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Training methods and owner–dog interactions: Links with dog behaviour and learning ability
Abstract
The methods by which owners train their pet dogs range widely, with some exclusively using rewards, and others using a combination, or only punishment-based methods. This paper examines links between the way in which owners reported to have trained their dogs and observations of the dogs’ subsequent behaviour. It also explores associations between behaviour of owner and dog when tested in their own home. A total of 53 owners were surveyed about their preferred methods for training each of seven common tasks, and were each filmed interacting with their dog in a series of standardised scenarios. Dogs owned by subjects who reported using a higher proportion of punishment were less likely to interact with a stranger, and those dogs whose owners favoured physical punishment tended to be less playful. However, dogs whose owners reported using more rewards tended to perform better in a novel training task. Ability at this novel task was also higher in dogs belonging to owners who were seen to be more playful and who employed a patient approach to training. This study shows clear links between a dog's current behaviour and its owner's reported training history as well as the owner's present behaviour. High levels of punishment may thus have adverse effects upon a dog's behaviour whilst reward based training may improve a dog's subsequent ability to learn.
... While many studies acquired information about the owners' behavioral characteristics using questionnaires (e.g. 8,9,10,11 ), only few studies used behavioral observations to analyze the way dog owners interact with their pet dogs 12,13,14,15,16,17,18 . However, these latter studies investigated the behavior of dog owners in only a few contexts (ranging between one 12,13,15,17 and three 16 , and mainly contexts with positive valence (e.g. ...
... 8,9,10,11 ), only few studies used behavioral observations to analyze the way dog owners interact with their pet dogs 12,13,14,15,16,17,18 . However, these latter studies investigated the behavior of dog owners in only a few contexts (ranging between one 12,13,15,17 and three 16 , and mainly contexts with positive valence (e.g. play 12,14,15 )), and only three of these studies were conducted in a standardized environment 14,15,17 . ...
... play 12,14,15 )), and only three of these studies were conducted in a standardized environment 14,15,17 . Moreover, most studies focused on training methods 4,11,16,19 , applied by owners in specific contexts, like teaching a dog a specific behavior or modifying undesired ones. However, formal training is just one way that owners interact with their dogs and it may depend not only on the owners' own characteristics but also on the dog school they attend. ...
... Hence large animal welfare charities in the UK recommend the use of exclusively reward-based methods for training and rehabilitation (Dogs Trust, 2020;RSPCA, 2020). However, the use of aversive training methods (positive punishment and negative reinforcement) is widespread (Blackwell et al., 2008;Herron et al., 2009;Rooney and Cowan, 2011). Owners have been shown to rely on their own knowledge when making decisions about their training approaches, and this knowledge will be influenced by inconsistent and conflicting information available to the public (Todd, 2018). ...
... Although causation cannot be inferred, compared to positive reinforcement and negative punishment approaches, many studies provide evidence of an association between aversive training methods and a breakdown in the relationship between the dog and owner (Herron et al., 2009;Rooney and Cowan, 2011;Deldalle and Gaunet, 2014), owner-directed aggression (O'Heare, 2007;Herron et al., 2009;Casey et al., 2014), and a reduced capability of dogs to learn new tasks (Rooney and Cowan, 2011). ...
... Although causation cannot be inferred, compared to positive reinforcement and negative punishment approaches, many studies provide evidence of an association between aversive training methods and a breakdown in the relationship between the dog and owner (Herron et al., 2009;Rooney and Cowan, 2011;Deldalle and Gaunet, 2014), owner-directed aggression (O'Heare, 2007;Herron et al., 2009;Casey et al., 2014), and a reduced capability of dogs to learn new tasks (Rooney and Cowan, 2011). ...
The majority of owners use rewards (e.g. treats and praise) when training their dogs. However, many additionally use aversive methods (e.g. physical reprimands, sound/spray distractions) which can compromise the welfare of dogs. The aim of this study was to identify factors associated with owner-reported use of aversive training methods.
A study was conducted using data provided by owners living in the UK or Republic of Ireland participating in a longitudinal study (‘Generation Pup’). Data from a registration questionnaire completed when puppies were ≤16 weeks of age, and a follow-up questionnaire completed when dogs were nine-months of age were analysed. Responses to questions about owners’ intended/actual use of different training methods at each time point were grouped into two categories. ‘Reward only’ training: positive reinforcement (PR; increasing behaviour through application of rewarding stimulus) and/or negative punishment (NP; decreasing behaviour through removal of rewarding stimulus), and’ reward and aversive’ training: >2 methods of positive punishment (PP; decreasing behaviour by application of aversive stimulus) and/or negative reinforcement (NR; increasing behaviour through removal of aversive stimulus). Associations between training approach (’reward only’ / ‘reward and aversive’) and potential owner-related risk factors were modelled using multivariable logistic regression.
Data from 2,154 owners at registration were collected, and a follow-up questionnaire for 9-month-old dogs were completed by 976 owners. At registration, 99.7% of owners reported their intention to use PR and/or NP, and 84.1% intended to use PP and/or NR. At 9 months, 99.7% of owners reported using PR and/or NP, and 74.2% used PP and/or NR. Data were available for 161 owners at both time points, of which 80% reported the same training approach in both questionnaires. At 9 months, not attending training or puppy classes in the previous 2-months (Odds Ratio = 3.16, 95% Confidence Interval = 2.18-4.59, P < 0.001), and not having dog-related employment (Odds Ratio = 2.70, 95% Confidence Interval = 1.53-4.77, P = 0.001) were associated with increased odds of reporting a reward and aversive approach. Owners aged 55 years or more were twice as likely as those younger than 55 (Odds Ratio = 1.93, 95% Confidence Interval = 1.29-2.87, P = 0.001), and male owners were three times as likely as female owners (Odds Ratio = 3.10, 95% Confidence Interval = 1.52-6.36, P = 0.002) to use a reward and aversive training approach.
Owners reporting a reward and aversive training approach was common within this cohort. Increased awareness of optimal training approaches for dogs is needed, especially for older, male owners, who have not accessed puppy training classes.
... Studies have pointed to human influences on dogs' learning processes. Although some studies have found no effect of training method on the behavior or welfare of animals [25], some have raised evidence that the use of punitive methods in training may, for instance, affect a dog's ability to learn a new task [26], or increase their stress levels (e.g., [27,28]). A dog's ability to attend to a cue may also be influenced by the vocal information the trainer includes before the cue (e.g., saying the dog's name or an unknown word [29]); even if the dog is familiar with the cue, this vocal information may reduce the dog's performance. ...
... An alternative interpretation for these associations was that the trainers behaved more positively (i.e., using neutral or gentle tones of voice) in sessions when the dogs performed better. However, considering the fact that we also recorded reproachful speech used in tandem with good dog performance, and considering studies which have reported the effects of human behavior on their responses (e.g., [26][27][28][30][31][32]), we think this interpretation is improbable. Different emotional responses of dogs to interactions with humans have been demonstrated to be dependent on human behavior/attitude. ...
... Although the number of sessions each trainer conducted differed, this difference in trainer behavior may have contributed to the greater demand for cue repetitions on the part of dogs in sessions with Trainer 2. One possible explanation for the greater use of reproachful instead of gentle speech by Trainer 2 is a lower level of patience. The level of patience, in tandem with the amount of rewards provided, and trainer involvement in the interactions, has been shown to influence animal learning [26]. Trainer 1, who used gentle speech and laughter for longer, obtained responses from the dogs with longer latencies, but these did not prevent dogs from responding to more cues per session than when trained by Trainer 2. Considering the potential effects of a pleasant atmosphere for promoting a positive affective state in dogs [63], our outcomes recommend the use of a soft tone of voice and a relaxed atmosphere in training sessions, with the potential also for improving dogs' performance. ...
The inclusion of life history as a possible influential factor is pivotal in studies on behavior, welfare, and cognition. Shelter dogs have usually experienced a life involving poor social interactions with humans. Thus, we aimed to investigate the behavioral responses of shelter dogs (SDs) and companion dogs (CDs) during the training of two vocal cues (“sit”, “paw”), as well as the possible associations between their responses and the behaviors of trainers. We studied 15 SDs and 15 CDs in up to eight five-minute training sessions. Dogs’ and trainers’ behaviors were recorded and analyzed (through GLM, GLMM, correlation and Mann–Whitney tests). Shelter dogs responded to more cues per session, with shorter latencies and fewer repetitions of cues. Moreover, SDs spent more time wagging their tails. Dogs’ sex and trainers’ behaviors were also associated with differences in dogs’ responses. The use of a reproachful tone of voice was associated with a greater number of cues responded to, shorter latencies, and fewer repetitions of cues. However, this type voice/discourse was also linked to a greater exhibition of non-training behaviors (e.g., exploring the room or jumping on the trainer), and to dogs spending less time next to the trainer and wagging their tails. On the other hand, the use of a neutral tone of voice and laughter, besides being linked to performance, was also associated with longer durations of tail wagging. Furthermore, the duration of the trainers’ orientation to dogs was correlated with the orientation of the dogs to the trainers. Our data suggest that, even when having experienced social deprivation from humans, SDs’ capacities to learn vocal cues were preserved, possibly due to ontogenic homeostasis processes. Shelter dogs’ greater interest in the sessions may be also credited to their socially-deprived routine. Our outcomes also point to an association between friendly interactions during training and dog performance and excitement, which suggests that such interactions may have the potential to improve SD welfare.
... When designed from a multidisciplinary perspective including cognition, ethology, welfare, and behavior analysis, interventions can modify interactions between animals and their conspecifics or humans [18][19][20][21], resolve unwanted behaviors [22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34][35][36][37], temporarily increase enrichment usage, and expand the learner's behavioral repertoire [38] while ensuring good welfare. When an intervention's scope does not consider how the intervention impacts the learner, interventions focus on the elimination of behavior via punishment and aversive control [39], leading to outcomes that include fear, anxiety, pain, stress, aggression, and a negatively impacted dog-handler relationship [18,32,34,[40][41][42][43][44][45]. ...
... Further, while most dogs demonstrated reduced welfare after experiencing harsh training methods, some did not. Many factors may contribute to this finding, including but not limited to the dog's breed [99,109,165,169,170], physical conformation [99], temperament [99], sex [171], age, [36], physiological measures, medical conditions including behavioral diagnosis [172], rearing and learning history [18,33,34,40,99], overall quality of life before, during, and after training, owner attachment and caregiving style [172][173][174][175], dog's motivation to perform the skill being trained, if the skill being trained with shock ultimately allowed for greater access to reinforcement, level of shock or type of aversive, number of aversive applications, inclusion of reinforcement, training methodology (appropriate criteria setting, correct timing, etc.), and procedural integrity. In military dogs, suspicion of previous rough handling, along with less time spent with the handler, was associated with fear and aggression, while dogs that lived with their handlers were more social [174]. ...
Simple Summary
Pet dogs are more prone to exhibit challenging behaviors than ever before. Dog trainers are increasingly tasked with helping pet owners resolve behavior issues, not just teach their charges good manners. The interventions used by professionals to help ameliorate behavior complaints must be evidence-based and include the effectiveness of the intervention, how the intervention is perceived by the learner, and how the intervention affects the learner’s quality of life before, during, and after behavior intervention procedures. The objective of this paper is to review literature from multiple scientific disciplines and demonstrate how concepts from applied behavior analysis and the animal welfare sciences can be used together to ensure that the animal undergoing intervention experiences good welfare during the training process.
Abstract
Social validity refers to the social significance and acceptability of intervention goals, procedures, and outcomes. Animal practitioners, who are often guided by the principles of ABA, lack the benefit of verbal participants (at least with respect to target animals) with which to assess a client’s needs and preferences. The study of a learner’s welfare is useful for determining areas where intervention is needed or how the learner feels about an intervention that is underway. Three tenets of animal welfare measurement include physiological function, naturalistic behavior, and affect, where affect refers to private events, including emotions, which are a function of the same variables and contingencies responsible for controlling public behavior. The development of new technologies allows us to look “under the skin” and account for subjective experiences that can now be observed objectively. We introduce the reader to tools available from the animal welfare sciences for the objective measurement of social validity from the learner’s perspective.
... Multiple studies have demonstrated that the relationship between a dog and human caretaker can influence the dog's social behavior, including behavior towards unfamiliar people (Barrera et al. 2010). Rooney and Cowan (2011) found that owners who were less patient while teaching their dog a new task and engaged in more physical punishment with their dogs owned dogs that spent less time with an unfamiliar person and were less playful with their owner. Another study found that increased risk of aggression in dogs towards a familiar and unfamiliar person was associated with the use of physical punishment or negative reinforcement when the dogs were trained (Casey et al. 2014), a finding that has been supported in other studies (Blackwell et al. 2008;van Kampen 2015). ...
... Research has also shown that many dogs will persist at a task for longer durations when encouraged to do so by their owners (Udell 2015). Dogs that have owners who have high levels of patience, positive interactions (such as play behaviors), and engage in less physical punishment and more positive reinforcement have been shown to be more successful at learning new tasks (Rooney and Cowan 2011). This is consistent with findings from the human literature, where children with authoritative parents have been found to be more successful and motivated in academic pursuits and more persistent in challenging situations compared to children with authoritarian, permissive, or uninvolved parents (Baumrind 1967;Dornbusch et al. 1987;Spera 2005;Cipriano and Stifter 2010). ...
The behavior and cognition of pet domestic dogs (Canis lupus familiaris) has drawn increasing scientific attention over the last several decades. One area of focus has been the influence of lifetime variables, including the home environment and prior experiences, on the social and problem-solving behavior of dogs. While the human–dog relationship has become an important area of study, only a few studies have empirically investigated how the quality of that relationship may influence a dog’s performance on behavioral or cognitive tasks. In the current study, we asked if a human caretaker’s self-reported expectations and patterns of responding towards their dog (Pet Parenting Style) would predict the dog’s social and problem-solving behavior. Owners who had previously been asked to complete a Pet Parenting Style survey were later invited to have their dogs participate in three behavioral tests: The Secure Base Test, a Sociability Test and the Solvable Task. Consistent with the human development literature, results indicated that Pet Parenting Styles did predict patterns of dog behavior and cognition on these tests. On average, dogs with authoritative owners (high expectations, high responsiveness) had the highest rate of secure attachment, were highly social, sensitive to social context and were more persistent and successful on the problem-solving task than dogs with authoritarian owners (high expectations and low responsiveness) and permissive owners (low expectations, low responsiveness). These findings suggest that the quality and style of individual dog–human relationships, including Pet Parenting Style, may be relevant when evaluating and interpreting outcomes of canine cognition research.
... Warmth was operationalised by smiling and speaking with a high-pitched friendly tone of voice. In another study dogs interacted less during play sessions with their owners, if the owners reported to use choke chains or pinch collars, the squirting of water in the dog's face, the rubbing of the dog's nose in faeces, yanking the dog back, lifting the dog using the collar, flicking on the dog's ear, and/or shaking the dog (Rooney & Cowan, 2011). A final example was in 43% of owners reporting their dogs to respond by growling, baring teeth, snapping, lunging or biting if the owners confronted undesired dog behaviour by hitting or kicking (Herron et al., 2009). ...
... Also, presently few studies seem to address owner-dog interactions outside the setting of the dog's training. This is surprising as the concept of owner-dog interactions is broad and includes more than training (Rooney & Cowan, 2011), as described in the introduction. It also identifies a gap in current science. ...
Dogs need to adapt to a human environment to enhance their welfare and to avoid risks of undesired dog behaviour and relinquishment. Crucial to this adaptation may be how an owner interacts with the dog. Owner–dog interactions may be influenced by the human caregiving system with regard to how care, protection and resources are provided. This narrative review discusses how a consideration of the human caregiving system can benefit owner–dog interactions. Literature suggests that the human caregiving system and parenting styles could influence owner–dog interactions. Owner–dog education may improve these interactions. However, studies on owner–dog education present mixed outcomes for the dog. Also, only a few studies address owner outcomes, indicating a gap that needs filling. It is concluded that, when intervening in owner–dog interactions, more attention should be directed to aspects of human psychology. Dog-directed parenting styles can form one strategy as to improve owner–dog interactions and dog welfare.
... Dogs from Group Reward showed a tendency to learn the cognitive bias task faster than dogs from Group Mixed. Similar findings were observed previously by Rooney et al. (2011) [37], who found a positive correlation between the reported use of reward-based training methods and a dog's ability to learn a novel task (touching a spoon with its nose). In another study, Marshall-Pescini et al (2008) [38] found that dogs with high-level training experience were more successful at opening a box to obtain food than dogs which had received either none or only basic training. ...
... Dogs from Group Reward showed a tendency to learn the cognitive bias task faster than dogs from Group Mixed. Similar findings were observed previously by Rooney et al. (2011) [37], who found a positive correlation between the reported use of reward-based training methods and a dog's ability to learn a novel task (touching a spoon with its nose). In another study, Marshall-Pescini et al (2008) [38] found that dogs with high-level training experience were more successful at opening a box to obtain food than dogs which had received either none or only basic training. ...
Dogs play an important role in our society as companions and work partners, and proper training of these dogs is pivotal. For companion dogs, training helps preventing or managing dog behavioral problems—the most frequently cited reason for relinquishing and euthanasia, and it promotes successful dog-human relationships and thus maximizes benefits humans derive from bonding with dogs. For working dogs, training is crucial for them to successfully accomplish their jobs. Dog training methods range widely from those using predominantly aversive stimuli (aversive methods), to those combining aversive and rewarding stimuli (mixed methods) and those focusing on the use of rewards (reward methods). The use of aversive stimuli in training is highly controversial and several veterinary and animal protection organizations have recommended a ban on pinch collars, e-collars and other techniques that induce fear or pain in dogs, on the grounds that such methods compromise dog welfare. At the same time, training methods based on the use of rewards are claimed to be more humane and equally or more effective than aversive or mixed methods. This important discussion, however, has not always been based in solid scientific evidence. Although there is growing scientific evidence that training with aversive stimuli has a negative impact on dog welfare, the scientific literature on the efficacy and efficiency of the different methodologies is scarce and inconsistent. Hence, the goal of the current study is to investigate the efficacy and efficiency of different dog training methods. To that end, we will apply different dog training methods in a population of working dogs and evaluate the outcome after a period of training. The use of working dogs will allow for a rigorous experimental design and control, with randomization of treatments. Military (n = 10) and police (n = 20) dogs will be pseudo-randomly allocated to two groups. One group will be trained to perform a set of tasks (food refusal, interrupted recall, dumbbell retrieval and placing items in a basket) using reward methods and the other group will be trained for the same tasks using mixed methods. Later, the dogs will perform a standardized test where they will be required to perform the trained behaviors. The reliability of the behaviors and the time taken to learn them will be assessed in order to evaluate the efficacy and efficiency, respectively, of the different training methods. This study will be performed in collaboration with the Portuguese Army and with the Portuguese Public Security Police (PSP) and integrated with their dog training programs.
... Dogs from Group Reward showed a tendency to learn the cognitive bias task faster than dogs from Group Mixed. Similar findings were observed previously by Rooney et al. (2011) [37], who found a positive correlation between the reported use of reward-based training methods and a dog's ability to learn a novel task (touching a spoon with its nose). In another study, Marshall-Pescini et al (2008) [38] found that dogs with high-level training experience were more successful at opening a box to obtain food than dogs which had received either none or only basic training. ...
... Dogs from Group Reward showed a tendency to learn the cognitive bias task faster than dogs from Group Mixed. Similar findings were observed previously by Rooney et al. (2011) [37], who found a positive correlation between the reported use of reward-based training methods and a dog's ability to learn a novel task (touching a spoon with its nose). In another study, Marshall-Pescini et al (2008) [38] found that dogs with high-level training experience were more successful at opening a box to obtain food than dogs which had received either none or only basic training. ...
Dog training methods range broadly from those using mostly positive punishment and negative reinforcement (aversive-based) to those using primarily positive reinforcement (reward-based). Although aversive-based training has been strongly criticized for negatively affecting dog welfare, there is no comprehensive research focusing on companion dogs and mainstream techniques, and most studies rely on owner-reported assessment of training methods and dog behavior. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the effects of aversive- and reward-based training methods on companion dog welfare within and outside the training context. Ninety-two companion dogs were recruited from three reward-based schools (Group Reward, n = 42), and from four aversive-based schools, two using low proportions of aversive-based methods (Group Mixed, n = 22) and two using high proportions of aversive-based methods (Group Aversive, n = 28). For evaluating welfare during training, dogs were video recorded for three sessions and six saliva samples were collected, three at home (baseline levels) and three after training (post-training levels). Video recordings were used to examine the frequency of stress-related behaviors (e.g., lip lick, yawn) and the overall behavioral state of the dog (e.g., tense, relaxed), and saliva samples were analyzed for cortisol concentration. For evaluating welfare outside the training context, dogs participated in a cognitive bias task. Results showed that dogs from Group Aversive displayed more stress-related behaviors, were more frequently in tense and low behavioral states and panted more during training, and exhibited higher post-training increases in cortisol levels than dogs from Group Reward. Additionally, dogs from Group Aversive were more ‘pessimistic’ in the cognitive bias task than dogs from Group Reward. Dogs from Group Mixed displayed more stress-related behaviors, were more frequently in tense states and panted more during training than dogs from Group Reward. Finally, although Groups Mixed and Aversive did not differ in their performance in the cognitive bias task nor in cortisol levels, the former displayed more stress-related behaviors and was more frequently in tense and low behavioral states. These findings indicate that aversive-based training methods, especially if used in high proportions, compromise the welfare of companion dogs both within and outside the training context.
... Where dog training involves aversive or noxious stimuli, this can lead to punishment if dogs do not behave as desired (1,2). A growing understanding of the application of learning theory to dog welfare has led many training organizations, welfare charities and academics to advocate what they consider to be more humane methods, with a greater focus on the use and timing of rewards (3)(4)(5)(6)(7)(8)(9). ...
... With good timing, these could result in negative reinforcement, although poor timing or imposition of the noxious stimuli in response to failure to perform the desired behavior would constitute a form of punishment. It has been frequently argued that the use of aversives in dog training results in poorer learning outcomes and poses greater welfare risks compared with largely reward based training (3)(4)(5)(6). Our results demonstrate through direct evidence from real life situations, that the reward-focused training was, indeed, more efficient than methods which included potentially aversive stimuli such as electric stimuli or excessive lead pressure. ...
We assessed the efficacy of dog training with and without remote electronic collars compared to training with positive reinforcement. A total of 63 dogs with known off-lead behavioral problems such as poor recall were allocated to one of three training groups (each n = 21), receiving up to 150 min of training over 5 days to improve recall and general obedience. The 3 groups were: E-collar—manufacturer-nominated trainers who used electronic stimuli as part of their training program; Control 1—the same trainers following practices they would apply when not using electronic stimuli; and Control 2—independent, professional trainers who focused primarily on positive reinforcement for their training. Data collection focused on dogs' response to two commands: “Come” (recall to trainer) and “Sit” (place hindquarters on ground). These were the two most common commands used during training, with improving recall being the target behavior for the subject dogs. Measures of training efficacy included number of commands given to elicit the response and response latency. Control 2 achieved significantly better responses to both “Sit” and “Come” commands after a single instruction in the allocated time. These dogs also had shorter response latencies than the E-collar group. There was no significant difference in the proportion of command disobeyed between the three groups, although significantly fewer commands were given to the dogs in Control 2. There was no difference in the number of verbal cues used in each group, but Control 2 used fewer hand and lead signals, and Control 1 made more use of these signals than E-collar group. These findings refute the suggestion that training with an E-collar is either more efficient or results in less disobedience, even in the hands of experienced trainers. In many ways, training with positive reinforcement was found to be more effective at addressing the target behavior as well as general obedience training. This method of training also poses fewer risks to dog welfare and quality of the human-dog relationship. Given these results we suggest that there is no evidence to indicate that E-collar training is necessary, even for its most widely cited indication.
... This model heuristically explains the herding of sheep by a shepherd dog as a model comprising self-propelled particle with a constant speed. Although the strategies of the dog can be explained in the framework of reinforcement learning (Go et al. 2016), dogs may be trained by humans to perform the herding task (Rooney and Cowan 2011;Savalois et al. 2013;Greenebaum 2010). In the case of horses, a stallion chases mares to herd them (Krueger et al. 2014). ...
... Herding among horses is thought to be performed primarily by the stallion (Berger 1977;Feh 2005;Ransom and Cade 2009) for protection from other individuals/groups (Boyd and Keiper 2005;Waring 1983), for group cohesiveness with the aim of long-term social relationships with members of the group (Feh 2005), or to drive the group from a certain location for various reasons. Animals in the wild, like feral horses, naturally acquire the instinct to herd in the absence of human instruction, unlike many breeds of dogs, which are trained by humans (Rooney and Cowan 2011;Savalois et al. 2013;Greenebaum 2010). Herding is one event where movements of the mares and stallion are at the most dynamic stage. ...
In animal groups, individual interactions achieve coordinated movements to maintain cohesion. In horse-harem groups, herding is a behaviour in which stallions chase mares from behind; it is considered to assist with group cohesiveness. The mechanisms of the group cohesion were studied using the methods of drone filming and video tracking during herding and two phases of interactions were found based on the mares’ timing of movement initiation. The study shows that mares that move first are those nearest to the stallion; while the movement initiation of the later mares is determined by the distance from the nearest moving mare. Thus, as a second step to the full understanding of group cohesion, we propose a mathematical model of mares herded by a harem stallion, which is a modification of a sheep model during shepherding. Our model is a linear combination of the five components: inertia, repulsion from the stallion, short-range repulsion, synchronisation attraction, and attraction to the centre of the group. We tune the parameters of our proposed models based on the data and successfully reproduce the movements and directional trends of the mares.
... However, when considered in the broader context of being fed from the table and possibly subjected to punishment, this might suggest an inconsistent style of dog-owner interaction that may contribute towards the development of HDA rather than specific training effects. Some research [69,70] has claimed that training based on positive reinforcement improves the dog-owner relationship more than the use of aversive training methods. However, any form of effective training will likely involve some form of consistent dog-owner communication and thus potentially increase the dog's autonomy in the environment and reduce frustration. ...
Human-directed aggression by domestic dogs is a major worldwide public health problem. The causes of aggression are complex, and research in this area often has to balance ecological validity with pragmatic controls; accordingly, it often does not meet the thresholds for quality typically used in reviews applying a classical “evidence-based” approach. Here, we propose a method of literature assessment that makes the “best use” of available evidence to identify and synthesise evidence relating to the most likely risk factors reported in the scientific literature. We used a systematic review process to initially identify relevant literature relating to potential early life experience (i.e., in the first six months of life) risk factors in the dog for human-directed aggression in the adult animal. Fourteen papers met our initial screening process and were subsequently analysed in detail, with data extracted and effect sizes calculated where possible. This highlighted the potential importance of the source of the animal, the age at which it was rehomed, the reason for the acquisition, the experience level of the owner, the animal’s socialisation experiences, the consistent husbandry and management practices, the training, the sex ratio of the litter and the history of dogs that display aggression in the pedigree as risk factors. Taken together, it seems that early experiences which limit the ability to develop effective coping strategies and routines may be particularly important. We provide guidance for the future standardised reporting of risk related to human-directed aggression by dogs to allow greater synthesis of the literature in the future.
... One potential explanation could stem from the historical use of aversive training processes in demonstrating high levels of obedience in dogs, resulting in a vast array of welfare concerns, including low affect; sometimes manifesting as a "shut down" disposition (Casey, Naj-Oleari, Campbell, Mendl, & Blackwell, 2021;Castro et al., 2020). Despite growing evidence on the benefits (Rault, Waiblinger, Boivin, & Hemsworth, 2020;Rooney & Cowan, 2011) of positive reinforcement training techniques (both in terms of behavior, and overall emotional welfare), outdated methods continue to dominate popular culture. This may help explain the view of obedience and personality as interconnected, highlighting potential difficulties resulting from inconsistent human expectations. ...
Whilst dogs are adored companions worldwide, high numbers continue to be relinquished each year due to perceived behavioral concerns. Subsequently, this paper addresses the question; What are guardian's expectations of canine behavior and companionship? A total of 175 participants responded to a qualitative semi-structured survey, distributed online. Following a reflexive thematic analysis , five themes are discussed; A well-balanced dog, Obedient, Affection and Connection, Shared Interests, and Commitment. The findings highlight a wide range of expectations typically moving beyond realistic behavior and capabilities for both dogs and guardians. Resultantly, we call for clearer conceptualization of canine behavior, particularly in relation to the distinction between observable behavior and behavioral interpretations (personality, temperament etc.). Clarification on the facets of dog behavior, in addition to better understanding guardian expectations, will aid the development of educational materials aimed at supporting existing human-dog relationships and the adoption matching process within canine adoptions. Cumulatively, this would aid successful human-dog bonding, reducing the risk for relinquishment. These findings build on the recently proposed Perceived Canine Reactivity Framework.
... Domestic dogs have remarkable communicative skills with humans (Hare and Tomasello, 2005) and are a particularly trainable species (e. g., Bray et al., 2021). This may explain why, besides their traditional role as pets in human homes, they are often trained to carry out a wide variety of tasks, both recreationally and with working purposes (Rooney and Cowan, 2011). These abilities are achieved through different training methods and comprise a wide array of behaviors. ...
Prior research with highly trained dogs suggests they may be more successful than pets in independently solving problems when it is possible, yet they may engage in social strategies involving human partners when they face unsolvable tasks. One of the factors underlying these differences may be their persistence, which is usually studied as motivation towards a task. However, highly trained dogs often need to perform long behaviors with no reinforcement, highlighting the need for research focusing on their performance under extinction conditions. In this sense, persistence can be also examined as resistance to extinction. We compared 26 trained and untrained adult dogs of various breeds and mixes on a gazing task and a non-social problem solving task, each following a pattern of acquisition and then extinction. Results indicate that trained dogs exhibited a greater resistance to extinction than untrained dogs in both tasks. This increase in persistence could be beneficial for their performance, particularly when they need to conduct lengthy chains of behaviors with no immediate reinforcement.
... In modern western dog-training culture, punishment of juvenile domestic canids (i.e., hitting or other pain-based stimuli) is seen as counter-productive, as it is thought to commonly result in the dog developing abnormal social behaviours as an adult, especially increased reactivity and/or human-directed aggression (e.g., [124,125] and references therein). However, there have been no studies of the relative merits of rough-handling versus non-rough-handling methods of rearing domestic dogs in the context of contemporary Indigenous Australian communities. ...
Historical sources and Indigenous oral traditions indicate that Australian Aboriginal people commonly reared and kept the wild-caught pups of dingoes (C. dingo) as tamed companion animals. A review of the available evidence suggests Indigenous communities employed an intense socialisation process that forged close personal bonds between humans and their tame dingoes from an early age. This was complemented by oral traditions which passed down awareness of the dangers to children posed by wild or unfamiliar dingoes, and which communicated the importance of treating dingoes with respect. Together, these practices resulted in what can be interpreted as substantially altered behaviours in tamed dingoes, which, despite their naturally high prey drive, were not considered a serious threat to children and were thus able to be maintained as companion animals in the long term. This relationship is of importance for understanding the original domestication of the dog, as it demonstrates a means by which careful and deliberate socialisation by foragers could both manage risks to children’s safety posed by keeping wild canids in the domestic realm and retain them well into reproductive maturity—both issues which have been highlighted as obstacles to the domestication of dogs from wolves.
... Further differentiation can be seen when examining training methodology by trainer gender. Unlike previous research on dog training which has been heavily skewed toward female respondents (e.g., Koski & Bäcklund, 2015;Rooney & Cowan, 2011;Wlodarczyk, 2018), in this sample, the ratio of male to female trainers was 41-56, with three businesses not specifying the gender of their head trainer. This near 50:50 ratio might be a result of who primarily owns and operates businesses in the United States. ...
Dog trainers’ word choice may provide information about how a trainer understands and relates to the dogs they work with. To date, there has been little analysis of the words trainers use or whether specific words or phrases can readily differentiate the type of training methodology practiced. We gathered demographic and educational information and the stated training philosophy from the websites of 100 dog trainers from 10 US cities, identified by a popular consumer review site, to determine whether there was a difference in word use between training methodologies, if women practiced non-aversive techniques more than men, and if non-aversive trainers were more often certified than aversive trainers. Trainers were identified as using either non-aversive methods (utilizing positive reinforcement and no use of aversive leash tools) or aversive methods (may use positive reinforcement but will also utilize aversive methods to punish) by trainer self-identification or training-tool use. We then qualitatively analyzed the website texts outlining training philosophy using the text analysis software MAXQDA. Specific words or phrases that were selected based on their importance within training were turned into 20 codes that were examined for their context and frequency of use across the 100 philosophies. Some codes differentiated between training methodologies, particularly those related to training-tool use. For example, aversive trainers referred to corrective collars as “electronic collars” and explained their use; non-aversive trainers called the same tool a “shock collar” and stated that it was never used in their training. We found women practiced positive reinforcement training significantly more often than men (χ(2)2 = 12.79, p < 0.05). Positive reinforcement trainers were also significantly more likely to be certified than balanced trainers (χ(2)2 = 18.75, p < 0.01). This shows that there is a wide variability in word use by dog trainers, which leads to inconsistencies in information provided to the public. The low rate of certification also raises concerns about the scarcity of licensing and lax oversight of dog trainers in the USA leading to potential safety risks for both owners and dogs.
... Craig (1918) framed anticipation within a pleasure cycle, representing dopamine dependent anticipatory ('wanting'/positive reward seeking), consummatory ('liking') and satiety (learning) phases (Cabanac, 1992;Sapolsky, 1994;Berridge and Kringelbach, 2011;Schultz, 2015;Cook et al., 2016;Csoltova and Mehinagic, 2020). It is perhaps unsurprising therefore, that positive reinforcement training and interaction (Pet Professional Guild, 2022) has resulted in dogs' attentiveness to owners (Deldalle and Gaunet, 2014), strong dog-owner bonds (de Castro et al., 2019) and better performance at novel training tasks than dogs trained using aversive methods (Rooney and Cowan, 2011); as Cabanac (1992) stated, 'Pleasant is useful'. ...
Domestic pet dogs typically spend a large amount of time inside the home environment, including hours alone. An audio/food dispensing automated device (an artificial agent, hereafter agent) was evaluated for enrichment potential. The agent issued owner-spoken verbal cues to dogs, and food rewards for correct behavioural responses. The dogs’ welfare during interaction was examined using Qualitative Behavioural Assessment (QBA), and results were compared with quantitative behavioural measurements. QBA is a ‘whole animal’ measure, which describes and quantifies the emotionally expressive quality of an animal’s demeanour in a specific context, using descriptive terms such as ‘excited’ or ‘curious’. Adult pet domestic dogs (n = 17) were observed in two experimental conditions: 1) Agent; researcher and owner present (A+RO); 2) Agent; researcher and owner absent (A-RO). The agent was remotely triggered to call each dog by name and issue up to four repeated, randomised and previously trained verbal cues e.g., ‘spin’, ‘roll’, ‘sit’, ‘up’ (maximum 16 cues). In a baseline condition (Owner; researcher and agent present) (O+RA) the dog’s owner replaced the agent’s role. QBA using a fixed list of 20 descriptors was performed by three observers for each dog in each condition, using video recordings (51 clips) and Principal Component Analysis (PCA) applied. QBA principal component 1 (PC1) was the same in all conditions, characterising dogs as ranging from ‘attentive/interested/anticipating’ to ‘conflicted/apathetic’, with the majority of dogs at the former end. QBA PC2 revealed variability in dogs’ interactive styles, ranging from ‘calm/concentrating’ to ‘aroused/excited/persistent’ in agent conditions, and ‘calm/wary’ to ‘excited/aroused’ in baseline. Inter-observer agreement was high on all PCs (e.g., PC1 A+RO Kendall’s W = 0.88; PC1 A-RO W = 0.83; PC1 O+RA W = 0.77). Quantitative continuous behaviour sampling revealed no significant differences in state behaviour between conditions; ‘looking up’ (p = 0.494); ‘ears up’ (p = 0.662); ‘cued response behaviour’ (p = 0.630); these behaviour categories correlated significantly with QBA PC1 in each condition (average r = 0.800; r = 0.780; r = 0.793 respectively).
Indicators of positive anticipation, sustained engagement, competence, and motivation were identified throughout testing and in all conditions. These findings suggest that positively reinforcing interactions with an agent or an owner are equally rewarding for dogs within the context of testing. This study is the first to assess welfare during interaction with an automated device and, using a novel application of QBA, suggests the overarching experience is pleasurable for dogs.
... En adición con lo anterior, Jamieson et al. (2018) señalan que cuando un canino es manejado por una persona desconocida para el animal, existe más probabilidad de tener comportamientos indeseados causados por estrés, lo cual aumenta la distracción y afecta negativamente el rendimiento en la detección, e incluye una nueva variable de influencia en el perro de trabajo. Al ser el perro un animal social, su conducta puede verse alterada por elementos del entorno y la relación con el ser humano, independientemente del dispositivo que se esté utilizando para el aprendizaje (Herwijnen et al., 2018); en este sentido, deben tenerse en consideración aspectos como la experiencia previa del canino en tareas de entrenamiento (Marshall et al., 2009;Marshall et al., 2016), el método de refuerzo (Hiby et al., 2004;Rooney & Cowan, 2011) y el comportamiento del propietario o entrenador (Arhant et al., 2010). ...
El entrenamiento de los caninos de trabajo emplea diversos mecanismos de condicionamiento, los cuales permiten un rendimiento posterior superior, contrarrestando el sistema de drogas ilícitas, las organizaciones criminales, los grupos armados organizados (GAO) y residuales (GAOr), garantizando la seguridad y convivencia ciudadana en Colombia. Por lo anterior, se propone un enfoque cualitativo empleando una revisión sistemática de la literatura, con el objetivo de analizar el rol de la tecnología y aparatos para adiestrar caninos detectores, entre los años 2000 y 2020 dentro de las bases de datos Scopus, Elsevier y Scielo. Como resultados, se observa un aumento en la producción de artículos entre los años 2000 y 2019 (pasando de seis artículos a 86, respectivamente). Además, dentro de las herramientas empleadas en los estudios se encuentran las cajas; clickers; collares electrónicos y carruseles, los cuales discriminan el olor, utilizando sistemas de refuerzo, con diferencias dependiendo del tipo de estudio, el número de animales y el objetivo de entrenamiento. Como conclusión, es necesario desarrollar prototipos adecuados según las necesidades de entrenamiento en cada contexto, continuando con estudios que integren efectivamente los estímulos y los sistemas de recompensa para impactar los resultados en el rendimiento del perro de trabajo.
... En adición con lo anterior, Jamieson et al. (2018) señalan que cuando un canino es manejado por una persona desconocida para el animal, existe más probabilidad de tener comportamientos indeseados causados por estrés, lo cual aumenta la distracción y afecta negativamente el rendimiento en la detección, e incluye una nueva variable de influencia en el perro de trabajo. Al ser el perro un animal social, su conducta puede verse alterada por elementos del entorno y la relación con el ser humano, independientemente del dispositivo que se esté utilizando para el aprendizaje (Herwijnen et al., 2018); en este sentido, deben tenerse en consideración aspectos como la experiencia previa del canino en tareas de entrenamiento (Marshall et al., 2009;Marshall et al., 2016), el método de refuerzo (Hiby et al., 2004;Rooney & Cowan, 2011) y el comportamiento del propietario o entrenador (Arhant et al., 2010). ...
Over its fifty years of established existence beginning in 1967, the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) has expounded its consolidated and integrated model in political relations, economic developments, and cultural values. However, confronted by threats to global security, ASEAN has also faced the complex impacts of transnational narcotics trafficking (TransNT). The study uses grey literature as secondary data to illustrate the current situations of TransNT in Southeast Asia by way of examining drug trafficking starting from the original countries (Myanmar) through the transit points (Vietnam) to final destination countries (Malaysia). Besides reviewing more than four decades of collaboration, the paper analyses ASEAN’s milestones in building its cooperative mechanism and assesses its institutional framework for combatting TransNT with specific initiatives. The study notes the main barriers and practical challenges that constrain the process of regional cooperation. Some brief recommendations are also suggested for further research in the near future to enhance regional cooperation in combatting transnational crimes.
... fear, panic, pleasure of seeking novelty, play, per Panksepp 2004) is still gaining acceptance, but may result in subsequent prioritization of activities that promote not just physical fitness, but also the mental health of non-human animals (Grandin, 2018). There is a growing body of research identifying the performance benefits in dogs when people reduce negative emotional experiences for dogs (such as fear in training), and promote positive canine welfare experiences (Hiby et al., 2004;Gaines et al., 2008;Rooney et al., 2009Rooney et al., , 2016Rooney and Cowan, 2011;Deldalle and Gaunet, 2014;Ziv, 2017). Differences across industry sectors highlight the value that guidance for care provision at a regulatory legislation level can offer. ...
There is public interest for the welfare of dogs that spend at least part of their lives housed in kennel facilities, such as working, shelter and sporting dogs. The impacts of living in environments that limit social, physical, and behavioral opportunities are generally well understood in other animals, such as livestock and zoo animals. Research exploring the effects of the kennel environment and its enrichment on the behavior and physiology of dogs is emerging. However, human perceptions concerning what is important to the welfare of kenneled dogs have been overlooked. What people believe is important will influence their behavior, with direct relation to care provided to animals and the underlying social license of related industries to operate. This study evaluated the perceived importance of specific kennel management practices relating to canine health, kennel facility design and routine, social interactions, and environmental enrichment. Over 2,000 self-selected adults completed a voluntary, internet-based questionnaire. Differences in beliefs and attitudes were identified based on kennel facility experience, employment role, age, and gender, highlighting potential areas of discordance that may contribute to occupational stress and staff turnover. The results also suggest that research findings published in the scientific literature may not be successfully translating into evidence-based changes in industry practice. Future models to assess animal welfare should include the critical dimension of human-animal interaction. The beliefs, attitudes, and consequent behaviors of people interacting with dogs housed in kennels will determine how living in captivity impacts upon the experiences and welfare of the resident dogs.
... Dogs learn from their caregiver in both active and passive manners. On the one hand, they are educated in direct, teaching-like manners of what to do and what not to do [14], which allows learning about rules, causally opaque actions and conventions. Especially if performed by the caregiver in an ostensive, teaching-like manner, dogs learn to obey and follow [15,16]. ...
Overimitation, the copying of causally irrelevant or non-functional actions, is well-known from humans but completely absent in other primates. Recent studies from our lab have provided evidence for overimitation in canines. Previously, we found that half of tested pet dogs copied their human caregiver’s irrelevant action, while only few did so when the action was demonstrated by an unfamiliar experimenter. Therefore, we hypothesized that dogs show overimitation as a result of socio-motivational grounds. To test this more specifically, here we investigated how the relationship with the caregiver influenced the eagerness to overimitate. Given the high variability in the tendency to overimitate their caregiver, we hypothesized that not only familiarity but also relationship quality influences whether dogs faithfully copy their caregiver. For this purpose, on the one hand we measured the overimitation tendency (with the same test as in the two studies before) and on the other hand the relationship quality between the dogs and their caregivers. Although we found no significant correlation between the two test results, our data might suggest that, on average, dogs who overimitated seemed to show more referential and affiliative behaviours towards the owner than dogs who showed less or no copying of the irrelevant action. Notably, as a group, those dogs that showed the highest level of copying accuracy of the irrelevant action showed the highest level of gazing and synchronization towards the owner.
... Lindsay [15] and Rajecki et al. [16] suggest that owners use punishments when problem behaviours are ascribed to internal motivations, e.g., an internal emotional drive, such as spite. As punishment-based training methods are implicated in poor canine welfare [17][18][19], understanding factors linked to canine emotional attributions is therefore potentially important in identifying dogs at risk of poor welfare. ...
Assumptions about dogs’ personality are influenced by their appearance, which may lead to differences in ownership styles and subsequent canine welfare. The influence of canine appearance on observers’ emotion attributions to dogs remains largely unexplored. This study investigated whether canine head shape is related to how both dog owners and non-dog owning adults in the U.K. attribute emotions to still images of dogs, and in the case of dog owners, to their own dogs. Attachment, respondent personality and dog trainability were assessed as potential influences on emotional attribution in owners. Overall, 2451 participant responses were received. Still images of mesocephalic dogs were attributed primary and positively valenced emotion with more strength and frequency than other groups. Mesocephalic images were also attributed negatively valenced emotions less frequently and with less strength than other groups. Apart from empathy, no significant differences were found in emotional attribution to owned dogs of different head shapes; however, human personality influenced attribution of emotions to owned dogs. The finding that some dogs are attributed emotions more readily based on their appearance alone has applied importance, given, for example, the potential for misattribution of positive emotions to dogs in negative emotional states, and potential prejudice against dogs considered in negative emotional states.
... Dogs learn from their caregiver in both active and passive manners. On the one hand, they are educated in direct, teaching-like manners of what to do and what not to do [14], which allows learning about rules, causally opaque actions, and conventions. Especially if performed by the caregiver in an ostensive, teaching-like manners, dogs learn to obey and follow [15,16]. ...
Overimitation, the copying of causally irrelevant or non-functional actions, is well-known from humans but completely absent in other primates. Recent studies from our lab have provided evidence for overimitation in canines. Previously, we found that half of tested pet dogs copied their human caregiver's irrelevant action, while only few did so when the action was demonstrated by an unfamiliar experimenter. Therefore, we hypothesized that dogs show overimitation as a result of socio-motivational grounds. To test this more specifically, here we investigated how the relationship with the caregiver influenced the eagerness to overimitate. Given the high variability in the tendency to overimitate their caregiver, we hypothesized that not only familiarity, but also relationship quality influences whether dogs faithfully copy their caregiver. For this purpose, we measured on the one hand the overimitation tendency (with the same test as in the two studies before) and on the other hand the relationship quality between the dogs and their caregivers. Although not significant, results revealed that dogs who overimitated seemed to show more referential and affiliative behaviours towards the owner (like gazing, synchronization and greeting) than dogs who showed less or no copying of the irrelevant action. Possible reasons for these findings are discussed.
... These results suggest that the dog-handler interaction may have influenced the dogs' behaviours, either by the nature of the interaction itself and/or by the training method utilized in the programme (Rooney & Cowan, 2011). ...
Background
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) symptoms include re-experiencing, avoidance, hyperarousal, and cognitive deficits, reflecting both emotional and cognitive dysregulation. In recent years, non-pharmacological approaches and specifically animal-assisted therapy have been shown to be beneficial for a variety of disorders such as Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder, Autism Spectrum Disorder, and PTSD. However, little is mentioned in the literature about the reciprocal effects of the animal–human interaction.
Objective
To evaluate the effects of a one-year dog training programme on PTSD symptomatology in youngsters with PTSD and on dogs’ behaviour.
Methods
Fifty-three adolescents, previously exposed to interpersonal trauma, were clinically diagnosed with PTSD and assigned to a dog-training programme group (n = 30) and a control group (n = 23) that engaged in other training programmes (e.g. cooking, hairstyling, etc.). Both groups were evaluated at baseline and following 12-months by The Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale for DSM-5 in Children and Adolescents (CAPS-CA-5) and Beck-Depression Inventory (BDI). Additionally, we physiologically measured both emotional and attention dysregulation.
Results
Post-12-months training, a significant alleviation of PTSD symptomatology accompanied by lower depression severity was observed in the dog-training group, compared with a insignificant recovery in the control group. Furthermore, improved emotional and attentional regulation was observed in the dog-training group. Measuring the dogs’ behaviour revealed increased anxiety and decreased selective attention performance, which was inversely correlated with the beneficial effects observed in the dog-training programme group.
Conclusions
Our findings emphasize the role of emotional and attentional regulations on the dog–handler interface, as evidence-based support for the beneficial effects of the dog-training programme, as either a non-pharmacological intervention or as complementary to anti-depressants treatment of PTSD. Though pharmacological treatments increase the patients’ well-being by treating certain PTSD symptoms, our suggested dog-training programme seems to influence the PTSD diagnostic status, thus may be implemented in civilians and veterans with PTSD.
... Assuming that a positive, reward-based method of training is employed, dogs who participate in such training with their owners may show an increased aptitude for future learning 13 , and are less likely to exhibit behaviors associated with anxiety or fear (i.e., lip licking, yawning, tense body posture. ...
... 'Positive reward-based' practices rely predominantly on positive and negative reinforcement, with a food reward often being used as the reinforcer (Chiandetti et al., 2016;Gillaspy et al., 2014;Gilis et al., 2012;Mills, 2005). It has even become a mainstream animal management and husbandry strategy, in that animals are being 'rewarded' for performing innate and necessary physiological functions, one example being rewarding dogs with food for excreting faeces and eliminating urine outdoors during house training (Rooney & Cowan, 2011). Meanwhile, any behaviour which is deemed undesirable is 'ignored', with no social communication, reminiscent of the emotionally unhealthy tactic of 'stonewalling' in human inter-personal relations described by Horan et al., (2015). ...
In this paper, I examine the way humans interact with domestic companion animals, with a focus on 'positive reward-based training' methods, particularly for dogs. From a biosemiotic perspective, I discuss the role of animal training in today's society and examine what binary reward-based reinforcement schedules communicate, semiotically. I also examine the extent to which reward-based training methods promote better welfare, when compared to the more traditional methods which rely on aversive stimuli and punishment, if and when they are relied upon excessively. I conclude that when used as the primary means of communication, they have the potential to be detrimental to animal welfare, because the underlying social signal is control and resource dominance. As an alternative view to behaviourist-based learning theory and conditioning, I outline how enactivist theories of cognition support a semiotic approach to interspecific human-animal communication. I therefore propose a move toward a dynamic semiosis and mutual understanding based upon Peirce's phenomenology, resulting in a more balanced merging of Umwelten. The aim is to create rich and more complex semiospheres around humans and domestic animals, which allow for individual agency and autonomy.
... Recently, pet parenting styles have been identified among dog caretakers (van Herwijnen et al., 2018;Brubaker & Udell, in prep), and preliminary evidence suggest that there is likely a relationship between pet parenting style and dog-human attachment style. More broadly, positive factors within a human-dog relationship (such as play, positive reinforcement training, and lack of punishment) have been found to profoundly influence the human-dog bond, including correlations between attachment reported by the human caregiver and pro-social behaviors by the dog, dog training success, and reduced problem behaviors in dogs (Hiby et al., 2004;Rehn et al., 2013Rehn et al., , 2014Rehn et al., , 2017Rooney & Bradshaw, 2002;Rooney & Cowan, 2011). Therefore, with more research it may be possible to predict likely attachment outcomes for dog-human pairs based on parenting style and human behavior, and perhaps to educate humans on best practices for establishing a secure relationship with their dog, similar to the promotion of positive parenting practices when parenting human children. ...
The capacity for dogs to form attachment bonds to humans has been recognized by scientists for over two decades. However, evaluations of dog-human attachment styles, including to what extent dogs experience attachment security with their human caregivers, are relatively new. In humans, the development of secure attachments is considered a predictor of social wellbeing and positive cognitive outcomes including future relationship success, persistence, mental wellbeing and executive functioning. A better understanding of dog-human attachment relationships could have important scientific and applied implications. Here we provide an overview of attachment research as it relates to the dog-human bond, and take a closer look at one experimental approach, the Secure Base Test (SBT), currently used to evaluate dog-human attachment styles.
... The mechanism underlying the potential influence of owners' personality on their dogs' behavior problems has yet to be clearly identified. Based on studies showing an association between owners' use of positive punishment and/or confrontational or aversive methods of behavioral control and behavior problems in dogs ( Rooney and Cowan, 2011 ), Dodman et al. (2018) hypothesized that the relationship between owner personality and the behavior of companion dogs might be mediated by the quality or style of the owner's interactions with the dog, particularly in the context of training. Their results provided little evidence in support of this hypothesis, suggesting that any potential influence of an owners' personality on his/her dog's behavior occurs via mechanisms other than training. ...
Anxiety tends to aggregate in families, and families increasingly include companion animals, such as dogs. Based on previous research pointing to a 'personality fit' between humans and their companion dogs, this study explored the potential association between owners' trait anxiety and dogs' fear and anxiety-related behavior problems, while also testing for mediating and moderating factors. Two hypotheses previously proposed in the literature were here tested: that dogs may respond to their owners' anxiety directly through emotional contagion, or that owners' anxiety may affect dogs' indirectly via (a) owners' over-protectiveness-thereby restricting the dog's ability to familiarize itself with novel situations-or (b) their use of coercive dog-training methods. A cross-sectional approach was followed with use of an on-line questionnaire designed to measure owners' trait anxiety and dogs' fear and anxiety-related behavior problems, as well as owners' protective behavior, and dogs' emotional reactions to their owners' emotions (i.e., 'empathic trait'). Data were obtained from 1,172 self-identified dog owners. Results showed a significant positive correlation between owners' trait anxiety and the severity of their dogs' fear and anxiety-related behavior. No evidence was found for mediation of this relationship by owners' protective behavior or their use of coercive training methods. However, the results showed a marginally significant moderation effect above a particular score in dogs' 'empathic trait'. This study suggests that owners' trait anxiety is associated, to some extent, with the occurrence of dogs' fear and anxiety related behavior problems. The extent to which dogs exhibit an 'empathic trait' may explain the strength of this association.
... Training procedures are presumed to be an important component for improving the interactions animals have with conspecifics and their human trainers. For instance, with companion animals, training procedures, including type of training method used, play an important role in decreasing aggression, minimizing problem behaviors, or otherwise promoting proper dog-dog and dog-human interactions (for examples, see Batt et al., 2008;Blackwell et al., 2008;China et al., 2020;Haug, 2008;Rooney & Cowan, 2011). Regardless, only a few studies in any animal setting have experimentally examined the effect of training procedures to promote social interactions that lead to enriched welfare outcomes. ...
Husbandry training and environmental enrichment are both important advancements associated with current behavioral welfare practices. Additionally, the use of training procedures has been proposed as a form of enrichment, with the implication that training can produce beneficial behavioral welfare results. This paper examines the concept of training as enrichment through three distinct ways training procedures could enrich: (1) training facilitates enrichment usage, (2) training modifies interactions, conspecific or otherwise, and (3) training expands behavioral repertoires. Within each category, the paper focuses on past research that provides empirical support for training functioning as enrichment, as well as related areas of research that provide additional evidence. Previous studies support the claim that training is enriching, with additional research necessary to better understand how prevalent and under what conditions training procedures function as enrichment. Future training research should examine these potential enrichment effects, including methodology that allows for comparisons to traditional enrichment, the use of welfare diversity/variability indices, and the effects of learning on trainers and trainees alike.
... The learning process further influences behavior through trial and error [2]. Dog owners intervene proactively in this process by enlisting the help of dog trainers to teach them how to reinforce desired behaviors and suppress unwanted behaviors through antecedent management and structured lessons [3,4]. Most agree that dog owners (guardians) who learn and employ best practices rooted in reward-based training for managing and preventing undesired behaviors in dogs establish a more trusting and prolonged relationship [5][6][7][8]. ...
An online survey about puppy training was sent to members of the Center for Canine Behavior Studies and posted on our social media platforms. Six hundred forty-one (641) qualifying owners provided information on 1023 dogs. About half (48%) of the dogs involved in the study attended puppy training and the balance (52%) did not. The goal of the study was to find out whether puppy training at various ages (1-3 months, 4 months, 5-6 months) helped prevent behavior problems later in life (≥1 year). Attending training at 6 months of age or younger resulted in 0.71 the odds of developing aggressive behavior (95% CI: 0.53-0.97; p = 0.030), 0.64 the odds of having a compulsive behavior (95% CI: 0.45-0.92; p = 0.015), 0.60 the odds of exhibiting destructive behavior (95% CI: 0.37-0.96; p = 0.035), 0.68 the odds of excessive barking (95% CI: 0.47-0.99; p = 0.043), and 1.56 the odds of house soiling (95% CI: 1.08-2.27; p = 0.019). Ancillary findings about the entire study population were that dogs acquired at 12 weeks of age or younger were found to have 0.65 the odds of fear/anxiety (95% CI: 0.46-0.92; p = 0.016) and 0.50 the odds of exhibiting destructive behavior (95% CI: 0.31-0.79; p = 0.003). In addition, male dogs were found to have 0.68 the odds of developing aggressive behavior (95% CI: 0.53-0.88; p = 0.003), 0.66 the odds of developing compulsive behavior (95% CI: 0.49-0.88; p = 0.006), 0.37 the odds of mounting/humping (95% CI: 0.26-0.52; p < 0.001), and 1.53 the odds of rolling in repulsive materials (95% CI: 1.18-1.97; p = 0.001). Neutered dogs of either sex were found to have 3.10 the odds of fear/anxiety (95% CI: 2.05-4.72; p < 0.001), 1.97 the odds of escaping/running away (95% CI: 1.12-3.69; p = 0.025), 2.01 the odds of exhibiting coprophagia (95% CI 1.30-3.19; p = 0.002), and 1.72 the odds of rolling in repulsive materials (95% CI: 1.12-2.66; p = 0.014). The odds of problematic jumping deceased by 0.84 for each 1-year increase in age (95% CI: 0.80-0.88; p < 0.001).
... Furthermore, it is possible that elephants managed under different training styles may vary in their cognitive abilities or performance on tasks. Recent research with domestic dogs has suggested that positivereinforcement-only training leads to increased cognitive performance on novel tasks (Haverbeke, Laporte, Depiereux, Giffroy, & Diederich, 2008;Rooney & Cowan, 2011). Also, a recent replication of elephant numerical ability suggests that there may be a difference between protected-contact and free-contact trained animals. ...
The current study tested six Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) on a means-end behavioral task of pulling a support to retrieve a distant object; a systematic replication of the Irie-Sugimoto et al. (2008) study. The paradigm was somewhat modified from the original research to accommodate a protected contact setting, reduce the total number of trials, and one condition was excluded. Each elephant was tested on three conditions of increasing difficulty. Specifically, subjects were asked to select from a choice of two trays where one intact tray was baited with a highly-valued produce item and the other was A) empty; B) baited adjacent to the tray; and C) baited on the far side of a break in the tray. Results indicated that the elephants met or exceeded the criteria established for conditions A and B, but performed at chance levels on condition C. These data are contrasted with those of the original study where one elephant met criteria for all three conditions. We discuss potentially relevant variables affecting performance including differences in visual access to the trays, motivation levels, and training style.
... Our results are contrary to studies in dogs where dogs trained with PosRe seek more contact with the owner than the stranger during both reunion (Vieira de Castro et al., 2019) and during training situations (Deldalle and Gaunet, 2014) compared to dogs trained with NegRe. Similar to our results though, dogs trained with aversive methods are less likely to interact with strangers (Rooney and Cowan, 2011). ...
Humans have shared a long history with horses and today we mainly consider horses as companions for sports and leisure activities. Previously, the human perspective of the human-horse relationship has been investigated but there has been little focus on the horse’s perspective. This study aimed to reveal whether horses show attachment-related behaviour towards the owner compared to a stranger in a modified Strange Situation Procedure (SSP) consisting of a walking phase, a standing still phase, separation from the owner/stranger and lastly a reuinon. We tested 26 privately owned horses in an indoor experimental area of 20 × 14 m. In addition to testing, the owners were asked questions about their training methods. Based on these questionnaire results, owners were divided into groups depending on whether they mainly used negative reinforcement, positive reinforcement or a combination of both methods during training. They also completed a horse personality questionnaire. The results showed that the horses spent more time in door proximity when separated from the owner and the stranger (owner: Z = −3.46, P = 0.001; stranger: Z = 3.40, P = 0.001) compared to the reunion phase, and they sought human proximity during reunion. The horses’ heart rates were higher during the separation compared to the reunion with both the owner (Z = −3.44, P = 0.001) and the stranger (Z = −2.40, P = 0.016). These results are examples of attachment-related features and suggest that horses consider both the owner and the stranger as a safe haven. However, the results are not clear as to whether or not horses perceive their owners as a secure base since their exploratory behaviour during owner reunion was similar to that during stranger reunion. Interestingly, horses trained with positive reinforcement spent most time in door proximity during separation from the stranger (χ²(2) = 6.18, P = 0.045) and similarly there was a tendency also during owner separation (χ²(2) = 5.20, P = 0.074). The same group of horses also spent more time in stranger proximity (χ²(2) = 6.16, P = 0.046) and in physical contact with stranger (χ²(2) = 8.62, P = 0.013) than the other two training style groups during reunion. When correlating scores from the horse personality questionnaire with behaviours during owner reunion, we found few significant associations, but the trait Inquisitive correlated with both proximity to owner and ears forward (rs = 0.41, P = 0.035 and rs = 0.49, P = 0.011, respectively), and ears forward also correlated with the trait Excitability (rs = 0.39, P = 0.047) and Dominance (rs = 0.46, P = 0.019). Hence, this study revealed attachment-related behaviours of horses towards humans even though the results cannot resolve whether these fulfil all criteria for an attachment-bond.
... Incorporating training principles, primarily through the use of positive reinforcement, has been broadly and successfully used in practice for zoo and companion animals to improve handling by reducing the aversiveness of some procedures [dog (126), cat (127), horse (63), primates (128)]. Training is not yet commonly used in farm settings despite proof of its effectiveness in research settings [pig (129,130), sheep (131), cattle]. ...
Domestic animals often seek and enjoy interacting with humans. Positive human-animal relationships can elicit positive emotions and other positive welfare outcomes. Nevertheless, our understanding of the underlying processes that govern the positive perception of humans by animals is incomplete. We cover the potential mechanisms involved in the development and maintenance of positive human-animal relationships from the perspective of the animal. This encompasses habituation, associative learning, and possibly attachment or bonding based on communication and social cognition. We review the indicators from the literature to assess a positive human-animal relationship. We operationally define this positive relationship as the animal showing voluntary approach and spatial proximity (seeking) and signs of anticipation, pleasure, relaxation, or other indicators of a rewarding experience from interacting with the human. For research, we recommend accounting for the baseline human-animal relationship in the animal's everyday life, and incorporating a control treatment rather than only comparing positive to negative interaction treatments. Furthermore, animal characteristics, such as previous experience, genetics, and individual predisposition, as well as contextual characteristics related to the social and physical environment, may modulate the perception of humans by animals. The human-animal relationship is also influenced by human characteristics, such as the person's familiarity to the animal, attitudes, skills, and knowledge. We highlight implications for current practices and suggest simple solutions, such as paying attention to the animal's behavioral response to humans and providing choice and control to the animal in terms of when and how to interact with humans. Practical applications to achieve a positive perception of humans could be better utilized, such as by incorporating training principles, while keeping in mind trust and safety of both partners. Overall, there is growing evidence in the scientific literature that a positive human-animal relationship can bring intrinsic rewards to the animals and thereby benefit animal welfare. Further research is needed on the underlying processes to establish an effective positive human-animal relationship, especially in regard to the type, frequency, and length of human interaction necessary. In particular, the importance of providing animals with a sense of agency over their interactions with humans remains poorly understood.
... The dog will repeat the behavioral response to the specific stimulus that leads to the higher benefit [83,84]. The latter may increase aggressiveness and fear and should therefore be avoided [25,83,85]. Reinforcements are associated with improved abilities to learn [25,86]. ...
Human remains detection dogs (HRDDs) are powerful police assets to locate a corpse. However, the methods used to select and train them are as diverse as the number of countries with such a canine brigade. First, a survey sent to human remains searching brigades (Ncountries = 10; NBrigades = 16; NHandlers = 50; Nquestions = 9), to collect their working habits confirmed the lack of optimized selection and training procedures. Second, a literature review was performed in order to outline the strengths and shortcomings of HRDDs training. A comparison between the scientific knowledge and the common practices used by HRDDs brigade was then conducted focusing on HRDDs selection and training procedures. We highlighted that HRDD handlers select their dogs by focusing on behavioral traits while neglecting anatomical features, which have been shown to be important. Most HRDD handlers reported to use a reward-based training, which is in accordance with training literature for dogs. Training aids should be representative of the odor target to allow a dog to reach optimal performances. The survey highlighted the wide diversity of homemade training aids, and the need to optimize their composition. In the present document, key research topics to improve HRDD works are also provided.
... the use of operant conditioning, and within this, mainly on the association of positive reinforcement and positive punishment with the occurrence of behaviour problems. There is data to date supporting a positive correlation between the use of aversive communication styles (primarily positive punishment, i.e. the addition of something aversive that leads to a decrease in the unwanted behaviour) and the occurrence of behaviour problems, both in humans [17][18][19] and in dogs [20][21][22][23][24][25] . As positive punishment is perceived as "aversive", it is thought to lead to high levels of arousal and negative emotions in the canine recipient 22,26 . ...
Sensory Processing Sensitivity (SPS) is a personality trait in humans characterised by a tendency to process information deeply, to be easily overstimulated, and to have strong emotional responses and an enhanced sensitivity to subtle stimuli. A trait similar to SPS has recently been identified in dogs (“canine Sensory Processing Sensitivity”, cSPS). In children, this trait interacts with parenting factors to influence emotional and mental development, which in turn are linked to behaviour problems. Paralleling these findings in humans, we demonstrate that cSPS interacts with owner personality and use of aversive communication to influence the likelihood of behaviour problems in dogs. More behaviour problems were reported for more highly sensitive dogs per se, when there was a relative mismatch between owner and dog personality, and when use of “negative punishment” was reported. These findings indicate that a dog’s personality might moderate how an individual is affected by environmental factors, particularly owner personality and communication style, emphasising the importance of considering individuality in prevention, development and treatment of behaviour problems in dogs.
... In doing so, the dog must, together with the handler, continually adjust to both the livestock and environment. Inadequate training has the potential to compromise the welfare of both dog and livestock [4][5][6][7]. Previous studies have shown the influence of animal handling techniques on both the behaviour and physiology of sheep [8,9]. ...
Livestock herding dogs are crucial contributors to Australian agriculture. However, there is a dearth of empirical studies of the behavioural interactions between dog and livestock during herding. A statistical approach that may reveal cause and effect in such interactions is lag sequential analysis. Using 48 video recordings of livestock herding dogs and sheep in a yard trial competition, event-based (time between behaviours is irrelevant) and time-based (time between behaviours is defined) lag sequential analyses identified several significant behavioural interactions (adjusted residuals greater than 2.58; the maximum likelihood-ratio chi-squared statistic for all eight contingency tables identified all sequences as highly significant (p < 0.001)). These sequences were: The dog ceasing all movement followed by the sheep also ceasing movement; the dog chasing the sheep and a group of sheep escaping the main flock; a single sheep escaping the flock and the dog chasing; sheep initiating movement followed by the dog following; foot-stamping followed by the dog ceasing all movement; and, foot-stamping by the sheep and the dog lip-licking in response. Log linear regression identified significant relationships among undesirable behaviours in sheep and both observed trial duration (p = 0.001) and trial score (p = 0.009). No differences in the herding styles of dogs were identified between sex of dog and frequency of sheep escape behaviours (p = 0.355) nor the sex of dog and competition level (p = 0.116). The identification of trial score as a predictor of efficient performance confirms the benefits of incorporating extant objective measures to assess livestock herding dogs.
... While 75% of organizations in both groups had formal written policies on acceptable/unacceptable training methods for use with therapy dogs, a surprising number of Group 1 and 2 organizations (25 and 40%, respectively) did not explicitly disallow coercive training aids (e.g., choke collars, prong collars, e-collars, etc.) or the use of positive punishment by handlers. While the lack of any formal prohibition does not necessarily imply that therapy dog handlers are using aversive training methods in practice, it is concerning that such a large proportion of these ostensibly dog-friendly organizations are failing to require humane handling and training by volunteer handlers, given abundant evidence of the extent to which aversive or punishment-based training can harm canine welfare and learning ability, as well as the owner-dog bond (34)(35)(36)(37). ...
Organizations that deliver animal-assisted interventions (AAIs), as well as those that train, evaluate, and register therapy dogs, have proliferated in recent decades in the United States (U.S.). Each of these organizations has its own policies and procedures for screening, evaluating, and instructing dogs and their owners/handlers, but little is currently known about the range of different practices that exist nationwide. The aim of this project was to survey a representative, national sample of U.S. therapy dog organizations to investigate commonalities and differences in the types of practices in current use and to compare these to recommendations in existing published guidelines. The findings suggest the need for further research, and highlight a number of areas relating to dog welfare, human safety, and infection control in which many organizations were inconsistent in their adherence to existing guidelines. Of particular concern with regard to animal welfare was the finding that approximately half of the organizations surveyed imposed no time limit on the length of visits. Also, given the potential for zoonotic disease transmission, the finding that only a small minority of organizations prohibit the feeding of raw meat diets and treats to visiting dogs is concerning. This information will help to raise awareness among facilities with therapy animal programs and assist in the development of future best practices within the therapy dog industry.
Smell is a well-developed and predominant sense in dogs and so it is unsurprising that olfaction is tightly linked to dog welfare. The extent to which a dog can use their olfactory abilities and the types of odours they smell, have been shown to affect their behaviour, memory, and wellbeing, and similarly an animal’s state of health and welfare impacts upon its olfactory ability. There are several natural scents whose effects upon dogs have been well studied. Lavender has been shown to induce calm and resting behaviour, whilst there is some evidence that peppermint, rosemary, and laurel may lead to increased activity in kennelled dogs. Several olfactory-administered products have sought to mimic these natural calming effects and have been marketed to mitigate fear and anxiety in dogs. Pet Remedy a Valerian-based product and synthetic Dog Appeasing Pheromone (DAP) are relatively well tested. Whilst some studies present promising findings of their potential benefits, particularly of DAP in puppies, the body of research remains unconvincing regarding the efficacy of both products especially for adult dogs. With the increasing array of scent-based tasks that dogs are trained to perform, the way they are reared, housed, trained, and cared for all have the capacity to affect their welfare. There is evidence of the value of a range of aspects of housing and husbandry that can improve welfare. Research on the interface between olfaction and welfare although growing, remains in its infancy, which we see as evidence of sensory biases in human approaches to dog behaviour and welfare.
The use of an ecological model in puppy development research can help to capture the real-world complexity of development factors and outcomes. Using a modified version of Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model, we explored the real-world experiences of 20 Australian adults who had acquired and were subsequently raising a puppy in their home for companionship purposes. Our participants’ experiences offered insights into several gaps in the current literature and potential opportunities for future research. These insights included: (1) researchers should be wary of viewing a puppy’s household as uniform, or static. Each individual within a household provides unique interactions and development opportunities and therefore cannot be a reliable representative of the household at large; (2) knowledge is unlikely to be uni-directional, or deriving from only a single source, even in environments such as puppy classes. How knowledge is transferred, trusted, interpreted, and applied is likely affected by the individual’s own ecological system (such as biases), as well as the characteristics of the relationship between the individuals involved; and (3) puppies both are affected by, and have an effect on, those around them. The arrival of a puppy into a household is likely to change the existing dynamics of that household. These changes may be positive or negative in nature, or both simultaneously. Further research into these findings may help researchers better understand the complex nature of puppy development.
Rehoming is a potentially stressful process for dogs retired from commercial breeding (CB) kennels, as they may struggle to cope with the myriad novel factors associated with transitioning to a home environment. Failure to adapt may increase the risk of an unsuccessful adoption, jeopardizing dog welfare and the benefits of rehoming programs. Little is known about relationships between welfare in the kennel of origin and a dog's ability to transition to a family home. This study aimed at investigating the welfare states of dogs retiring from CB kennels in relation to varying management practices across kennels, and understanding how behavioral and management factors might be associated with rehoming outcomes. A total of 590 adult dogs from 30 US CB kennels were included in the study. Dog behavioral and physical health metrics were collected through direct observation, while management information was obtained through a questionnaire. One month after adoption, 32 dog owners completed a follow-up questionnaire (CBARQ). A principal component analysis extracted four behavioral components (PCs) which included food interest, sociability, boldness, and responsiveness. Factors such as sex, housing, breed, and the number of dogs per caretaker were reported as significant sources of variation for some of those PC scores (p
El objetivo de este artículo fue verificar la influencia del temperamento de perrosrescatados en el aprendizaje de comandos básicos y tasas de adopción. Se evaluaron30 perros. Los datos de temperamento se recopilaron utilizando el método demuestreo focal de animales en tres entornos diferentes. También se aplicó unaselección de 7 elementos de comando de entrenamiento a las tareas básicas deobediencia y recuperación para mejorar el rendimiento individual general de los perroscon el tiempo. Se utilizó el análisis de componentes principales seguido del coeficientede correlación de Spearman para analizar las puntuaciones de temperamento de losperros en cuanto a la tasa de adopción y el tiempo que les tomó a los perros aprendercada comando de entrenamiento. Acostarse se correlacionó positivamente con lapermanencia (r=0,4, p<0,02), patear (r=0,5, p<0,002) y gatear (r=0,4, p<0,009). Latasa de adopción se correlacionó negativamente con acostarse (r=-0,54, p<0,02),quedarse quieto (r=-0,8, p<0,03) y gatear (r=-0,8 p<0,05). El tiempo que les tomó alos perros aprender comandos de entrenamiento específicos fue un indicadorimportante que reflejaba su temperamento e influía en la tasa de adopción.
With an increasing recognition of the importance of behavioral health, a growing number of shelters provide some type of behavioral treatment for animals in their care. This chapter describes a variety of specialized interventions ranging from basic training of behaviors intended to make shelter dogs more attractive to potential adopters to behavior modification programs designed to rehabilitate complex behavior problems, including intraspecific aggression, fearfulness, and excessive arousal. Studies of how changing shelter dogs’ behavior influences adopters continue to produce conflicting results, and little research exists on the effectiveness of behavior modification with shelter animals. More research is needed to determine which behavior problems in shelter dogs need treatment and what are the most efficient, effective ways to provide that treatment so shelters can make the best use of available resources to improve quality of life, increase adoptability, reduce length of stay, and place more animals successfully in loving homes.
Husbandry training and environmental enrichment are both important advancements associated with current behavioural welfare practices. Additionally, the use of training procedures has been proposed as a form of enrichment, with the implication that training can produce beneficial behavioural welfare results. This paper examines the concept of training as enrichment through three distinct ways training procedures could enrich: (i) training facilitates enrichment usage; (ii) training modifies interactions, conspecific or otherwise; and (iii) training expands behavioural repertoires. Within each category, the paper focuses on past research that provides empirical support for training functioning as enrichment, as well as related areas of research that provide additional evidence. Previous studies support the claim that training is enriching, with additional research necessary to better understand how prevalent and under what conditions training procedures function as enrichment. Future training research should examine these potential enrichment effects, including methodology that allows for comparisons to traditional enrichment, the use of welfare diversity/variability indices, and the effects of learning on trainers and trainees alike.
Livestock guarding dogs (LGDs) are used all over the world to help in carnivore conservation by mitigating human-wildlife conflict. In Namibia, LGDs are used in cheetah conservation to prevent depredation of stock and reduce retaliatory killings. However, behavioral problems in the dogs, such as chasing wildlife and harassing livestock, exist leading to poor dog performance and farmer dissatisfaction. In most other types of working dogs, behavior tests for suitability are reported and/or validated within the scientific literature. To date this has not been done for LGDs.
In this paper, we design a composite behavioral test and a questionnaire to rate the dogs’ effectiveness as an LGD. This test was used on 14 LGDs, seven of which were operational and seven of which were being used as breeding stock. In total, 16 behavioral variables were measured. A Principal Components Analysis reduced these to five underlying personality traits: ‘Playfulness’, ‘Trainability’, ‘Independence’, ‘Sociability with people’ and ‘Reactivity’. When 14 dogs were tested three times, 20 days apart, the traits ‘Playfulness’, ‘Trainability’ and ‘Independence’ were found to be consistent. ‘Trainability’ was negatively correlated to dog age. Dogs with a higher ‘Trainability’ and lower ‘Reactivity’ showed a tendency to be rated as more effective by their herdsman. Dogs scoring higher for ‘Playfulness’ were more likely to be reported to harass stock, and dogs that chased a moving object under experimental conditions were generally rated higher for tendency to chase predator wildlife when working.
This study suggests that there are personality attributes which can be measured and are consistent across time in LGDs. Several of these are linked to better performance in trained dogs. Whether these are predictive of later performance in untrained dogs, is yet to be ascertained.
Animal-assisted therapy (AAT) is highly heterogeneous at many levels, for example with regards to the setting itself, recipients of the intervention, species involved as therapy animals and their therapeutic potential. Dogs are the most commonly involved species in this work, and there may be good reasons for this beyond their availability. Some specific characteristics such as their cognitive and emotional capacities and biases, their evolutionary connection with humans, as well as a natural attraction and emotional connection between both species make dogs particularly suitable for AAT and many other forms of AAI. In this chapter, we elaborate on the significance of these characteristics and discuss the attributes required of an ideal dog working in this sort of context. Furthermore, we provide suggestions for strategies and approaches to optimally prepare, help, and support therapy dogs for and during their work in order to minimise risks, maximise therapeutic potential, and secure the well-being of all involved parties.
Parents raise children in consistent ways, and these parenting styles affect child wellbeing and societal adjustment. Recently, we identified such parenting styles in the owner–dog relationship. Dog owners of the authoritarian- correction orientated (AUC) type stand out for demandingness. Authoritative dog owners adopt either an intrinsic-value orientated style (AUI), of high responsiveness and attention to a dog’s needs, or an authoritative-training orientated style (AUT) of high demandingness and responsiveness in teaching a dog how to behave socially. The causes for dog owners to favor certain dog- directed parenting styles are presently unknown. Orientations toward animals could play a role, and these have previously been determined in dog owners, capsulizing views on dog ownership. A dominionistic orientation values the dog for its utility, a humanistic orientation humanizes dogs, and a protectionistic orientation acknowledges the dog’s species-specific interests. We wanted to know how these views on dog ownership are associated with dog-directed parenting styles. Therefore, orientations toward animals and dog-directed parenting styles were determined from dog-owner reports collected online (n = 518). The Likert-scale items regarding the orientations toward animals were grouped using data reduction techniques. The scores for our newly formed orientations were then rank correlated to the dog-directed parenting styles, with all scores expressed as percentages of the theoretical maximum. A dominionistic orientation was associated with AUC, indicating that combined demandingness and non-responsiveness in dog-directed parenting partly results from the owner’s perceived need to dominate the dog. A humanistic/protectionistic orientation was associated with AUI, suggesting that the combination of parenting responsiveness and relatively low demandingness is an outcome of humanizing dogs. These findings support the idea that orientations toward animals partly underlie dog-directed parenting styles and may constitute a starting point for guiding owners away from less favorable dog-directed parenting styles.
Historically, pet dogs were trained using mainly negative reinforcement or punishment,
but positive reinforcement using rewards has recently become more popular. The
methods used may have different impacts on the dogs’ welfare. We distributed a
questionnaire to 364 dog owners in order to examine the relative effectiveness of
different training methods and their effects upon a pet dog’s behaviour. When asked how
they trained their dog on seven basic tasks, 66% reported using vocal punishment, 12%
used physical punishment, 60% praise (social reward), 51% food rewards and 11% play.
The owner’s ratings for their dog’s obedience during eight tasks correlated positively
with the number of tasks which they trained using rewards (P < 0.01), but not using
punishment (P = 0.05). When asked whether their dog exhibited any of 16 common
problematic behaviours, the number of problems reported by the owners correlated with
the number of tasks for which their dog was trained using punishment (P < 0.001), but
not using rewards (P = 0.17). Exhibition of problematic behaviours may be indicative of
compromised welfare, because such behaviours can be caused by—or result in—a state
of anxiety and may lead to a dog being relinquished or abandoned. Because punishment
was associated with an increased incidence of problematic behaviours, we conclude that
it may represent a welfare concern without concurrent benefits in obedience. We suggest
that positive training methods may be more useful to the pet-owning community
It is often claimed that certain behavioral problems in domestic dogs can be triggered by the games played by dog and caregiver (owner). In this study, we examine possible links between the types of games played and dimensions of the dog-owner relationship that are generally considered to affect such problems. Fifty dog-owner partnerships were filmed during 3-min play sessions in which the owner was allowed to choose the games played. All partnerships then undertook a 1-hr test designed to measure elements of behavior commonly ascribed to "dominance" and "attachment." Principal components analysis of the data produced 2 dominance-related factors (Amenability and Confident Interactivity) and 4 factors describing aspects of attachment (Nonspecific Attention Seeking, Preference for Owner, Preference for Unfamiliar Person, and Separation-Related Behavior). Amenability, in particular, varied significantly between breeds. In the study, we then compared types of games played to each of these factors. Dogs playing rough-and-tumble scored higher for Amenability and lower on Separation-Related Behavior than did dogs playing other types of games. Dogs playing tug-of-war and fetch scored high on Confident Interactivity. Winning or losing these games had no consistent effect on their test scores. If the dog started the majority of the games, the dog was significantly less amenable and more likely to exhibit aggression. The results suggest that how dogs play reflects general attributes of their temperament and relationship with their owner. This study provides no evidence that games play a major deterministic role on dominance dimensions of dog-human relationships, but the results suggest that playing games involving considerable body contact may affect attachment dimensions.
p>Dog-human play was characterised as distinct from dog-dog play. Focal sampling of 402 dog walkers and a survey of 2585 dog owners revealed that dogs housed in multi-dog households played as frequently as did dogs in single-dog households, indicating that interspecific play is unlikely to be a substitute for intraspecific play. An experimental study of Labrador Retrievers showed that, when playing with another dog, dogs were more motivated to complete for possession of an object, but, when playing with a human, interaction was more important.
'Object-oriented play', defined as play involving two individuals responding to each other but centreing around an object , was shown to differ structurally from both social and object play. Two experimental studies of Labrador Retrievers showed that people can increase dogs' interest in a toy via their presence and by a protocol of rewards.
The effects of different game types upon dog-human relationships were examined experimentally. A study of 30 Labrador Retrievers showed that repeated playing of some game types can affect dog-human relationships, but it detected no differences between dogs which won and lost at tug-of-war, contrary to claims in the popular literature. A further study using 14 Golden Retrievers detected an increase in 'Obedient attentiveness' towards an experimenter after play and also an increase in 'Demandingness'. However, whether dogs won or lost at tug-of-war only affected their 'Playful attention seeking' scores; after winning they scored higher than after losing.
When playing with their dogs, dog owners were observed to use a wide variety of play signals of varying effectiveness. Two of these signals, 'Bow' and 'Lunge', were shown experimentally to instigate play between dog and person, and their efficiency was increased when they were accompanied by play vocalisations.</p
Behavioural effects of the use of a shock collar during guard dog training of German shepherd dogs were studied. Direct reactions of 32 dogs to 107 shocks showed reactions (lowering of body posture, high pitched yelps, barks and squeals, avoidance, redirection aggression, tongue flicking) that suggest stress or fear and pain. Most of these immediate reactions lasted only a fraction of a second. The behaviour of 16 dogs that had received shocks in the recent past (S-dogs) was compared with the behaviour of 15 control dogs that had received similar training but never had received shocks (C-dogs) in order to investigate possible effects of a longer duration. Only training sessions were used in which no shocks were delivered and the behaviour of the dogs (position of body, tail and ears, and stress-, pain- and aggression-related behaviours) was recorded in a way that enabled comparison between the groups. During free walking on the training grounds S-dogs showed a lower ear posture and more stress-related behaviours than C-dogs. During obedience training and during manwork (i.e. excercises with a would-be criminal) the same differences were found. Even a comparison between the behaviour of C-dogs with that of S-dogs during free walking and obedience exercises in a park showed similar differences. Differences between the two groups of dogs existed in spite of the fact that C-dogs also were trained in a fairly harsh way. A comparison between the behaviour during free walking with that during obedience exercises and manwork, showed that during training more stress signals were shown and ear positions were lower. The conclusions, therefore are, that being trained is stressful, that receiving shocks is a painful experience to dogs, and that the S-dogs evidently have learned that the presence of their owner (or his commands) announces reception of shocks, even outside of the normal training context. This suggests that the welfare of these shocked dogs is at stake, at least in the presence of their owner.
Play signals are known to function in the solicitation and maintenance of intraspecific play, but their role in interspecific play is relatively unstudied. We carried out two studies to examine interspecific signalling when humans play with domestic dogs, Canis familiaris. In the first, we recorded dog–owner play sessions on video to identify actions used by 21 dog owners to initiate play with their dogs. Thirty-five actions were each used by three or more owners. These included postures, vocalizations and physical contact with the dog. The actions varied greatly in their apparent success at instigating play which was, surprisingly, unrelated to the frequency with which they were used. We then did an experiment to determine the effect of composites of commonly used signals upon the behaviour of 20 Labrador retrievers. The performance of both ‘Bow’ and ‘Lunge’ by a human altered the subsequent behaviour of the dogs. Both signals caused increases in play, and Lunge produced significant increases in play bout frequency and mean bout duration. The efficiency of both these postural signals was enhanced when they were accompanied by play vocalizations. Thus, specific actions used by humans do communicate a playful context to dogs and can be described as interspecific play signals.
While only a few studies have analysed training methods used on working dogs, a recent survey in 303 Belgian military handlers revealed the use of harsh training methods on military working dogs (MWD). The present work aims at analysing the training methods used on Belgian MWD and the behaviour of handlers to objectify the performances of the dog handlers teams (DH teams) and the welfare of the animals.A standardized evaluation, including obedience and protection work exercises, was conducted on DH teams (n=33). Every evaluation was done twice to assess the reliability of the observation methods. The behaviours of MWD and handlers were recorded on videotape and subsequently analysed. Results showed that handlers rewarded or punished their dogs intermittently. Stroking and patting the dogs were the most frequently used rewards. Pulling on the leash and hanging dogs by their collars were the most commonly used aversive stimuli.The team's performance was influenced by the training method and by the dog's concentration: (1) low-performance dogs received more aversive stimuli than high-performance dogs; (2) dog's distraction influenced the performance: distracted dogs performed less well.Handlers punished more and rewarded less at the second evaluation than at the first one. This suggests that handlers modified their usual behaviour at the first evaluation in view to present themselves in a positive light. During the second evaluation the dogs reacted to this higher frequency of aversive stimuli as they exhibited a lower posture after aversive stimuli. The authors cannot prove that the welfare of these dogs had been hampered, but there is an indication that it was under threat.Low team performances suggest that DH teams should train more regularly and undertake the usefulness of setting a new training system that would rely on: the use of more positive training methods, an increased training frequency, the elaboration of a course on training principles, and an improvement of dog handler relationship.
In a questionnaire survey of dog owners, 88% of respondents’ dogs had received some form of training. Training methods varied; 16% of owners said that they used only positive reinforcement, 12% used a combination of positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement, 32% used a combination of positive reinforcement and positive punishment, and the remaining 40% used a combination of all categories. Seventy-two percent of owners used some form of positive punishment. The mean number of potentially undesirable behaviors reported was 11.3 per dog. Attendance at formal training classes did not significantly affect the total number of potentially undesirable behaviors reported. However, dogs that had attended puppy socialization classes were less likely to show an undesirable reaction to dogs from outside the household, and owners who carried out informal training at home, but did not attend any form of formal training class, were more likely to report some form of aggression in their dog. The training method used by owners was also related to the total number of potentially undesirable behaviors shown by the dogs. When individual categories of potentially undesirable behavior were investigated, the type of training method used was also significantly associated with attention-seeking score, fear (avoidance) score, and aggression score. Other factors related to the overall number of potentially undesirable behaviors included the age and origin of the dog.
The way in which cognitive functioning is affected by stressors is an important area of research for applied ethologists because stress caused by captive conditions may disrupt cognitive processes and lead to welfare and husbandry problems. Such problems may be minimised through an understanding of the links between stress and cognition. The effects of stress on cognitive function have been studied in disciplines ranging from human perceptual psychology to animal neuroscience. The aim of this paper is to provide an introduction to this research, focusing on the effects of stressors on attention, memory formation and memory recall. Findings from such a diverse literature with little apparent inter-disciplinary communication are inevitably complex and often contradictory. Nevertheless, some generalities do emerge. The idea that an inverted U-shaped relationship exists between an individual's state of stress or arousal and its ability to perform a cognitive task effectively, the so-called Yerkes–Dodson law, is commonly encountered. The law has limited explanatory value because it is unlikely that different stressors act on cognitive function via the same intervening, non-specific state. Furthermore, the law only provides a very general description of the relationship between stress and cognitive function. Empirical research on attention and memory processes reveals more specific findings. Stressors appear to cause shifts, lapses and narrowing of attention, and can also influence decision speed. These processes may be viewed as serving an adaptive role helping the animal to search for and scrutinise a source of danger. There is conflicting evidence as to whether hormones involved in the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal stress response play a part in these processes. These hormones and those involved in the sympathetic-adrenomedullary stress response do appear to play an important role in memory formation. Low or moderate concentrations of circulating glucocorticoids and catecholamines can enhance memory formation, while excessively high or prolonged elevations of these hormones can lead to memory disruption. The effects of stressors on memory recall are less clear. There is evidence for disruptive effects, and for facilitatory effects indicating state-dependent memory recall; events experienced under conditions of high arousal may be best recalled under similar conditions. Applied ethologists have the opportunity to extend work in this area, which often involves studies of single stressors/stress hormones acting in isolation and limited measures of cognitive function, by focusing on real-life husbandry stressors encountered by captive animals. This will yield fundamental information which also has direct relevance to animal welfare and management issues.
The behavioural characteristics of specialist search dogs were examined using a survey of 244 dog handlers and trainers. The English Springer Spaniel was the most common breed, followed by the Labrador Retriever, cross breeds and the Border Collie. Individuals of these four breeds varied significantly on 5 out of 30 characteristics, as rated by their handlers, namely; tendency to be distracted when searching, agility, motivation to obtain food, independence, and stamina. English Springer Spaniels and Border Collies scored significantly closer to ideal levels than did Labrador Retrievers and cross breeds, for several of these characteristics. Overall satisfaction with the handler’s own dog(s) did not differ between the four most common breeds and was also unaffected by the dog’s sex. However, males and females did differ in their ratings for one characteristic; males were rated higher than females, which were rated closer to the ideal, for aggression towards other dogs. Overall, there appeared to be little difference between the sexes in their suitability for search work.
The effects of social contact and space allowance on the expression of play behaviour in domestic calves were studied. Forty-eight female dairy calves in three groups were housed in one of four pen types: (1) small single pen (0.9 m×1.5 m); (2) large single pen (1.8 m×3.0 m); (3) small group pen (1.8 m×3.0 m for 4 calves); and (4) large group pen (3.0 m×5.4 m for 4 calves). The behaviour of all calves was video-recorded for 8 h in week 2 and for 24 h in weeks 4 and 6 of the experiment. Data for play behaviour were obtained from each individual for all hours of observation. In weeks 4 and 6, space allowance affected the quantity of locomotor play. A low space allowance reduced locomotor play in both individually and group-reared calves. The quality of locomotor play was also affected. Elements of locomotor play that involve much movement were either absent or rarely seen in the small single pens. Furthermore, calves in single pens were less active than calves in group pens. The results of this study indicate that sufficient space is essential for the expression of play behaviour in domestic calves. It is suggested that play behaviour may be used to indicate the presence of good welfare in calves and in juveniles of other farm animal species. The use of a measure to indicate the presence of good welfare in addition to measures to indicate the absence of poor welfare may be a step towards a better assessment of welfare in farm animals.
The aim of this paper is to investigate whether relinquishing owners’ reports of their dogs’ behaviour corresponds with how these dogs behave in their new homes 2 and 6 weeks post-adoption. In this longitudinal study, information on dog behaviour was collected using a 20-item questionnaire. The first questionnaire (QA) was completed by owners relinquishing their dogs to one of five shelters in the UK. Second and third questionnaires were completed by new owners of these dogs 2 weeks (QB) and 6 weeks (QC) after adoption, allowing 56 QA and QB, 40 QA and QC and 191 QB and QC comparisons to be undertaken. Behaviour was rated using 5-point rating scales for each of the questionnaire items: the degree to which the dog was aggressive, excitable, anxious, fearful and attentive in specific situations and how often it would chew furniture and vocalise, steal food and mount people. Test–re-test reliability coefficients between QB and QC data revealed that reliability of new owner reports was moderate to good for all 20 items. Only 9/20 behaviour ratings correlated significantly between the relinquishing and new homes: fear of the veterinarian (2 and 6 weeks), anxiety at the vets (2 weeks) and when left alone (2 and 6 weeks), chewing furniture (2 weeks), sexual mounting (2 weeks), stealing food (6 weeks) aggression towards unfamiliar dogs (2 and 6 weeks), unfamiliar people (2 and 6 weeks), and the veterinarian (2 and 6 weeks). The remaining behaviours were not correlated between successive homes at either 2 or 6 weeks. Discrepancies are discussed in terms of the reliability of owner reports, the kennel experience, and differences in owner and household characteristics. The implications for shelters are that whilst some of the information provided by relinquishing dog owners is useful in determining the training and rehabilitation needs of dogs post-adoption, some reports are not predictive and should not be relied upon.
It has often been suggested that intraspecific dominance relationships are established through play. By analogy, it is also claimed that the outcome of competitive games can affect dog–human relationships. This paper experimentally tests the latter idea. Fourteen Golden Retrievers were each subjected to two treatments; 20 sessions of a tug-of-war game with the experimenter which they were allowed to win, and 20 sessions which they lost. Their relationship with the experimenter was assessed, via a composite behavioural test, once at the outset and once after each treatment. Principal components analysis allowed the 52 behavioural measures to be combined into nine underlying factors. Confidence (the factor most closely corresponding to conventional dominance) was unaffected by the treatments. Dogs scored higher for obedient attentiveness after play treatments, irrespective of whether they won or lost, and demandingness scores increased with familiarity of the test person. The 10 most playful dogs scored significantly higher for playful attention seeking after winning than after losing. We conclude that, in this population, dominance dimensions of the dog–human relationship are unaffected by the outcome of repetitive tug-of-war games. However, we suggest that the effects of games may be modified by the presence of play signals, and when these signals are absent or misinterpreted the outcome of games may have more serious consequences. Games may also assume greater significance for a minority of “potentially dominant” dogs.
Poor housing conditions, harsh training sessions and uncontrollable or unpredictable social environments are examples of the situations that may lead to reduced welfare status in dogs. Individuals that suffer from poor welfare presumably experience stress and may consequently exhibit stress responses. In order to evaluate stress responses as potential indicators of poor welfare in dogs, we review studies dealing with dogs subjected to stressors. The reported stress responses are categorized as being behavioural, physiological or immunological, and demonstrate the various ways stress is manifested in the dog.
“Instinctive” behavior may be modified using operant techniques. We report here on a field study of training herding dogs in which reinforcers and punishers were used by owners, who were themselves being trained to control their dogs. Access to sheep was assumed to be a primary reinforcer for herding dogs. While blocking their access was aversive to them. Over several months, the number of blocking and access actions by the human were scored during the training of seven naïve herding dogs. We found that rates of punishment by blocking the dog's access to sheep or by stopping the dog occurred at higher levels than positive reinforcement from access or verbal praise. While positive reinforcement can be used exclusively for the training of certain behaviors, it is suggested that in the context of instinctive motor patterns, negative reinforcement and punishment may be desirable and necessary additions to positive reinforcement techniques.
Prior to seeking the counsel of a veterinary behaviorist many dog owners have attempted behavior modification techniques suggested by a variety of sources. Recommendations often include aversive training techniques which may provoke fearful or defensively aggressive behavior. The purpose of this study was to assess the behavioral effects and safety risks of techniques used historically by owners of dogs with behavior problems.A 30-item survey of previous interventions was included in a behavioral questionnaire distributed to all dog owners making appointments at a referral behavior service over a 1-year period. For each intervention applied, owners were asked to indicate whether there was a positive, negative, or lack of effect on the dog's behavior, and whether aggressive behavior was seen in association with the method used. Owners were also asked to indicate the source of each recommendation. One-hundred-and-forty surveys were completed. The most frequently listed recommendation sources were “self” and “trainers”. Several confrontational methods such as “hit or kick dog for undesirable behavior” (43%), “growl at dog” (41%), “physically force the release of an item from a dog's mouth” (39%), “alpha roll” (31%), “stare at or stare [dog] down” (30%), “dominance down” (29%), and “grab dog by jowls and shake” (26%) elicited an aggressive response from at least a quarter of the dogs on which they were attempted. Dogs presenting for aggression to familiar people were more likely to respond aggressively to the confrontational techniques “alpha roll” and yelling “no” compared to dogs with other presenting complaints (P
The use of electric shock collars for training dogs is the subject of considerable controversy. Supporters claim that they are a reliable means of eliminating self-rewarding behaviour and that they can be used over greater distances and with less risk of stress and injury than mechanical devices, such as choke chains. Opponents cite the risk of incorrect or abusive use and temptation to use electric training collars without thought or time given to alternative training methods, regardless of the fact that their use may be associated with pain and fear. The aim of this study was to investigate whether any stress is caused by the use of electric shock collars or not and in this way to contribute to their evaluation with respect to animal welfare.
Several aspects of agonistic experience are described for freeranging infant rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta)on Cayo Santiago. Even before infants are fully integrated with peers in rank dominance based on maternal ranks,infants of highranking mothers tend to be threatened less frequently by other members of the group and are less likely to
be threatened by unfamiliar individuals than are infants of lowranking mothers. There is no evidence that fearful interactions
between pairs of infants are related to their mother’s ranks before 22 weeks of age. However, an imperfect hierarchy can be
constructed for infants between 27 and 30 weeks of age. At this age,infants of higherranking mothers are also more likely to receive protection when threatened than are infants of lowerranking
mothers. When protected, their protectors are less likely to emit fearful gestures to the infants’ threatener. Close female
relatives appear to play a large role in the protection of infants and may be more directly responsible for the differences
described above than the mother, other relatives, or other highranking members of the group. It is suggested that more than
one mechanism, including intervention by the mother and by close female relatives,may be important in rank acquisition among peers.
Play signals are known to function in the solicitation and maintenance of intraspecific play, but their role in interspecific play is relatively unstudied. We carried out two studies to examine interspecific signalling when humans play with domestic dogs, Canis familiaris. In the first, we recorded dog–owner play sessions on video to identify actions used by 21 dog owners to initiate play with their dogs. Thirty-five actions were each used by three or more owners. These included postures, vocalizations and physical contact with the dog. The actions varied greatly in their apparent success at instigating play which was, surprisingly, unrelated to the frequency with which they were used. We then did an experiment to determine the effect of composites of commonly used signals upon the behaviour of 20 Labrador retrievers. The performance of both ‘Bow’ and ‘Lunge’ by a human altered the subsequent behaviour of the dogs. Both signals caused increases in play, and Lunge produced significant increases in play bout frequency and mean bout duration. The efficiency of both these postural signals was enhanced when they were accompanied by play vocalizations. Thus, specific actions used by humans do communicate a playful context to dogs and can be described as interspecific play signals.
Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Southampton, 1999.
A retrospective study was conducted to determine the relative frequency and type of elimination problem seen in dogs at a university referral practice and to evaluate the efficacy of the suggested treatments. Cases presented to the Animal Behavior Clinic at Cornell University between 1987 and 1996 were reviewed. Of 1,173 cases, 105 (9%) were house-soiling cases. Of these cases, the authors obtained outcome information from 70. Within the diagnosis of house soiling, incomplete housebreaking (n=59; 84%) were the most frequent referral cases, of which 48 cases (81%; 95% confidence interval, 69% to 90%) improved. Separation anxiety was considered the second most common underlying cause (n=27; 39%), of which 85% (n=23; 95% confidence interval, 66% to 96%) improved. Behavior modification was the most often suggested treatment (n=58), with 48 (83%) cases improving. Behavior modification consisted of accompanying the dog to the preferred elimination area, rewarding the dog for eliminating there, and punishing the dog only when caught in the act of house soiling. These results suggest that correct house training, behavior modification involving positive reinforcement, and appropriate punishment are essential to diminish house-soiling problems in dogs.
The ideal and actual characteristics of specialist search dogs have been examined in questionnaire surveys of 244 dog handlers and trainers from the six main UK dog-using Government agencies. The ten most important characteristics were (ideal level in brackets): acuity of sense of smell (very high), incentive to find an object which is out of sight (very high), health (very high), tendency to hunt by smell alone (very high), stamina (very high), ability to learn from being rewarded (very high), tendency to be distracted when searching (very low); agility (high), consistency of behaviour from day to day (high), motivation to chase an object (high). Significant differences between actual and ideal levels were found for 22 of the 30 characteristics, predominantly in undesirable attributes, suggesting that there is scope for significant improvement in operational effectiveness.
This study investigates the influence of training experiences on dogs' performance in a problem solving task, namely opening a box to obtain food. One hundred and eighteen dogs allocated to two different groups according to their training experience (no/basic training vs high level training) were tested. In each group the dogs saw the researcher manipulating either the paw-pad or the lid, prior to being allowed free access to the apparatus. No effect of the locus of manipulation was observed. However, there was a strong effect of training on the dogs' performance regardless of manipulation condition. Compared to untrained dogs, highly trained dogs were more successful in opening the box and spent significantly more time interacting with the apparatus; whereas untrained dogs spent significantly more time looking back at their owners and the researcher. These results indicate that high levels of training improve dogs' problem solving ability, with dogs appearing to be more proactive in the their interaction with novel objects.
Genetics and Social Behavior of the Dog. Uni-versity of Chicago Press Relinquishing dog owners' ability to pre-dict behavioural problems in shelter dogs post adoption
- J P Scott
- J L Fuller
Scott, J.P., Fuller, J.L., 1965. Genetics and Social Behavior of the Dog. Uni-versity of Chicago Press, p. 145. Stephen, J., Ledger, R., 2007. Relinquishing dog owners' ability to pre-dict behavioural problems in shelter dogs post adoption. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 197, 88–99.
Understanding electronic dog training part 1. Canine Pract
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The Use of Shock Collars and their Impact on the Welfare of Dogs: A Review of the Current Literature
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The effects of play upon dominance and attachment dimensions of the dog–owner relationship
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Rooney, N.J., Bradshaw, J.W.S., 2003. The effects of play upon dominance
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Understanding electronic dog training part 1
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