewards (P < 0.01), but not using punishment (P = 0.05). When asked whether their dog exhibited any of 16 common problematic behaviours, the number of problems reported by the owners correlated with the number of tasks for which their dog was trained using punishment (P < 0.001), but not using rewards (P = 0.17). Exhibition of problematic behaviours may be indicative of compromised welfare, because such behaviours can be caused by—or result in—a state of anxiety and may lead to a dog being relinquished or abandoned. Because punishment was associated with an increased incidence of problematic behaviours, we conclude that it may represent a welfare concern without concurrent benefits in obedience. We suggest that positive training methods may be more useful to the pet-owning community
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While only a few studies have analysed training methods used on working dogs, a recent survey in 303 Belgian military handlers revealed the use of harsh training methods on military working dogs (MWD). The present work aims at analysing the training methods used on Belgian MWD and the behaviour of handlers to objectify the performances of the dog handlers teams (DH teams) and the welfare of the animals.A standardized evaluation, including obedience and protection work exercises, was conducted on DH teams (n=33). Every evaluation was done twice to assess the reliability of the observation methods. The behaviours of MWD and handlers were recorded on videotape and subsequently analysed. Results showed that handlers rewarded or punished their dogs intermittently. Stroking and patting the dogs were the most frequently used rewards. Pulling on the leash and hanging dogs by their collars were the most commonly used aversive stimuli.The team's performance was influenced by the training method and by the dog's concentration: (1) low-performance dogs received more aversive stimuli than high-performance dogs; (2) dog's distraction influenced the performance: distracted dogs performed less well.Handlers punished more and rewarded less at the second evaluation than at the first one. This suggests that handlers modified their usual behaviour at the first evaluation in view to present themselves in a positive light. During the second evaluation the dogs reacted to this higher frequency of aversive stimuli as they exhibited a lower posture after aversive stimuli. The authors cannot prove that the welfare of these dogs had been hampered, but there is an indication that it was under threat.Low team performances suggest that DH teams should train more regularly and undertake the usefulness of setting a new training system that would rely on: the use of more positive training methods, an increased training frequency, the elaboration of a course on training principles, and an improvement of dog handler relationship.
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It is often claimed that certain behavioral problems in domestic dogs can be triggered by the games played by dog and caregiver (owner). In this study, we examine possible links between the types of games played and dimensions of the dog-owner relationship that are generally considered to affect such problems. Fifty dog-owner partnerships were filmed during 3-min play sessions in which the owner was allowed to choose the games played. All partnerships then undertook a 1-hr test designed to measure elements of behavior commonly ascribed to "dominance" and "attachment." Principal components analysis of the data produced 2 dominance-related factors (Amenability and Confident Interactivity) and 4 factors describing aspects of attachment (Nonspecific Attention Seeking, Preference for Owner, Preference for Unfamiliar Person, and Separation-Related Behavior). Amenability, in particular, varied significantly between breeds. In the study, we then compared types of games played to each of these factors. Dogs playing rough-and-tumble scored higher for Amenability and lower on Separation-Related Behavior than did dogs playing other types of games. Dogs playing tug-of-war and fetch scored high on Confident Interactivity. Winning or losing these games had no consistent effect on their test scores. If the dog started the majority of the games, the dog was significantly less amenable and more likely to exhibit aggression. The results suggest that how dogs play reflects general attributes of their temperament and relationship with their owner. This study provides no evidence that games play a major deterministic role on dominance dimensions of dog-human relationships, but the results suggest that playing games involving considerable body contact may affect attachment dimensions.
Thesis
p>Dog-human play was characterised as distinct from dog-dog play. Focal sampling of 402 dog walkers and a survey of 2585 dog owners revealed that dogs housed in multi-dog households played as frequently as did dogs in single-dog households, indicating that interspecific play is unlikely to be a substitute for intraspecific play. An experimental study of Labrador Retrievers showed that, when playing with another dog, dogs were more motivated to complete for possession of an object, but, when playing with a human, interaction was more important. 'Object-oriented play', defined as play involving two individuals responding to each other but centreing around an object , was shown to differ structurally from both social and object play. Two experimental studies of Labrador Retrievers showed that people can increase dogs' interest in a toy via their presence and by a protocol of rewards. The effects of different game types upon dog-human relationships were examined experimentally. A study of 30 Labrador Retrievers showed that repeated playing of some game types can affect dog-human relationships, but it detected no differences between dogs which won and lost at tug-of-war, contrary to claims in the popular literature. A further study using 14 Golden Retrievers detected an increase in 'Obedient attentiveness' towards an experimenter after play and also an increase in 'Demandingness'. However, whether dogs won or lost at tug-of-war only affected their 'Playful attention seeking' scores; after winning they scored higher than after losing. When playing with their dogs, dog owners were observed to use a wide variety of play signals of varying effectiveness. Two of these signals, 'Bow' and 'Lunge', were shown experimentally to instigate play between dog and person, and their efficiency was increased when they were accompanied by play vocalisations.</p
Article
Behavioural effects of the use of a shock collar during guard dog training of German shepherd dogs were studied. Direct reactions of 32 dogs to 107 shocks showed reactions (lowering of body posture, high pitched yelps, barks and squeals, avoidance, redirection aggression, tongue flicking) that suggest stress or fear and pain. Most of these immediate reactions lasted only a fraction of a second. The behaviour of 16 dogs that had received shocks in the recent past (S-dogs) was compared with the behaviour of 15 control dogs that had received similar training but never had received shocks (C-dogs) in order to investigate possible effects of a longer duration. Only training sessions were used in which no shocks were delivered and the behaviour of the dogs (position of body, tail and ears, and stress-, pain- and aggression-related behaviours) was recorded in a way that enabled comparison between the groups. During free walking on the training grounds S-dogs showed a lower ear posture and more stress-related behaviours than C-dogs. During obedience training and during manwork (i.e. excercises with a would-be criminal) the same differences were found. Even a comparison between the behaviour of C-dogs with that of S-dogs during free walking and obedience exercises in a park showed similar differences. Differences between the two groups of dogs existed in spite of the fact that C-dogs also were trained in a fairly harsh way. A comparison between the behaviour during free walking with that during obedience exercises and manwork, showed that during training more stress signals were shown and ear positions were lower. The conclusions, therefore are, that being trained is stressful, that receiving shocks is a painful experience to dogs, and that the S-dogs evidently have learned that the presence of their owner (or his commands) announces reception of shocks, even outside of the normal training context. This suggests that the welfare of these shocked dogs is at stake, at least in the presence of their owner.
Article
Play signals are known to function in the solicitation and maintenance of intraspecific play, but their role in interspecific play is relatively unstudied. We carried out two studies to examine interspecific signalling when humans play with domestic dogs, Canis familiaris. In the first, we recorded dog–owner play sessions on video to identify actions used by 21 dog owners to initiate play with their dogs. Thirty-five actions were each used by three or more owners. These included postures, vocalizations and physical contact with the dog. The actions varied greatly in their apparent success at instigating play which was, surprisingly, unrelated to the frequency with which they were used. We then did an experiment to determine the effect of composites of commonly used signals upon the behaviour of 20 Labrador retrievers. The performance of both ‘Bow’ and ‘Lunge’ by a human altered the subsequent behaviour of the dogs. Both signals caused increases in play, and Lunge produced significant increases in play bout frequency and mean bout duration. The efficiency of both these postural signals was enhanced when they were accompanied by play vocalizations. Thus, specific actions used by humans do communicate a playful context to dogs and can be described as interspecific play signals.
Article
In a questionnaire survey of dog owners, 88% of respondents’ dogs had received some form of training. Training methods varied; 16% of owners said that they used only positive reinforcement, 12% used a combination of positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement, 32% used a combination of positive reinforcement and positive punishment, and the remaining 40% used a combination of all categories. Seventy-two percent of owners used some form of positive punishment. The mean number of potentially undesirable behaviors reported was 11.3 per dog. Attendance at formal training classes did not significantly affect the total number of potentially undesirable behaviors reported. However, dogs that had attended puppy socialization classes were less likely to show an undesirable reaction to dogs from outside the household, and owners who carried out informal training at home, but did not attend any form of formal training class, were more likely to report some form of aggression in their dog. The training method used by owners was also related to the total number of potentially undesirable behaviors shown by the dogs. When individual categories of potentially undesirable behavior were investigated, the type of training method used was also significantly associated with attention-seeking score, fear (avoidance) score, and aggression score. Other factors related to the overall number of potentially undesirable behaviors included the age and origin of the dog.
Article
The way in which cognitive functioning is affected by stressors is an important area of research for applied ethologists because stress caused by captive conditions may disrupt cognitive processes and lead to welfare and husbandry problems. Such problems may be minimised through an understanding of the links between stress and cognition. The effects of stress on cognitive function have been studied in disciplines ranging from human perceptual psychology to animal neuroscience. The aim of this paper is to provide an introduction to this research, focusing on the effects of stressors on attention, memory formation and memory recall. Findings from such a diverse literature with little apparent inter-disciplinary communication are inevitably complex and often contradictory. Nevertheless, some generalities do emerge. The idea that an inverted U-shaped relationship exists between an individual's state of stress or arousal and its ability to perform a cognitive task effectively, the so-called Yerkes–Dodson law, is commonly encountered. The law has limited explanatory value because it is unlikely that different stressors act on cognitive function via the same intervening, non-specific state. Furthermore, the law only provides a very general description of the relationship between stress and cognitive function. Empirical research on attention and memory processes reveals more specific findings. Stressors appear to cause shifts, lapses and narrowing of attention, and can also influence decision speed. These processes may be viewed as serving an adaptive role helping the animal to search for and scrutinise a source of danger. There is conflicting evidence as to whether hormones involved in the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal stress response play a part in these processes. These hormones and those involved in the sympathetic-adrenomedullary stress response do appear to play an important role in memory formation. Low or moderate concentrations of circulating glucocorticoids and catecholamines can enhance memory formation, while excessively high or prolonged elevations of these hormones can lead to memory disruption. The effects of stressors on memory recall are less clear. There is evidence for disruptive effects, and for facilitatory effects indicating state-dependent memory recall; events experienced under conditions of high arousal may be best recalled under similar conditions. Applied ethologists have the opportunity to extend work in this area, which often involves studies of single stressors/stress hormones acting in isolation and limited measures of cognitive function, by focusing on real-life husbandry stressors encountered by captive animals. This will yield fundamental information which also has direct relevance to animal welfare and management issues.
Article
The behavioural characteristics of specialist search dogs were examined using a survey of 244 dog handlers and trainers. The English Springer Spaniel was the most common breed, followed by the Labrador Retriever, cross breeds and the Border Collie. Individuals of these four breeds varied significantly on 5 out of 30 characteristics, as rated by their handlers, namely; tendency to be distracted when searching, agility, motivation to obtain food, independence, and stamina. English Springer Spaniels and Border Collies scored significantly closer to ideal levels than did Labrador Retrievers and cross breeds, for several of these characteristics. Overall satisfaction with the handler’s own dog(s) did not differ between the four most common breeds and was also unaffected by the dog’s sex. However, males and females did differ in their ratings for one characteristic; males were rated higher than females, which were rated closer to the ideal, for aggression towards other dogs. Overall, there appeared to be little difference between the sexes in their suitability for search work.
Article
The effects of social contact and space allowance on the expression of play behaviour in domestic calves were studied. Forty-eight female dairy calves in three groups were housed in one of four pen types: (1) small single pen (0.9 m×1.5 m); (2) large single pen (1.8 m×3.0 m); (3) small group pen (1.8 m×3.0 m for 4 calves); and (4) large group pen (3.0 m×5.4 m for 4 calves). The behaviour of all calves was video-recorded for 8 h in week 2 and for 24 h in weeks 4 and 6 of the experiment. Data for play behaviour were obtained from each individual for all hours of observation. In weeks 4 and 6, space allowance affected the quantity of locomotor play. A low space allowance reduced locomotor play in both individually and group-reared calves. The quality of locomotor play was also affected. Elements of locomotor play that involve much movement were either absent or rarely seen in the small single pens. Furthermore, calves in single pens were less active than calves in group pens. The results of this study indicate that sufficient space is essential for the expression of play behaviour in domestic calves. It is suggested that play behaviour may be used to indicate the presence of good welfare in calves and in juveniles of other farm animal species. The use of a measure to indicate the presence of good welfare in addition to measures to indicate the absence of poor welfare may be a step towards a better assessment of welfare in farm animals.
Article
The aim of this paper is to investigate whether relinquishing owners’ reports of their dogs’ behaviour corresponds with how these dogs behave in their new homes 2 and 6 weeks post-adoption. In this longitudinal study, information on dog behaviour was collected using a 20-item questionnaire. The first questionnaire (QA) was completed by owners relinquishing their dogs to one of five shelters in the UK. Second and third questionnaires were completed by new owners of these dogs 2 weeks (QB) and 6 weeks (QC) after adoption, allowing 56 QA and QB, 40 QA and QC and 191 QB and QC comparisons to be undertaken. Behaviour was rated using 5-point rating scales for each of the questionnaire items: the degree to which the dog was aggressive, excitable, anxious, fearful and attentive in specific situations and how often it would chew furniture and vocalise, steal food and mount people. Test–re-test reliability coefficients between QB and QC data revealed that reliability of new owner reports was moderate to good for all 20 items. Only 9/20 behaviour ratings correlated significantly between the relinquishing and new homes: fear of the veterinarian (2 and 6 weeks), anxiety at the vets (2 weeks) and when left alone (2 and 6 weeks), chewing furniture (2 weeks), sexual mounting (2 weeks), stealing food (6 weeks) aggression towards unfamiliar dogs (2 and 6 weeks), unfamiliar people (2 and 6 weeks), and the veterinarian (2 and 6 weeks). The remaining behaviours were not correlated between successive homes at either 2 or 6 weeks. Discrepancies are discussed in terms of the reliability of owner reports, the kennel experience, and differences in owner and household characteristics. The implications for shelters are that whilst some of the information provided by relinquishing dog owners is useful in determining the training and rehabilitation needs of dogs post-adoption, some reports are not predictive and should not be relied upon.
Article
It has often been suggested that intraspecific dominance relationships are established through play. By analogy, it is also claimed that the outcome of competitive games can affect dog–human relationships. This paper experimentally tests the latter idea. Fourteen Golden Retrievers were each subjected to two treatments; 20 sessions of a tug-of-war game with the experimenter which they were allowed to win, and 20 sessions which they lost. Their relationship with the experimenter was assessed, via a composite behavioural test, once at the outset and once after each treatment. Principal components analysis allowed the 52 behavioural measures to be combined into nine underlying factors. Confidence (the factor most closely corresponding to conventional dominance) was unaffected by the treatments. Dogs scored higher for obedient attentiveness after play treatments, irrespective of whether they won or lost, and demandingness scores increased with familiarity of the test person. The 10 most playful dogs scored significantly higher for playful attention seeking after winning than after losing. We conclude that, in this population, dominance dimensions of the dog–human relationship are unaffected by the outcome of repetitive tug-of-war games. However, we suggest that the effects of games may be modified by the presence of play signals, and when these signals are absent or misinterpreted the outcome of games may have more serious consequences. Games may also assume greater significance for a minority of “potentially dominant” dogs.
Article
Poor housing conditions, harsh training sessions and uncontrollable or unpredictable social environments are examples of the situations that may lead to reduced welfare status in dogs. Individuals that suffer from poor welfare presumably experience stress and may consequently exhibit stress responses. In order to evaluate stress responses as potential indicators of poor welfare in dogs, we review studies dealing with dogs subjected to stressors. The reported stress responses are categorized as being behavioural, physiological or immunological, and demonstrate the various ways stress is manifested in the dog.
Article
“Instinctive” behavior may be modified using operant techniques. We report here on a field study of training herding dogs in which reinforcers and punishers were used by owners, who were themselves being trained to control their dogs. Access to sheep was assumed to be a primary reinforcer for herding dogs. While blocking their access was aversive to them. Over several months, the number of blocking and access actions by the human were scored during the training of seven naïve herding dogs. We found that rates of punishment by blocking the dog's access to sheep or by stopping the dog occurred at higher levels than positive reinforcement from access or verbal praise. While positive reinforcement can be used exclusively for the training of certain behaviors, it is suggested that in the context of instinctive motor patterns, negative reinforcement and punishment may be desirable and necessary additions to positive reinforcement techniques.
Article
Prior to seeking the counsel of a veterinary behaviorist many dog owners have attempted behavior modification techniques suggested by a variety of sources. Recommendations often include aversive training techniques which may provoke fearful or defensively aggressive behavior. The purpose of this study was to assess the behavioral effects and safety risks of techniques used historically by owners of dogs with behavior problems.A 30-item survey of previous interventions was included in a behavioral questionnaire distributed to all dog owners making appointments at a referral behavior service over a 1-year period. For each intervention applied, owners were asked to indicate whether there was a positive, negative, or lack of effect on the dog's behavior, and whether aggressive behavior was seen in association with the method used. Owners were also asked to indicate the source of each recommendation. One-hundred-and-forty surveys were completed. The most frequently listed recommendation sources were “self” and “trainers”. Several confrontational methods such as “hit or kick dog for undesirable behavior” (43%), “growl at dog” (41%), “physically force the release of an item from a dog's mouth” (39%), “alpha roll” (31%), “stare at or stare [dog] down” (30%), “dominance down” (29%), and “grab dog by jowls and shake” (26%) elicited an aggressive response from at least a quarter of the dogs on which they were attempted. Dogs presenting for aggression to familiar people were more likely to respond aggressively to the confrontational techniques “alpha roll” and yelling “no” compared to dogs with other presenting complaints (P
Article
The use of electric shock collars for training dogs is the subject of considerable controversy. Supporters claim that they are a reliable means of eliminating self-rewarding behaviour and that they can be used over greater distances and with less risk of stress and injury than mechanical devices, such as choke chains. Opponents cite the risk of incorrect or abusive use and temptation to use electric training collars without thought or time given to alternative training methods, regardless of the fact that their use may be associated with pain and fear. The aim of this study was to investigate whether any stress is caused by the use of electric shock collars or not and in this way to contribute to their evaluation with respect to animal welfare.
Article
Several aspects of agonistic experience are described for freeranging infant rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta)on Cayo Santiago. Even before infants are fully integrated with peers in rank dominance based on maternal ranks,infants of highranking mothers tend to be threatened less frequently by other members of the group and are less likely to be threatened by unfamiliar individuals than are infants of lowranking mothers. There is no evidence that fearful interactions between pairs of infants are related to their mother’s ranks before 22 weeks of age. However, an imperfect hierarchy can be constructed for infants between 27 and 30 weeks of age. At this age,infants of higherranking mothers are also more likely to receive protection when threatened than are infants of lowerranking mothers. When protected, their protectors are less likely to emit fearful gestures to the infants’ threatener. Close female relatives appear to play a large role in the protection of infants and may be more directly responsible for the differences described above than the mother, other relatives, or other highranking members of the group. It is suggested that more than one mechanism, including intervention by the mother and by close female relatives,may be important in rank acquisition among peers.
Article
Play signals are known to function in the solicitation and maintenance of intraspecific play, but their role in interspecific play is relatively unstudied. We carried out two studies to examine interspecific signalling when humans play with domestic dogs, Canis familiaris. In the first, we recorded dog–owner play sessions on video to identify actions used by 21 dog owners to initiate play with their dogs. Thirty-five actions were each used by three or more owners. These included postures, vocalizations and physical contact with the dog. The actions varied greatly in their apparent success at instigating play which was, surprisingly, unrelated to the frequency with which they were used. We then did an experiment to determine the effect of composites of commonly used signals upon the behaviour of 20 Labrador retrievers. The performance of both ‘Bow’ and ‘Lunge’ by a human altered the subsequent behaviour of the dogs. Both signals caused increases in play, and Lunge produced significant increases in play bout frequency and mean bout duration. The efficiency of both these postural signals was enhanced when they were accompanied by play vocalizations. Thus, specific actions used by humans do communicate a playful context to dogs and can be described as interspecific play signals.
Article
A retrospective study was conducted to determine the relative frequency and type of elimination problem seen in dogs at a university referral practice and to evaluate the efficacy of the suggested treatments. Cases presented to the Animal Behavior Clinic at Cornell University between 1987 and 1996 were reviewed. Of 1,173 cases, 105 (9%) were house-soiling cases. Of these cases, the authors obtained outcome information from 70. Within the diagnosis of house soiling, incomplete housebreaking (n=59; 84%) were the most frequent referral cases, of which 48 cases (81%; 95% confidence interval, 69% to 90%) improved. Separation anxiety was considered the second most common underlying cause (n=27; 39%), of which 85% (n=23; 95% confidence interval, 66% to 96%) improved. Behavior modification was the most often suggested treatment (n=58), with 48 (83%) cases improving. Behavior modification consisted of accompanying the dog to the preferred elimination area, rewarding the dog for eliminating there, and punishing the dog only when caught in the act of house soiling. These results suggest that correct house training, behavior modification involving positive reinforcement, and appropriate punishment are essential to diminish house-soiling problems in dogs.
Article
The ideal and actual characteristics of specialist search dogs have been examined in questionnaire surveys of 244 dog handlers and trainers from the six main UK dog-using Government agencies. The ten most important characteristics were (ideal level in brackets): acuity of sense of smell (very high), incentive to find an object which is out of sight (very high), health (very high), tendency to hunt by smell alone (very high), stamina (very high), ability to learn from being rewarded (very high), tendency to be distracted when searching (very low); agility (high), consistency of behaviour from day to day (high), motivation to chase an object (high). Significant differences between actual and ideal levels were found for 22 of the 30 characteristics, predominantly in undesirable attributes, suggesting that there is scope for significant improvement in operational effectiveness.
Article
This study investigates the influence of training experiences on dogs' performance in a problem solving task, namely opening a box to obtain food. One hundred and eighteen dogs allocated to two different groups according to their training experience (no/basic training vs high level training) were tested. In each group the dogs saw the researcher manipulating either the paw-pad or the lid, prior to being allowed free access to the apparatus. No effect of the locus of manipulation was observed. However, there was a strong effect of training on the dogs' performance regardless of manipulation condition. Compared to untrained dogs, highly trained dogs were more successful in opening the box and spent significantly more time interacting with the apparatus; whereas untrained dogs spent significantly more time looking back at their owners and the researcher. These results indicate that high levels of training improve dogs' problem solving ability, with dogs appearing to be more proactive in the their interaction with novel objects.
Genetics and Social Behavior of the Dog. Uni-versity of Chicago Press Relinquishing dog owners' ability to pre-dict behavioural problems in shelter dogs post adoption
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Scott, J.P., Fuller, J.L., 1965. Genetics and Social Behavior of the Dog. Uni-versity of Chicago Press, p. 145. Stephen, J., Ledger, R., 2007. Relinquishing dog owners' ability to pre-dict behavioural problems in shelter dogs post adoption. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 197, 88–99.
Understanding electronic dog training part 1. Canine Pract
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The Use of Shock Collars and their Impact on the Welfare of Dogs: A Review of the Current Literature
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Blackwell, E.J., Casey, R.A., 2006. The Use of Shock Collars and their Impact on the Welfare of Dogs: A Review of the Current Literature. Report to the RSPCA, http://www.rspca.org.uk/servlet/Satellite? blobcol=urlblob&blobheader=application%2Fpdf&blobkey=id& blobtable=RSPCABlob&blobwhere=1138718966544&ssbinary=true (accessed on 18/02/10).
The effects of play upon dominance and attachment dimensions of the dog–owner relationship
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Rooney, N.J., Bradshaw, J.W.S., 2003. The effects of play upon dominance and attachment dimensions of the dog-owner relationship. J Appl. Anim. Welf. Sci. 6, 67-94.
Understanding electronic dog training part 1
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