No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the author.
Ecotourism: An Introduction: By David A Fennell. Routledge (West 35th Street, New York NY 10001, USA) 1999, xx+315 pp (index, tables, figures) $34.99. ISBN 0415 20168-3
Abstract
No Yes
... Although some discussion on tourism ethics is beginning to take place in the literature (Holden, 2003; Hultsman, 1995; Payne & Dimanche, 1996), the study of ecotourism as a distinct niche within tourism research has virtually ignored a consideration of ethics, other than making comparisons within the tourism sector itself (Fennell & Malloy, 1999). In spite of ecotourism being the most profitable and fastest growing sector of tourism (Hawkins & Lamoureux, 2001; Swinnerton, 1999), some scholars lament the gaps in the literature concerning ethics and have called for generating more sound empirical data (Fennell, 1999, 2001). ...
... Although some discussion on tourism ethics is beginning to take place in the literature (Holden, 2003; Hultsman, 1995; Payne & Dimanche, 1996), the study of ecotourism as a distinct niche within tourism research has virtually ignored a consideration of ethics, other than making comparisons within the tourism sector itself (Fennell & Malloy, 1999). In spite of ecotourism being the most profitable and fastest growing sector of tourism (Hawkins & Lamoureux, 2001; Swinnerton, 1999), some scholars lament the gaps in the literature concerning ethics and have called for generating more sound empirical data (Fennell, 1999, 2001). A careful consideration of ethics in ecotourism is critical because this form of tourism fundamentally relies on principles which are grounded in ethical behaviour (Blamey, 2001; Fennell, 1999; Orams, 1995) because of its concern and respect for the environment and local peoples. ...
... In spite of ecotourism being the most profitable and fastest growing sector of tourism (Hawkins & Lamoureux, 2001; Swinnerton, 1999), some scholars lament the gaps in the literature concerning ethics and have called for generating more sound empirical data (Fennell, 1999, 2001). A careful consideration of ethics in ecotourism is critical because this form of tourism fundamentally relies on principles which are grounded in ethical behaviour (Blamey, 2001; Fennell, 1999; Orams, 1995) because of its concern and respect for the environment and local peoples. The danger for ecotourism ethics, especially in consideration of the challenges faced by the scope of ecotourism (Blamey, 2001; Fennell, 1999; Orams, 1995; Shores, 1992), lies in presuming that it shares the same priorities of the overall tourism sector with economic and marketing outcomes (Weaver, 2001). ...
... The earliest formal definition for ecotourism in English literature is found in Elizabeth Boo's " Ecotourism; the potentials and pitfalls " , published in 1990. It defines ecotourism as " tourism that consist in traveling to relatively undisturbed or uncontaminated natural areas with the specific objective of studying, admiring, enjoying the scenery and its wild plants and animals, as well as exiting cultural manifestations (both past and present) found in these areas " ; a definition first put forward by the Mexican ecologist Hector Ceballos-Lascurain (Boo, 1990, p. xiv) Thereafter, numerous tourism scholars have proposed definitions for ecotourism (see Bjö rk, 2000; Boyd & Butler, 1993; Fennell, 2003; Valentine, 1993; Weaver, 2001; Wight, 1993). Although many contradictions and paradoxes seem to exist in definitions of ecotourism, these definitions revolve around a generally agreed framework of principles. ...
... Considering all visitors to nature-based attractions to be ecotourists, Ballantine and Eagles (1994) described ecotourists as middle aged, highly educated, comparatively high income individuals who are interested in learning about the environment. Fennell (2003) further reported similar demographic descriptions for ecotourists. However, many authors oppose the notion of defining " ecotourist " solely based on the type of sites visited or on-site activities engaged in while visiting the destination (see Kerstetter, Hou, & Lin, 2004; Tao, Eagles, & Smith, 2004). ...
The tourism industry plays a key role in regional and destination development. As negative environmental and socio-cultural impacts of mass tourism become more common, the appeal of alternative forms of tourism, especially ecotourism, continues to increase. With rising demand, ecotourism operators are facing the task of meeting expectations of diverse consumers of ecotourism products. Accordingly, the need to define and distinguish ecotourists from other types of tourists has become important. The importance of using a behavioral approach to distinguish ecotourists from other types of tourists is emphasized by tourism scholars. This study developed distinct motivational and behavioral profiles of visitors to forest-based ecotourism sites in Sri Lanka. Results identified four different types of tourists based on their behavioral and motivational characteristics: ecotourists, picnickers, egoistic tourists, and adventure tourists. Broad implications of visitor profiling are also discussed. This approach can help ecotourism operators to better tailor marketing strategies and increase visitor satisfaction.
... Fennell (2001) and Diamantis (1999) investigated a number of definitions in terms of their content and in terms of trends and evolution of such definitions, respectively. Three of the main components of most definitions is that ecotourism takes place in natural, relatively undisturbed areas (Ceballos-Lascurain, 1987; Krippendorf, 1987a, b; Holmes, 1993; Valentine, 1993; Ballantine and Eagles, 1994; Eagles and Cascagnette, 1995; Weiler and Richins, 1995; Blamey, 1997; Fennell, 1999; Ross and Wall, 1999; Sirakaya et al., 1999; Weaver, 2001), tries to minimise the negative impacts on the local communities and the natural environment (Mathieson and Wall, 1982; Pleumarom, 1993; Valentine, 1993; Orams, 1995; Gilbert, 1997; Lindberg and McKercher, 1997; Acott et al., 1998; Honey, 1999; Fennell, 2003), and that it contributes to the conservation of those areas (Boo, 1990; Jones, 1992; Holmes, 1993; Valentine, 1993; Wight, 1993; Buckley, 1994; McArthur, 1997; Fennell, 1999; Honey, 1999; Ross and Wall, 1999). Despite these definitions, there are a number of challenges associated with ecotourism, not the least of which relate to the environmental contexts within which ecotourism takes place. ...
... Fennell (2001) and Diamantis (1999) investigated a number of definitions in terms of their content and in terms of trends and evolution of such definitions, respectively. Three of the main components of most definitions is that ecotourism takes place in natural, relatively undisturbed areas (Ceballos-Lascurain, 1987; Krippendorf, 1987a, b; Holmes, 1993; Valentine, 1993; Ballantine and Eagles, 1994; Eagles and Cascagnette, 1995; Weiler and Richins, 1995; Blamey, 1997; Fennell, 1999; Ross and Wall, 1999; Sirakaya et al., 1999; Weaver, 2001), tries to minimise the negative impacts on the local communities and the natural environment (Mathieson and Wall, 1982; Pleumarom, 1993; Valentine, 1993; Orams, 1995; Gilbert, 1997; Lindberg and McKercher, 1997; Acott et al., 1998; Honey, 1999; Fennell, 2003), and that it contributes to the conservation of those areas (Boo, 1990; Jones, 1992; Holmes, 1993; Valentine, 1993; Wight, 1993; Buckley, 1994; McArthur, 1997; Fennell, 1999; Honey, 1999; Ross and Wall, 1999). Despite these definitions, there are a number of challenges associated with ecotourism, not the least of which relate to the environmental contexts within which ecotourism takes place. ...
... Social benefits may include improved education and health facilities, infrastructure and economic opportunities, as well as employment. Environmental costs may include direct impacts such as vegetation clearance and sewage discharge, and indirect impacts such as the introduction of weeds and pathogens, and increased poaching and collecting of rare plants and animals (Buckley, 2000b; Fennell, 1999; Harrison, 2000, McLaren, 1998; Newsome et al., 2002; Singh & Singh, 1999; Weaver, 2001). Many developing nations have seen substantial growth in adventure tourism, often coupled with nature and cultural tourism (Fennell, 1999). ...
... Environmental costs may include direct impacts such as vegetation clearance and sewage discharge, and indirect impacts such as the introduction of weeds and pathogens, and increased poaching and collecting of rare plants and animals (Buckley, 2000b; Fennell, 1999; Harrison, 2000, McLaren, 1998; Newsome et al., 2002; Singh & Singh, 1999; Weaver, 2001). Many developing nations have seen substantial growth in adventure tourism, often coupled with nature and cultural tourism (Fennell, 1999). Nepal, for example, long known as a destination for high-altitude mountaineering, ice-climbing and trekking, is now also a major destination for whitewater rafting (Knowles & Allardice, 1992) and wildlife viewing. ...
Commercial surf tourism is recent in origin but is now a significant component of the worldwide adventure tourism sector. There are over 10 million surfers worldwide and a third of these are cash-rich, time-poor and hence potential tour clients. Most travel- ling surfers visit mainland destinations and are not distinguished from other tourists. Specialist surfing boat charters and lodges are most prevalent in Indo-Pacific islands. In the smaller reef islands, growth in tourism carries risks to drinking water and subsis- tence fisheries. There risks are easily overcome, but only if appropriate waste and sewage management technologies are installed. In the larger rock islands, nature and adventure tourism may provide an economic alternative to logging and plantation agri- culture. Cultural impacts can occur in either type of island. As with most types of adventure tourism, the commercial surf tourism industry in the Indo-Pacific is strongly linked to the clothing, fashion and entertainment industries, and marketed through specialist surfing magazines and surfing media. From a tourism development perspec- tive, the trend is towards integrated ocean sports destinations which attract entire families as well as individual surfers. Currently, however, marketing crossovers with other specialist ocean sports such as diving are far smaller than with other boardsports such as snowboarding.
... These include accessibility of the tourist destination, differences in cultural norms between tourist generating and tourism receiving zones, degree of exposure to other forces of Okech 003 technological, social and economic changes, size of the destination area and therefore, density of the tourist population. Fennell (1999) proceeds to observe that 'as ecotourism continues to diversify and exploit relatively untouched regions and cultures, there is the danger that (negative social impacts) will occur'. These factors suggest that urban destinations are less likely to generate negative social change than apply in the scenario described by Fennell (1999). ...
... Fennell (1999) proceeds to observe that 'as ecotourism continues to diversify and exploit relatively untouched regions and cultures, there is the danger that (negative social impacts) will occur'. These factors suggest that urban destinations are less likely to generate negative social change than apply in the scenario described by Fennell (1999). Although ecotourism is considered an enlightened development approach to tourism and is being aggressively pursued as a marketing strategy by governments and businesses alike, there has been almost no attempt to link it with more urban environ- ments. ...
Tourism is not only a powerful social and economic force but also a factor in the physical environment as well. It has the power to improve the environment, provide funds for conservation, preserve culture and history, to set sustainable use limits and to protect natural attractions. Ecotourism potentially provides a sustainable approach to development. A frequently cited definition of ecotourism originated with The International Ecotourism Society (TIES) which states "ecotourism is responsible travel to natural areas which conserve the environment and sustains the well-being of local people." The conceptualization of urban ecotourism therefore, can be seen through the position of cities as tourism destinations and is further described through that take into account supply/ facility and demand/ user. This paper discusses the various benefits of ecotourism operations based in urban environments in Kenya and indeed the three cities, Nairobi, Mombasa and Kisumu and their sustainability.
... This indicates the large potential ecotourism might have in raising not only revenues for conservation but also awareness among people who often support conservation schemes after an ecotourism experience (Wearing and Neill 1999). While there are numerous articles on the meaning of the terms ecotourism and sustainability, and even textbooks on how to implement an ecotourism project (Beeton 1998), or on ecotourism itself (Fennell 1999; Wearing and Neil 1999), there are hardly any comparative studies which try to assess whether ecotourism has positive or negative effects on the areas or species on which it is founded. It is certainly very difficult to measure objectively or classify a project as being successful or sustainable, given the variety of factors involved (Margoluis and Salafsky 1998; Salafsky and Margoluis 1999). ...
... The time span covered ranged from 1981 to September 2001. In addition, there are several books on ecotourism which were searched for case studies (Boo 1990; Cater and Lowman 1994; Ceballos-Lascurain 1996; Liddle 1997; Weaver 1998; Fennell 1999; Reid 1999; Wearing and Neil 1999, Hulme and Murphree 2001). Other studies discussed in papers were also retrieved which helped in finding case studies published before 1981. ...
Does ecotourism contribute towards conservation of threatened species and habitats or is it just a marketing ploy of the tourism industry? Using 251 case studies on ecotourism from the literature, I looked at the distribution of case studies over continents, habitats and flagship species types and what factors influenced whether an ecotourism regime was perceived as ecologically sustainable by authors. Over 50% of ecotourism case studies were reported from Africa and Central America. The overall distribution of ecotourism case studies did not reflect vertebrate endemism, nor overall tourism dis-tribution in terms of tourist numbers and receipts. There were significant differences between continents and habitats with regard to the proportion of sustainable case studies: ecotourism is perceived to be less sustainable in South America and Asia, and in island and mountain habitats. The type of flagship species also influenced whether ecotourism was classified as sustainable or not: ecotourism with no flagship species was rarely classified as sustainable while charismatic bird and mammal species were associated with a higher probability of sustainability. In a multivariate analysis, flagship species type and local community involvement were important predictors of sustainability in ecotourism. Detailed a priori planning, local involvement and control measures were perceived by authors of case studies to increase the success of ecotourism in conservation. They also perceived that ecotourism can only be an effective conservation tool under certain conditions. If these are met, the evidence indicates that ecotourism can make a contribution to conservation.
... Tourism is considered one of the largest industries in the world (Fennell 1999, Hall and Page 2005) and of the different tourism segments , tourism and recreation based on natural resources have increased worldwide (Ceballos- Lascuráin 1996, Fennell 1999). This type of tourism is often directed to peripheral areas, which still contain areas in a relatively natural state. ...
... Tourism is considered one of the largest industries in the world (Fennell 1999, Hall and Page 2005) and of the different tourism segments , tourism and recreation based on natural resources have increased worldwide (Ceballos- Lascuráin 1996, Fennell 1999). This type of tourism is often directed to peripheral areas, which still contain areas in a relatively natural state. ...
Ski resorts are important tourist attractions in boreal and alpine regions. However, land use related to development of such mass tourism may damage ecosystems. We investigated the impact of ski resorts on water quality of lakes near two popular ski resorts in Finland. Furthermore, we examined how water quality problems induced by ski resorts relate to effects of agriculture and forestry on similar lake types. Human impact significantly increased nutrient concentrations, although the differences observed between impact and control lakes were generally small. Water quality of the ski resort lakes and lakes polluted by agriculture and forestry appeared to be quite similar, with the exception of a small, humic ski-resort lake with extremely high nutrient concentrations. Two ski-resort lakes and one agricultural lake failed the total phosphorus criteria set for reaching good ecological status. Our results indicate that water protection measures should be considered more carefully in management of ski resorts.
... This indicates the large potential ecotourism might have in raising not only revenues for conservation but also awareness among people who often support conservation schemes after an ecotourism experience (Wearing and Neill 1999). While there are numerous articles on the meaning of the terms ecotourism and sustainability, and even textbooks on how to implement an ecotourism project (Beeton 1998), or on ecotourism itself (Fennell 1999; Wearing and Neil 1999), there are hardly any comparative studies which try to assess whether ecotourism has positive or negative effects on the areas or species on which it is founded. It is certainly very difficult to measure objectively or classify a project as being successful or sustainable, given the variety of factors involved (Margoluis and Salafsky 1998; Salafsky and Margoluis 1999). ...
... The time span covered ranged from 1981 to September 2001. In addition, there are several books on ecotourism which were searched for case studies (Boo 1990; Cater and Lowman 1994; Ceballos-Lascurain 1996; Liddle 1997; Weaver 1998; Fennell 1999; Reid 1999; Wearing and Neil 1999, Hulme and Murphree 2001). Other studies discussed in papers were also retrieved which helped in finding case studies published before 1981. ...
Does ecotourism contribute towards conservation of threatened species and habitats or is it just a marketing ploy of the tourism industry? Using 251 case studies on ecotourism from the literature, I looked at the distribution of case studies over continents, habitats and flagship species types and what factors influenced whether an ecotourism regime was perceived as ecologically sustainable by authors. Over 50% of ecotourism case studies were reported from Africa and Central America. The overall distribution of ecotourism case studies did not reflect vertebrate endemism, nor overall tourism distribution in terms of tourist numbers and receipts. There were significant differences between continents and habitats with regard to the proportion of sustainable case studies: ecotourism is perceived to be less sustainable in South America and Asia, and in island and mountain habitats. The type of flagship species also influenced whether ecotourism was classified as sustainable or not: ecotourism with no flagship species was rarely classified as sustainable while charismatic bird and mammal species were associated with a higher probability of sustainability. In a multivariate analysis, flagship species type and local community involvement were important predictors of sustainability in ecotourism. Detailed a priori planning, local involvement and control measures were perceived by authors of case studies to increase the success of ecotourism in conservation. They also perceived that ecotourism can only be an effective conservation tool under certain conditions. If these are met, the evidence indicates that ecotourism can make a contribution to conservation.
... A profusion of descriptions of ecotourism led Fennell (1999) to review 15 definitions of ecotourism and ultimately come up with his own composite definition: Ecotourism is a sustainable form of natural resourcebased tourism that focuses primarily on experiencing and learning about nature, and which is ethically managed ...
The story of commercial whale-watching spans half a century from the first 2.1 billion USD industry of today (Hoyt, 2009a; O’Connor et al., 2009). As with many new entertainment ‘industries’ of our era ranging from surfing to the iPods, iPhones and iPads of Apple Computer, Inc., it all started in California. The surprise perhaps lies in how popular and pervasive worldwide the whale-watching industry has become – to the extent that we now focus on the implications from ‘too much success’, try to limit the industry in some areas, and ask if true sustainability is achievable. The origins and early historical development of the whale-watching industry have shaped the industry to this day. Considering the developmental stages of tourism and rate of growth experienced by the whale-watch industry helps us understand its impact. Whale-watching has been profoundly influenced by a number of factors: (1) the platform used, including the types of boats, as well as the background and location of the whale-watching owner-operators; (2) the species being watched and the peculiar geography of the ecosystem where they are found; and (3) the typology of the visitors or tourists taking the trips and their expectations. Looking at all these aspects helps us grasp what the industry has become today and the implications for the future.
... Ecotourism is a subset of broad nature based on tourism that includes several components like community benefits, education , sustainability and ethics (Brandon 1996; Buckley 2004; Fennell 1999; Goodwin 1996; Honey ,1999 ). " Ecotourism involves visiting natural areas with the objectives of learning, studying or participating in activities that do not bring negative effects to the environment; whilst protecting and empowering the local community socially and economically " (Cristina, 2004). ...
Ecotourism industry is growing and changing at a fast pace to be an increasingly important source of income and employment in many countries. According to the World Tourism Organization, ecotourism is recorded as the highest growing market in the tourism industry with an annual growth rate of 5 per cent worldwide and representing six per cent of the world’s GDP and 11.4 per cent of all consumers spending. Sri Lanka has tremendous ecotourism resources with great potential for further development in Southern Asia. At present tourism industry with ecotourism sector is a major foreign exchange generating industry in Sri Lanka. Since 2005, the sector of ecotourism has been developed under the policy decisions and legal coverage of tourism act No. 38 of 2005 which came into effect in October 2007. Despite the positive trends Sri Lanka’s ecotourism has negative environmental feedbacks in the forms of land degradation, land clearance, erosion, disturbances and loss of biodiversity, air and water pollution This paper examines these issues with the help of extensive and comprehensive literature reviews on ecotourism. Ecotourism trends delineated in this article are based on the ancillary statistical data from 1990 to date and issues and challenges are discussed within the three categories of culture, economy and environment.
... The key claim in the advocacy of ecotourism in the IYE documentation, reflecting these developments in conservation and development thinking – that ecotourism can combine development and conservation – is well rehearsed by its advocates (Goodwin, 2000; Scheyvens, 2002; Fennell, 2003). This is not a new argument, but has become influential in the last 15 years as NGOs, of both a conservation and well-being orientation, have adopted it as a strategy to bring about integrated conservation and development (Scheyvens, 2002; Butcher, 2003: chapter 7). ...
The United Nations International Year of Ecotourism (IYE) of 2002 marked out the rise of ecotourism from new niche market opportunity in the 1980s to being regarded by its advocates as an exemplary form of sustainable development in the rural developing world. This paper briefly situates the IYE in the context of wider ideas on development and conservation. It identifies and critically considers three key themes featured in the documentation from the IYE: community participation, traditional knowledge and natural capital. Further, it is argued that the IYE reflects a diminished and constrained vision of the possibilities for rural development.
... Distinctively, the special interest tourism products (SITP) are based on the differentiation of demand, which is reflected through the motive of the travel (Tsartas, 1996), since some tourists travel for relaxation, others in order to explore new places and meet people, others because of professional reasons etc. Due to that, special products are developed to correspond to all these needs. Thus, there are products related to relaxation, summer activities, sports, health issues, conferences, profession, culture, education, nature activities etc. Usually, the special tourism products are considered, according to the international literature (Fennell 1999, Butler 1996), more sustainable, since they seem to have better performance in the destination (economic, social and environmental) (Vayanni et al., 2005). ...
This paper questions the position of different Greek destinations in the European tourism market and compares special interest products with the simple 3S ones. The WWW was browsed and the results lead in the conclusion that similar 3S destinations differ greatly in prices, whereas SITPs are more expensive. Greece is placed in a middle position among similar Mediterranean destinations. The services that are included in the AI packages, compared to the SC ones, do not seem to reflect to their prices. For the SITP the demand is limited but customers are willing to pay more to fulfill their special needs.
... Outside North America, pioneer tourism geographers included Coppock (1977), Gilbert (1939), Mercer (1970) and Patmore (1968; all cited in Butler 2004) and, later, scholars such as Douglas Pearce and Michael Hall made significant contributions. Some of the most significant scholarly contributions, in this author's opinion, include Butler's (1980) evolutionary perspective of tourist development , tourism impacts (Mathieson and Wall 1982), political economy (Britton 1982, 1991), ecotourism (Fennell 1999), resort morphology (Pearce 1979), communitybased tourism (Murphy 1985), developing world tourism (Weaver 1998) and what is arguably one of the best undergraduate textbooks on the geography of tourism (Hall and Page 2002). ...
This paper provides an overview of past and current traditions and trends in tourism research conducted by geographers. The paper is divided into three parts. Part One discusses the traditions in geography scholarship, with respect to the era, language and themes of tourism research. The focus in Part Two is on contemporary trends, examining, in particular, papers presented at three annual meetings of the Association of American Geographers (AAG) and several recent volumes of this journal (Tourism Geographies). Part Three outlines emerging trends and the challenges of continuing the geographical traditions. The paper concludes that, just as the discipline of geography is vibrant today, so is the sub-discipline of tourism geography. Geographers are continuing the tradition to address very complex, diverse and dynamic issues about tourism relevant to the scientific community and society at large.
... When offered together with tourism, they can contribute to the all-round development of a region that is either underdeveloped or in crisis. Ecotourism is a thriving economic enterprise in both developed and less developed countries around the world (Fennel 2008) and is not only beneficial but essential to both the environment and the economies of depressed regions (Whiteman 1996). It is worth mentioning that ecotourism offers environmentally friendly services and connects with nature and landscape conservation. ...
... As ecotourism is one of the fastest developing segments of the tourism industry, its impact, both positive and negative, should be examined. Over the last two decades, environmentalists and scientists have touted ecotourism as a valid tool for conservation (Boo, 1990; Ceballos-Lascurain, 1996; Fennell, 2003). Many believe that if people can benefit financially from enterprises that depend on natural areas, they will conserve and use resources sustainably (Gurung & Seeland, 2008; Ormsby & Mannle, 2006). ...
Understanding factors that strengthen community support for ecotourism and conservation is key to a successful ecotourism project. This study of Five Blues Lake National Park in central Belize explored attitudes towards ecotourism and conservation of local people living adjacent to and co-managing a national park. The authors conducted attitudinal surveys of residents of Saint Margarets village in 1995 and in 2003. The data suggested high levels of support for ecotourism development and continued protection of the land and conservation efforts. Despite this support, by 2003, most ecotourism activities and park management had been curtailed. Although the inception of co-managed ecotourism was received well and some level of interest existed, over time, there was a decline in community participation and ecotourism activities. This is attributable to factors including resident apathy, low community participation, diminished financial resources, insufficient local and national management capacity, and perceptions of few personal benefits by residents. Furthermore, the often claimed theoretical benefits of ecotourism in developing communities were not fully realised in this case. As demonstrated by this study, local involvement of residents in development and implementation of ecotourism initiatives, including necessary capacity-building, may help ensure sustainable management and success of long-term ecotourism and conservation efforts.
... Ecotourism is the fastest growing segment of the global travel and tourism industry. For the last few years, there has been a new theme in the global tourism industry: tourism in any form or shape should be environmentally sound, should be sustainable (Fennel, 2000; Tyler and Dangerfield, 1999). ...
A number of Latin American countries have now embraced ecotourism as one of their approaches to establishing sustainable economic development strategies. Latin America is uniquely suitable for ecotourism. The region has a natural competitive advantage, i.e., Latin America has unique ecosystems, offering one of the world's most promising grounds for the development of the ecotourism industry. Latin American countries are at different levels of development and at different stages in the lifecycles of their ecotourism industries. This paper elaborates on the promises and challenges permeating the management of Latin America's ecotourism industry.
... Whilst there is an abundance of literature dealing with the varying definitions of what constitutes ecotourism, emphasis is commonly placed on the responsibility to promote and ensure conservation of the natural environment, promote the economic welfare of local communities and minimise adverse socio-cultural impacts arising from contact between visitors and residents (Boo, 1990; Fennell, 1999; Wearing & Neil, 1999). Although it is not the intention of this paper to elaborate on this debate, it is argued that the diversity of activities falling under this broad definition necessitates categorisation of ecotourism into more precise groups to facilitate further analysis (Mieczkowski, 1995). ...
Research ecotourism is a relatively new component of activities within the ecotourism industry, providing research opportunities for visitors focusing on aspects of the natural environment which are principally located in developing countries. This paper is directed towards identifying the nature and causes of socio-cultural impacts of this strand of ecotourism using a case study from Indonesia. The positive nature of socio-cultural impacts perceived by host communities alongside the irregular nature of economic benefits to host communities is analogous with the altruistic surplus theory of individual recognition of communal benefits. Certain characteristics of research ecotourists are identified as contributing towards host reactions towards visitors which reinforce the contention that this is a desirable form of ecotourism in similar locations.
... A recreation and/or tourism policy should therefore reflect the values of stakeholders and interested parties (Gunn, 1988; Veal, 1994). Fennell (1999) argued that tourism planning requires a policy that states the aims and objectives to be implemented in the planning process. In addition, Gunn (1988) suggested that, for plans to be implemented, governance is required and Fennell (1999) stated that implementation is usually done by governments. ...
At the local level, planning for recreation and tourism is not necessarily a straightfor-ward process. Local policy makers may be unable to reflect the complexity of the plan-ning process, particularly when it should consider a variety of views representing different stakeholders. In addition, those involved in planning for recreation and tourism have often treated such activities in isolation from other factors which make up the social, environmental and economic fabric of a region. One of the reasons for this may be lack of data, and the researchin this article seeks to redress a similar lack in rela-tion to mountain biking in the Manawatu Region of New Zealand. The recent increase in the number of mountain bikers world-wide has prompted studies in the USA and New Zealand, which have indicated a growing concern with environmental impacts, demonstrated attitudes of other recreationalists to mountain bikers and identified a number of management issues. This article presents research conducted in association with the Palmerston North City Council. It suggests that planning for recreation and tourism is often an ad hoc and reactive process and recommends the adoption of a more iterative approach.
... It is widely accepted that education and interpretation are integral parts of tourism, especially at heritage sites and in the natural environment [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6]. Weiler and Davis [7] note that interpretation assists the visitors to appreciate the area they are visiting. ...
Environmental education and interpretation became common components on wildlife viewing tours. Whale and dolphin watching tours are no exception and research suggests the implementation of educational interpretation as an agent for conservation. However, there is little knowledge on how the tourists on those tours feel about interpretation, i.e. do tourists want to be educated during their holidays? This study addressed this question on swim-with-dolphin tours at three locations in New Zealand. The distributed questionnaires included specific questions, but also gathered open-ended data. Results support the demand for structured interpretation programmes on marine mammal tours. Despite interpretation in place (mostly about the dolphins), respondents clearly indicated that they would have liked to receive more information, in particular about the wider marine environment.
... In some cases , ecotourism is a collection of ' nature - based ' adventures that do not necessarily protect the environment or benefit the local communities ( Fennell , 1999 ; Pforr , 2001 ; Weaver , 2001 ) . Residents living near ecotourism areas may economically benefit from the industry , however it is oftentimes at the expense of having fewer resources and experiencing a disruption in their daily lives . ...
Local stakeholder participation is critical for the sustainability of Protected Areas in developing countries. Community members have vested interests in conservation efforts, as their household livelihood depends on the natural environment in which they live. Women are key stakeholders in development projects because of their often unrecognized natural resource management roles. Historically, however, women have been left out of stakeholder meetings, policy making, and project implementation. The Government of Belize is focusing on the ecotourism industry as a development strategy to protect natural resources and to increase the household livelihood security of participants. This research serves as a measure to identify economic and social securities in households from both tourism and non-tourism based communities. The quantitative data show that female-headed households are economically more vulnerable than male-headed households, but are overall more secure than dual-headed households. Further investigation reveals differences in security rates among households in tourism and non-tourism communities. Includes bibliographical references (p. 90-94). Thesis (M.S.)--Baylor University, 2006. Mode of access: World Wide Web. PDF files require Adobe Acrobat Reader.
It is widely assumed that ecotourism offers sustainable development opportunities in under-developed countries, but little is known about the variables contributing to differential sustainability of multiple ecotourism ventures within a geographic region. This investigation compared differences among rainforest ecotourism sites in Tambopata, Amazonian Peru. These rainforest lodges act as stewards of the surrounding habitat. Different histories and philosophies regarding tourism resulted in varied levels of economic, social and ecological sustainability. This study quantitatively examines the differential sustainability of multiple ecotourism sites in a small geographic region. Tourism in Tambopata has a potential for sustainability of local communities and natural resources.
This article examines recent developments in the New Zealand ecotourism sector that highlight the limitations of definitions of ecotourism. It considers the contemporary development of commercial ecotourism operations in urban contexts in New Zealand. The phenomenon of urban ecotourism demonstrates various inherent contradictions relating to definitions of ecotourism. Selected definitions are considered in an attempt to review an extensive and voluminous, but important, literature. Three case studies are then presented to demonstrate the praiseworthy nature of ecotourism development initiatives in urban contexts. The authors conclude that notwithstanding the contradic- tions, urban ecotourism developments are more able than most to fulfil the lofty ambi- tions to which ecotourism operators are required to aspire.
The growth and diversification of the ecotourism market has resulted in an expansion of operators catering for individuals willing to undertake voluntary conservation and research activities, often in remote and hitherto rarely visited locations. However, these 'research ecotourists' have received relatively little attention in the literature to date. This study identifies the demographic background and motivational characteristics of volunteers working with one such operator in Indonesia. One hundred participants were interviewed and the majority were female, single, young and well educated, reflecting previous research concerning this sector of the ecotourism market. Despite the young age of the sample, a large proportion described their previous holiday experiences in terms consistent with ecotourism. A dominant ecocentric attitude was identified among the volunteers through their interpretations of 'ecotourism', their awareness of nature-related issues and a desire to learn more about the environment. The most frequent responses for participating in overseas expeditions were 'personal development' and 'academic achievement' reasons. These findings support the contention that 'research ecotourists' represent an important sector within the ecotourism market. Furthermore, there is evident potential for growth in this element of ecotourism, underlining the importance of this study in identifying the target market and its implications with regard to the future development of this sector.
This paper examines the history of, and current practices associated with, "mass ecotourism" in the long-established resort destinations of Phuket, Thailand and Bali, Indonesia. Using examples from each island's original mass ecotourism companies, this paper argues that, contrary to approaches that tend to universalize the concept, ecotourism remains highly anchored to local or regional context. In the case of resort areas of Southeast Asia, it derives its origins and ongoing success to fundamental links to conventional mass tourism. A symbiotic relationship between mass tourism and ecotourism has allowed companies in Phuket and Bali to promote such ecotour- ism principles as conservation, ethical management, and environmental education by tapping into the markets, marketing channels, and business networks of conventional mass tourism. This mass-eco synthesis, coupled with other historical and structural parallels between mass ecotourism in Phuket and Bali, characterizes a Southeast Asian model of ecotourism centered on established resort destinations. Mass ecotourism, ecotourism, Phuket, Bali.
Local community benefit from protected areas is a vital component of ecotourism and sustainable development. In developing nations, this local community benefit has been considered more difficult to achieve than in developed nations. What makes developing nations' local benefit from ecotourism so different from developed nations' benefit? In order to answer this question, this paper researches the details of Kenyan ecotourism operations' direct, indirect, positive, and negative impacts upon local communities. This research also compares Kenyan ecotourism operations with the Australian government's ecotourism policies and the nation's range of ecotourism opportunities for indigenous people. This comparison allows for an assessment of the possible local community benefits that can be derived from Kenyan ecotourism. Chapter 2 - Method I further investigated this topic by traveling to Kenya on the University of Georgia's Kenya Study Abroad Program during Maymester 2003. I sought to explore the positive and negative influences on local communities as a result of protected areas and ecotourism. In Kenya, I was able to interview people who represented public, private, and academic organizations involved in ecotourism. At UGA, I researched Australian ecotourism and its positive benefits for local communities and produced a comparison of the two countries' ecotourism industries in order to assess the possible benefits of ecotourism for Kenyan communities. Chapter 3 - Literature Review
This paper investigates the economic benefits of differentiating gift-giving strategy adopted by firms that provide a whale-watching ecotourism activity in the marine tourism industry. Under assumed that tourists may not encounter the whales in the whale- watching activity that results in imposing psychological disappoint upon them, what gift-giving strategies do firms adopt to
Link to read/download the article: http://www.isarder.org/tr/2012cilt4no4/2012_vol.4_issue.4_article02_full%20text.pdf
This qualitative study questions the prevailing explanations about the nature of ecotourism. The major aims of the study are (a) to point out that the widespread notions and theoretical attributions about the character of ecotourism should be reconsidered and (b) to express the need for critical questioning and design in qualitative and quantitative academic studies in social, management, administrative and tourism sciences. The article explains, first, the basic rationale for legitimizing, market building, supporting, sustaining and expanding the capitalist market, including ecotourism practices, and connects the concept of environment with economy, and inclusion of tourism and ecotourism in sustainable development. Then, it discusses the nature of dominant explanations of ecotourism. The study concludes that widespread explanations of the nature, structure, activity and outcome of ecotourism rarely match the nature of daily ecotourism practices. Instead, they generally create, employ and sustain functional myths about industrial practices, relations, causes, effects and outcomes of ecotourism. They provide strategically prescriptive and normative ethics and principles that are mostly unattainable. They consciously or inadvertently ignore the fact that the notion of ecotourism is deeply embedded in the logics of ideological normalisation of corporate activities, commodity circulation, technological end-product distribution and use, and global governance of the economic, political and cultural market conditions.
This qualitative study questions the prevailing explanations about the nature of ecotourism. The major aims of the study are (a) to point out that the widespread notions and theoretical attributions about the character of ecotourism should be reconsidered and (b) to express the need for critical questioning and design in qualitative and quantitative academic studies in social, management, administrative and tourism sciences. The article explains, first, the basic rationale for legitimizing, market building, supporting, sustaining and expanding the capitalist market, including ecotourism practices, and connects the concept of environment with economy, and inclusion of tourism and ecotourism in sustainable development. Then, it discusses the nature of dominant explanations of ecotourism. The study concludes that widespread explanations of the nature, structure, activity and outcome of ecotourism rarely match the nature of daily ecotourism practices. Instead, they generally create, employ and sustain functional myths about industrial practices, relations, causes, effects and outcomes of ecotourism. They provide strategically prescriptive and normative ethics and principles that are mostly unattainable. They consciously or inadvertently ignore the fact that the notion of ecotourism is deeply embedded in the logics of ideological normalisation of corporate activities, commodity circulation, technological end-product distribution and use, and global governance of the economic, political and cultural market conditions.
There has been a general consensus in the sports tourism literature that sport and tourism agencies do not collaborate. Despite being identified as a problem, it is really only Weed (2001, 2003) and Weed and Bull (1997) who have tried to explain why this is the case, and even they were forced to confine their study to the relationship between the regional bodies for sport and tourism in England. Thus, there is a gap in the literature which this study will address. This research examined the relationships that exist between the public agencies involved in sports tourism, using a comparative study of Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland. A qualitative approach was considered the most appropriate for this study, using the critical case-sampling technique in which a total of 54 in-depth interviews were conducted with public-sector officials from both countries. To analyse their findings, the authors have tapped into the literature on inter-organisational behaviour and adapted Huxham and Vangen's (Huxham, C., & Vangen, S. (2005). Managing to collaborate: The theory and practice of collaborative advantage. London: Routledge) theory of 'Collaborative Advantage' to produce a model that captures the dynamics of collaboration in sports tourism. The model is made up of 12 practitioner themes (aims, commitment and resources, trust, culture, structure and restructuring, key individuals, power, leadership, identity, democracy and equality, communication and partnership overload) and four crosscutting themes (politics, economic policy, accountability and ideology). Each theme and the issues and tensions identified within it can affect inter-organisational relationships in a particular way, but the model illustrates how each theme is interlinked and is part of a larger, more complex picture.
Ecotourism is increasingly being advanced as a strategy to help address economic and social problems in local communities, especially those in areas that are considered to be peripheral in national or international terms. It is also increasingly being recommended as a suitable and effective tool of environmental conservation. The full and effective participation of local communities in the planning and management of ecotourism is, however, rarely a feature of ecotourism projects. At best, ecotourism projects tend to aim for the 'involvement' of local people, and even then the basis of such involvement is often tenuous. At worst, ecotourism projects can ignore the issue of local participation completely, effectively excluding local people from the planning and management processes involved in developing ecotourism. There is an observed tendency for such projects to be unsustainable insofar as they tend to fail (for ecological, economic or socio-cultural reasons, or some combination of these) after a relatively short period of time. This suggests that the activities being developed are not, in fact, true ecotourism, but some form of unsustainable nature-based tourism instead. This paper sets out to identify a number of elements of good practice in incorporating the fundamental principles of local community participation into the processes by which ecotourism projects are planned and managed. Taking lessons from this good practice, and drawing on a model previously developed in the early 1990s by Susan Drake, a revised model approach for local participation in the planning and management of ecotourism is then introduced an discussed. While this revised model approach was originally developed in the context of marine ecotourism in the EU Atlantic Area, it is clearly more generally applicable to different types of ecotourism project and across the full spectrum of geographical locations.
While the role of traditional livelihoods has decreased, tourism has become an important tool for regional development in northern peripheral areas, and the economic and political expectations have increased. National parks have become
attractive tourist destinations also in Finland. This article analyses how the central stakeholders – park authorities, tourists and tourism entrepreneurs – perceive the role of tourism in Finnish national parks. Parks are understood as spaces constructed by historical and social practices; the role of tourism is thus neither historically nor culturally unchanging or indisputable. By analysing planning documents and interviews, the study identifies four discourses that define the interaction between nature conservation and tourism in Finnish parks: 1)
national parks as conservation areas, 2) national parks as tourist destinations, 3) national parks as destinations of sustainable nature-based tourism, and 4) national parks as resources for local people. The study indicates that the role of
tourism has increased in national parks in Finland. Nowadays the aim is to integrate the ecological goals of nature conservation and the economic goals of nature-based tourism by implementing the principles of sustainability. The possible
effects of the recent discursive shift on the future development of protected areas are also discussed in the article.
This paper focuses on the way the Belizean tourism industry is coping with changes caused by diversification of the Belizean product. The image of Belize as a hidden paradise, unspoiled and with consideration for the natural environment has been built, for a large part, on the conventional dichotomy of (destructive) mass tourism on the one hand and (sustainable) small-scale tourism on the other. By focusing on cave tourism in Belize the authors explore ideas on tourism development and image building, with a focus on authenticity and sustainability. Different spatial and branding strategies for mass and small tourism are suggested. Reference to this paper should be made as follows: Berendse, M. and Roessingh, C. (2007) 'Hidden and unspoiled: image building in the tourism industry of Belize', Int. J. Tourism Policy, Vol. 1, No. 3, pp.267–282. Biographical notes: Myrte Berendse (1978) conducted Research on Tourism Development in Belize and received her MA, cum laude, in organisational anthropology. She is co-editor of 'Entrepreneurs in Tourism in the Caribbean Basin: Case studies from Belize, the Dominican Republic, Jamaica and Suriname' (2005). Her current research focuses on cultural change within public infrastructure organisations. She works as a PhD candidate at the Department of Culture, Organisation and Management, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam.
With the increase of nature-based tourism and recreation on public lands in the United States, recreation and tourism planners have an opportunity to provide environmental education to a wide diversity of people. However, recreationists visit natural areas to attain a variety of experiences and benefits, which might or might not include learning. Through an examination of visitors to fresh-water springs in north central Florida, this study identified (1) the recreation benefits visitors to fresh-water springs most desire, (2) the role learning plays in recreationists'motivations to visit water-based recreation areas, and (3) the recreation opportunities (i.e. facilities and services) that will best provide learning opportunities for all visitors. Respondents were divided into four groups according to where they were surveyed and whether or not they had a strong interest in learning. Three of the four groups indicated an interest in developed services and facilities (e.g. visitor centres and museums) to provide for learning oppor-tunities. Results also showed that some visitors' desires for learning benefits were not related to developed facilitiesand were more closely associatedwith passive recreation activities and settings. Specific planning implications for the four types of nature-based tourists are described.
Tourism is the most important economic activity of each nation and it is one of the fastest growing industries of the world. The tourism industry relies on environmental, natural, and cultural resources. Tourism and environmental resources can be seen as two sides of the same coin. In economics, the demand for tourism depends upon the peace and prosperity, safe and security, free from ethnic crisis and terrorism, political and economic stability, rich in customs, culture, and tradition, history and archaeology, monuments and mountains, hill stations and heritage, transport and communication network, ethics and religion, emigration and immigration policy, value of currency and societal value, and above all guides and information. The supply of tourism depends upon natural, ecological, and environmental resources prevail in a country. For instance, the increasing demand (development) of the tourism industry yields both positive impacts on the economy in terms of earning forex, promoting business in tourism zones, exchanging cultural values, strengthening political and economic relations, and bringing multiplier effects on the economy and negative impacts on the environment in terms of damaging environment, creating pollution, spoiling atmosphere, degrading environmental values, bringing externality, depleting marine and forest eco-systems, disappearing flora, fauna, and valuable species, lessening and exploiting resources, dumping wastes, and above all importing dangerous viruses. In recent years, cultural and tourism economists advocated that eco-tourism and medical tourism for attracting tourists from both local and international. Eco-tourism that involves traveling to relatively undisturbed or uncontaminated areas with the specific objective of studying, admiring, and enjoying the scenery and its wild plants and animals, as well as any existing cultural manifestations (both past and present) found in these areas (Ceballos-Lascurain,1991). The International Eco-tourism Society (TIES) defines eco-tourism as responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment, and improves the well-being of local people. According to World Tourism Organization (WTO), eco-tourism generated revenue of some US $20 billion a year and, in combination with nature tourism, contributed to 20 % of global international travel. With this background, the academic workers have attempted to examine the need for eco-tourism, which bring economic, environmental, technological, cultural, and social sustainability.
The desire to spend leisure time in ‘natural’ settings represents a key factor behind the recent and rapid growth of ecotourism.
A search by ecotourists for remote landscapes and locations has shaped the way in which geographers have defined ecotourism,
but few scholars have explored, in detail, the mechanics of the spatial relationship between ecotourism and mass tourism,
two forms of travel usually considered mutually exclusive in spatial terms. Using the island of Phuket — southern Thailand’s
premier resort destination — as a case study, this paper investigates the spatial overlaps and connections between ecotourism
and mass tourism and tests the assumption that ecotourism and mass tourism must exist spatially apart in order for the former
to succeed. Despite Phuket’s association with mass tourism, and the small physical distances between built-up mass tourist
areas and ‘natural’ ecotourism settings, the ‘communicative staging’ of natural authenticity allows ecotourism companies to
convey geographical remoteness to tourists. Although ecotourism in Phuket must struggle constantly to overcome the perceptual
impact of spatial proximity to resort locations, the tourist markets and business networks of the existing mass tourism industry
remain crucial to the survival of ecotourism in this region. Thus, contrary to conventional notions that ecotourism and mass
tourism must exist as separate entities, this paper argues that an interconnected, symbiotic, and spatially-contiguous relationship
between the two is necessary in the case of Phuket.
Key wordscommunicative staging–ecotourism–mass tourism–Phuket–space–staged authenticity–Thailand
Ecolabels in tourism are commonplace but uncoordinated. Established by individual companies, industry associations, voluntary organizations and government agencies, ecolabels range in scale from single villages to worldwide, from single activities to entire destinations; and they include voluntary, codes, awards, accreditation and certification schemes. The degree to which they affect consumer purchasing decisions and corporate environmental performance is largely unknown. If ecolabels contribute to informed tourist choice, they could be a valuable environmental management tool, but only if critical conditions are met. Ecolabels need broad coverage and penetration in relevant market sectors, well-defined and transparent entry criteria, independent audit. and penalties for non-compliance. They also need an effective underlying framework of environmental regulation.
This paper analyzes the present state of tourism in Bhutan and considers the prospects for the development of ecotourism. Empirical surveys of tour operators and foreign tourists indicate that visitors interested in the natural beauty of the Himalayan kingdom stay longer than those who come to experience its culture. By attracting younger tourists, ecotourism could contribute to the goals of Gross National Happiness. The majority of tourists and tour operators are in favor of ecotourism activities that might benefit local rural communities. The prerequisite for a substantial promotion of ecotourism would be changes in the Bhutanese tourism policy to encourage the diversification of tourism products.RésuméL’écotourisme au Bhoutan, une extension de ses bénéfices aux communautés rurales. La situation actuelle du tourisme ainsi que les perspectives de développement de l’écotourisme au Bhoutan font l’objet de cette étude. Il ressort d’enquêtes menées de manière empirique auprès d’opérateurs touristiques et de touristes étrangers que les visiteurs intéressés par les beautés naturelles de ce royaume de l’Himalaya y séjournent plus longtemps que ceux qu’attire la culture. En suscitant l’intérêt de touristes jeunes, l’écotourisme pourrait contribuer à atteindre les objectifs du Bonheur Intérieur Brut. La majeure partie des touristes et des opérateurs touristiques se déclarent en faveur d’activités écotouristiques bénéficiant aux communautés rurales locales. Pour assurer une promotion conséquente de l’écotourisme, des changements visant à la diversification des produits devront être apportés à la politique touristique du pays.
The principal aim of this paper is to evaluate the actions of tourism stakeholders towards nature within the context of environmental ethics. Through an understanding of the ethical stance taken by stakeholders towards nature, it becomes possible to comprehend actions and evaluate their suitability. The conceptual literature in the field of environmental ethics is utilized to analyze the policy statements and actions of stakeholders. The main conclusion is that the majority of them now pursue an ethic of conservation vis-a-vis an instrumental use of nature. However there seems to be little desire for a further shift to a non-anthropocentric environmental ethic.RésuméLe but principal de cet article est d’évaluer les actions des protagonistes du tourisme envers la nature dans le contexte d’une éthique environnementale. Si on comprend la position éthique des protagonistes envers la nature, il devient possible de comprendre leurs actions et de juger si elles sont convenables. On se sert de la littérature conceptuelle de l’éthique environnementale pour analyser les déclarations de principes et les actions des protagonistes. La conclusion principale est que la majorité des protagonistes suivent une éthique de sauvegarde en ce qui concerne l’utilisation de la nature. Il y a pourtant peu d’intérêt pour une éthique moins anthropocentrique de l’environnement.
This introductory chapter sets the context of ecotourism policy and planning by reviewing issues pertaining to: tourism and sustainability; the goals of tourism plans; and the levels of tourism planning.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This research focuses on the black rhinoceros and ecotourism in three conservation areas in the Kunene region of Namibia. The reciprocal impact between black rhino and community-based ecotourism is analysed. The research is located in two communal conservancies, #Khoadi-//Hôas and Torra, and in a photographic tourism concession, the Palmwag Concession Area. The research aims to explore and describe the reciprocal impact of community-based ecotourism efforts and black rhino spatial movement patterns in three conservation areas in north-west Namibia. An in-depth literature review was undertaken on the reciprocal impact between rhino-tracking tourism and conservation. A comparison was also made between the effects of human-induced disturbance on spatial movement patterns of black rhinos and the perception of tourists about tracking black rhinos. The value of black rhinos to community-based ecotourism was also determined. Quantitative research methodology was used for this study. Explorations of objectives were conducted through direct field observation with the aid of radio-telemetry tracking and aerial surveying for data gathering. The researcher employed SRT (Save the Rhino Trust) trackers in the study areas to assist with the tracking. The sample consisted of 24 transmitter-fitted black rhino in the three conservation areas. Rhino not fitted with transmitters have been included in the sample for more accurate results. Four hundred questionnaires were distributed at four tourist lodges in the study area. The hypothesis that sustainable ecotourism does not influence black rhino spatial behaviour was rejected. Rhinos in the study were easily disturbed and did not readily return to undisturbed behaviour. Their major response to disturbance was to run away. The disturbance was influenced by their initial activity when found. The highest disturbance occurred early in observations. Rhinos illustrated similar causes of disturbance throughout the study sites. The Springbok River emerged as the area with the most severe reactions to disturbance. This was supported by home range data and ecological constraints. Analysis of tourist responses regarding rhino tracking indicated a high demand for and level of satisfaction. This was the single determining factor for tourists to return to the Kunene region to do rhino tracking again. Tourists were willing to pay close to market price to track black rhino. It is recommended that tracking of black rhino should be avoided in the Springbok River and Aub/Barab areas. Tracking protocols should stipulate that tracking should only be conducted early in the morning; that rhinos may only be approached from downwind; that observation time may not exceed 15 minutes; that groups must be kept small; and that the approach distance may not be less than 100 metres. AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die fokus van die navorsing is op swart renosters en ekotoerisme in drie bewaringsgebiede in die Kunene streek van Namibia. Die wedersydse wisselwerking tussen swart renosters en gemeenskaps-gebaseerde ekotoerisme is nagevors. Die navorsing het plaasgevind in twee kommunale bewaringsgebiede, #Khoadi-//Hôas en Torra asook ‘n konsessie vir fotografie in die Palmwag Konsessie Gebied. Die doel van die navorsing was om die wedersydse wisselwerking van gemeenskapsgebaseerde ekotoerisme en swart renosters se geografiese bewegingspatrone in drie bewaringsareas in noordwes Namibië te ondersoek en te omskryf. ‘n Deeglike literatuurstudie is gedoen ten opsigte van die wedersydse wisselwerking tussen toerisme met die doel om renosters waar te neem deur spoorsny en bewaring van die spesies. Die uitwerking van versteuring deur mense op die geografiese bewegingspatrone van swart renosters is vergelyk met die persepsie van toeriste ten opsigte van spoorsny van swart renosters. Die waarde van swart renosters ten opsigte van ekotoerisme is ook bepaal. Kwantitatiewe navorsingsmetodologie is gebruik in die studie. Die doelstelling van die navorsing is uitgevoer deur direkte veld waarnemings met behulp van radio-telemetriese opsporing en data insameling met behulp van lugsensusse. Die navorser het spoorsnyers van SRT (Save the Rhino Trust), wat in die studiegebied werk, in diens geneem om van hulp te wees met die spoorsny van renosters. Die steekproef het bestaan uit 24 swart renosters toegerus met seintoestelle in drie bewaringsgebiede. Renosters wat nie seintoestelle gehad het nie, is ook in die steekproef ingesluit ten einde beter dekking te verkry. Vierhonderd vraelyste is by vier toeristeoorde in die studiegebied versprei. Die hipotese dat volhoubare ekotoerisme nie ‘n invloed uitoefen op die geografiese gedrag van swart renosters nie, is verwerp. Renosters in die studie-gebied is maklik versteur en het nie geredelik teruggekeer tot onversteurde gedrag nie. Hulle reaksie op versteuring was gekenmerk deur weg te hardloop. Die mate van versteuring is bepaal deur die renosters se aanvanklike aktiwiteit by opsporing. Die meeste versteuring het gedurende vroeë waarneming plaasgevind. Dieselfde oorsake van versteuring is in al drie gebiede gevind. Die Springbokrivier was die gebied waar die sterkste reaksies ten opsigte van versteuring bespeur is. Dit word ondersteun deur die grootte van die loopgebiede van die renosters en ekologiese beperkings van die gebied. Data-analise van toeriste-vraelyste het aangetoon dat daar ‘n groot aanvraag en belangstelling is in die spoorsny van renosters. Die grootste bepalende faktor vir toeriste om na die Kunene streek terug te keer, is om renosters te sien deur middel van spoorsny. Toeriste is gewillig om die heersende markprys vir spoorsny van renosters te betaal. Navorsingsaanbevelings sluit in dat spoorsny van swart renosters in die Springbokrivier en Aub/Barab gebiede vermy word. Spoorsny-protokol moet stipuleer dat dit net in die vroeë oggend gedoen word, dat renosters slegs van onderkant die wind genader word, waarnemingstyd mag nie 15 minute oorskry nie, groepe moet klein wees en die afstand vanaf die diere mag nie nader as 100 meter wees nie. Thesis (MA (Geography and Environmental Studies)--University of Stellenbosch, 2010.
為研究土 與白色來航 產蛋性能與蛋品質在遺傳上的差異，並探討其可能的遺傳方 式，以作為提高產蛋性能與蛋品質之參考，而進行本試驗。利用本校育成的土 （C ）與省玄試所來航 （L ）進行品種間正逆雜交，得C 、L 、C ×L 與L ×C 四種 ，二批次共１２５７隻 。個別記錄其產蛋情形，且在３０至４０週齡時，測其產 蛋飼料效率。並於２５、３５及６５週齡時，測定其蛋品質。主要結果如下。 土 與白色來航 的差別：土 較早熟，而蛋重、產蛋數、產蛋率及產蛋飼料效率， 土 均極顯著的比來航 差；土 在３０至４０週齡時，隻日飼料採食量、隻日蛋產 量及體增重均較小，而３０、４０及７０週齡時的體重，則土 遠大於來航 。蛋殼 強度、蛋殼佔蛋重百分率、單位面積蛋殼重（６５週齡）及蛋黃重佔蛋重百分率，土 高於來航 ，但豪氏單位則土 小於來航 。土 的蛋殼厚度不比來航 厚，而蛋 殼強度卻優於來航 。 雜交優勢方面：產蛋性能，如性成熟（初產日齡）、產蛋數、產蛋率及３０至４０週 齡的隻日蛋產量與產蛋飼料效率等，與大部份蛋品質性狀，如蛋重、蛋殼強度（２５ 及３５週齡）、蛋殼厚度、蛋殼重佔蛋重百分率（３５週齡）、單位面積蛋殼重、蛋 黃重及蛋白所含水份（３５週齡）等，均有相當大的雜交優勢，使得雜交 兼具土 與來航 之優點。因此，雜交 應有其利用價值。 C ×L 與L ×C 的差異：在蛋形指數方面，C ×L 極顯著的小於L ×C ；而蛋殼色度 則C ×L 較L ×C 為深。顯示此二性狀，可能受到性聯遺傳基因的影響。
The purpose of this study is to determine if ecotourism principles are being applied in Nicaragua. The cases studied were the Nature Reserves Mombacho Volcano (NRMV) and Datanlí–El Diablo (NRDE). The research questions addressed were the following:
1. Are the tourism activities contributing to conserving the protected areas and their biodiversity?
2. Is ecotourism promoting awareness in visitors and local people?
3. Are the local communities benefiting from these activities and, if so, how relevant is their participation?
Changes in plant cover, plant species, and medium and large-size mammals were studied along walking trails to determine if tourists had impacted richness, abundance and diversity of these parameters. Data relating to vegetation cover and composition were collected at sites along the trails and comparative pristine (undisturbed) locations in the NRMV in 2005 and 2007. For the large and medium-sized mammals a total of 48 censuses were carried out, 24 at each site. Two methods were used: fixed wide transects and the camera tracker trap technique.
A method for determining the recreational carrying capacity (RCC) of hiking trails in protected areas was tested. To collect the social information individual structured and semi-structured interviews and focus groups were used. The objective of using different tools was to avoid bias by combining quantitative and qualitative interview techniques
The results indicate that there is a significant reduction of vegetation cover along the trails, mostly in a band adjacent to the trails. For tree species richness there were no significant differences between the control and trail-sides, whereas for the understorey species there were significant differences between these comparisons. This indicates an ecological impact on the understorey species composition and richness due to trail use.
In the case of large and medium-sized mammals only a pilot study was completed. It indicates that there are no statistically significant differences between hiking trails within a nature reserve. However, the ordination analyses indicate a difference in the species composition between hiking trails in the most visited reserve.
The results of the Social Carrying Capacity (SCC) indicate that the main constraints for all trails were the spatial and accessibility limiting factors. In broad terms the RCC methodology is a tool for determination of the required physical conditions and management capacities for tourist management.
This study demonstrates that the farmers in the two nature reserve communities are engaged in the protection of the reserves because they are aware of environmental concerns and recognize that their own welfare can be affected.
Research priorities of land management agencies and tourism industry associations throughout Australia were determined from a three-phase expert survey, a dedicated workshop at a national conference, and various national consultative groups. Economic and legal issues currently have as high a priority, for these organisations, as scientific issues associated with natural resource conservation and visitor management. Questions relating to fees, charges and asset management are critical to park managers because of major shortfalls in government funding. They affect tour operators as a business cost, albeit less than on equivalent private land. Contractual issues relating to commercial permits, and questions of liability for human injury and environmental damage, have become critical because of an increasing number of lawsuits. Because these are relatively new and unfamiliar issues, protected area agencies have less internal expertise to draw on, and fewer established links with research organisations, than they do for ecological research. Scientific research questions relating to conservation management, visitor impacts, and the effectiveness of visitor management tools are also becoming increasingly urgent because of increases in visitor numbers. Whilst legal and economic questions are currently high on the research agenda for many organisations, therefore, the scientific questions will remain critical in the longer term. Yes Yes
ResearchGate has not been able to resolve any references for this publication.