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Emotional intelligence in the first 5 years of life

  • January 2011
Authors:
Susanne Ayers Denham at George Mason University
Susanne Ayers Denham
Katherine Zinsser at University of Illinois at Chicago
Katherine Zinsser
Craig S. Bailey at Yale University
Craig S. Bailey
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Encyclopedia on Early Childhood Development
©2011 CEECD / SKC-ECD
Denham SA, Zinsser K, Bailey CS
1
Emotional Intelligence in the First Five Years of Life
SUSANNE A. DENHAM, PhD
KATHERINE ZINSSER, MA
CRAIG S. BAILEY, BS
George Mason University, USA
(Published online September 30, 2011)
Topic
Emotions
Introduction
The construct of emotional intelligence (EI) refers to a distinct group of mental abilities,
in which individuals 1) perceive, appraise and express emotions; 2) use emotions to
facilitate thinking; 3) understand the antecedents and consequences of emotions; and 4)
regulate emotions in self and others.1,2 These abilities dovetail well with what has been
termed, in the developmental psychology literature, as “emotional competence” (EC).3,4,5
Because of the developmental emphasis in the EC literature, this is the term we use here.
Young children’s EC – expression of useful emotions, knowledge of emotions of self and
others, and regulation of their own and others’ emotional expressiveness and experience
when necessary – contributes to their social and pre-academic adjustment, both
concurrently and across time.6-8
Subject
Because of the link with social and pre-academic success, there is considerable interest in
the topic of early childhood EC; its relevance to policy-makers and service-providers in
child care, early childhood education and mental health is becoming clear. There are three
main components of EC, with specific attainments during the early childhood period:9
Expression: Young children become able to use emotional communication to express
clear nonverbal messages about social situations and relationships (e.g., stamping feet,
giving a hug). They also develop empathic involvement in others’ emotions (e.g., patting
a classmate in pain). Further, they display complex social and self-conscious emotions,
such as guilt, pride, shame and contempt, in appropriate contexts.
Knowledge: Young children’s abilities to accurately identify and label their own and
others’ emotions, especially the discrete emotions of happiness, sadness, anger and fear,
are emerging. Particularly via the use of methods embedded within play, they can
identify the causes and consequences of these emotions, and they show budding
awareness of complex, individualized causes for emotions.10
EMOTIONS
Regulation: Young children begin to regulate emotions in productive ways – showing
awareness of their feelings, monitoring them and modifying them when necessary, so that
emotions aid, rather than impede, coping in varying situations. Although young children
begin to understand which regulation strategies are most useful, they still often need adult
assistance in these efforts.
The interrelationships of these aspects of EC must be underscored. Emotion knowledge
undoubtedly plays an important role in children’s ability to regulate emotion; when a
child knows, for example, that her playmate is delighted to heave her tricycle upright
after a long struggle, she is no longer distressed herself, trying to discern what to do with
an angry friend. Further, her emotion knowledge may assist her own adaptive, regulated
emotion expression – if she understands what makes her (and others) sad, and with what
intensity, she may be able to show sadness at falling off playground equipment in a way
that elicits help without overwhelming her. Because of the intricate inter-workings of the
components of EC, it is no surprise that preschool deficits in both emotion knowledge
and under-regulated expression of anger predicted difficulties with teachers and peers in
kindergarten.11 For example, preschoolers with deficits in understanding emotions have
been found to show aggression or peer problems, both concurrently and
predictably.7(p249),12,13 Moreover, aspects of early childhood EC, separately and as an
interrelated group, predict young children’s early school success.14-16
Research Context
The context of research into EC varies throughout development. The study of infant
emotion has relied predominantly on external signs of experienced emotions such as
facial expressions, gestures and vocalizations. As children leave infancy, researchers use
both naturalistic observations and direct assessment procedures in a variety of settings, to
better capture children’s expression and experience, understanding, and regulation of
emotions. Procedures to assess children’s EC sometimes use purposefully frustrating
situations with and without adult scaffolding to understand children’s regulation of
emotions. Children’s responses to direct questions, often within ecologically valid play
procedures, show their understanding of self and others’ feelings in differing situations,
as well as causes and consequences of emotions, and children’s differentiation between
their own and others’ perspectives. Observational and self-report methods are used to
examine adults’ socialization of children’s EC.
Key Research Questions and Recent Findings
1. How is EC related to young children’s successful negotiations of other
important developmental tasks?
a) EC is related to young children’s success in relationships. Young children
must learn to send and receive emotional messages using their knowledge
about emotions and their abilities to regulate emotions, so that they may
successfully negotiate interpersonal exchanges, form relationships and
maintain curiosity about and enthusiasm for their world.17 When they do
so, they have more satisfying, successful relationships with others,
especially in the new peer arena.18
Encyclopedia on Early Childhood Development
©2011 CEECD / SKC-ECD
Denham SA, Zinsser K, Bailey CS
2
EMOTIONS
b) EC is related to young children’s early school success. Emotions are
ubiquitous in the early childhood classroom; as young students learn
alongside and in collaboration with teachers and peers, they must utilize
their emotions to facilitate learning. Children’s abilities to understand
emotions of self and other, regulate emotion, and express healthy emotions,
all work together to grease the cogs of a successful school experience.6(p653)
2. How do parents promote children’s EC?
By modeling various emotions, moderately expressive parents give children
information about the nature of emotions their expression, likely eliciting
situations, and more personalized causes. Living in a particular “affective
climate” promotes children’s experience and expression of specific emotions.19 A
positive affective climate promotes positive emotional and social outcomes in
children.20-24 Conversely, where families display more negative emotion, children
fare worse with peers.25 Parents’ reactions to young children’s emotions and their
direct instruction about emotions are also important socialization tools that
support the development of EC.26
3. What else can we do to promote children’s EC?
There are opportunities to promote young children’s EC within child care and
early childhood education settings.27 For example, the Preschool PATHS program
teaches children about emotion expression, knowledge, and regulation.28,29
Additional programs have been created specifically for use in Head Start
classrooms to help young children use EC effectively.30,31 Parent programming
also exists.32,33
Research Gaps
Much basic research work is left to be done, particularly in examining how the
components of EC work together. Research also needs to situate EC abilities within the
“whole child,” viewing how EC interacts with other domains of development, both
concurrently and predictably.
Further, despite accumulated findings on parental socialization, and early childhood
research that shows that teachers are engaging in emotion socialization behaviours, we
know little about how teachers (or, for that matter, peers or siblings) socialize children’s
EC.34 Research is also needed to discern possible indirect contributors to EC, such as
parental psychopathology, divorce, poverty and child care quality. Moreover, our state of
knowledge is ripe for increased exploration of applied topics, such as evidence-based
programming. Finally, even more excellent assessment tools are needed in order to track
EC promotion in young children.34
Conclusion
In sum, emotional competence is a developmentally-evolving construct that encompasses
children’s abilities to appropriately express, interpret and regulate their emotions, as well
as to understand the emotions of others. Understanding the interrelationships between
these facets of EC, as well as how EC is socialized, is crucial in understanding the
emotional experience of children, and why some children have higher scores than others
on measures of EC. Extant findings suggest that 1) EC is related to young children’s
Encyclopedia on Early Childhood Development
©2011 CEECD / SKC-ECD
Denham SA, Zinsser K, Bailey CS
3
EMOTIONS
success in relationships; 2) EC is related to young children’s early success in school; 3)
parents model emotional expression and regulation and structure environments that
promote attaining EC; and 4) parent socialization of emotion is not the only mechanism
by which children’s EC is socialized. Understanding and promoting EC in the home is
emerging as vital, but research has yet to fully explore how teachers and the school
context contribute to children’s EC.
Implications for Parents, Services and Policy
Gaps in researchers’, educators’ and policy makers’ understanding and valuing of early
childhood EC must be bridged. To provide the optimal learning environment for every
student, teachers should be trained in programming and assessment tools that not only
assess but also assist in forming interventions that promote social-emotional learning
(SEL) abilities. Parents should likewise be supported in their roles as socializers of EC.
Educational standards, including evidence-based assessment and programming, are also
sorely needed. Policy initiatives that encourage teacher awareness of SEL abilities will
not only foster a more harmonious classroom environment, but will also help form a
stable social-emotional foundation that the child will use across social and learning
contexts. One such legislative initiative, the Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning
Act, was introduced in the U.S. House of Representatives in 2009. Such policies can help
establish programs and allocate funds to create technical assistance and training centers,
provide grants to support evidence-based SEL programming, and conduct a national
evaluation of school-based SEL programming.
REFERENCES
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Encyclopedia on Early Childhood Development
©2011 CEECD / SKC-ECD
Denham SA, Zinsser K, Bailey CS
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EMOTIONS
9. Denham SA, Zinsser K, Brown C. The emotional basis of learning and
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Encyclopedia on Early Childhood Development
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5
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Encyclopedia on Early Childhood Development
©2011 CEECD / SKC-ECD
Denham SA, Zinsser K, Bailey CS
6
EMOTIONS
Encyclopedia on Early Childhood Development
©2011 CEECD / SKC-ECD
Denham SA, Zinsser K, Bailey CS
7
To cite this document:
Denham SA, Zinsser K, Bailey CS. Emotional intelligence in the first five years of life. Lewis M, topic ed.
In: Tremblay RE, Boivin M, Peters RDeV, eds. Encyclopedia on Early Childhood Development [online].
Montreal, Quebec: Centre of Excellence for Early Childhood Development and Strategic Knowledge
Cluster on Early Child Development; 2011:1-7. Available at: http://www.child-
encyclopedia.com/documents/Denham-Zinsser-BaileyANGxp1.pdf. Accessed [insert date].
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This paper examines the development of emotional intelligence (EI) in childhood. It is proposed that ambiguities in conceptualizing EI may be resolved by distinguishing multiple levels of emotion‐regulation processes. Temperament, rule‐based skill acquisition, and self‐aware emotion regulation are differentiat‐ed as potential sources of individual differences. We review empirical studies that demonstrate multiple mechanisms linked to these levels. Temperament is shaped by genes, interacting with environmental influences such as patterns of infant‐caregiver interaction. Early, language‐dependent skill learning is governed by reinforcement and modeling processes. Subsequent, insightful learning is influenced by emotional discourse with parents and others, and cultural factors. Cognitive abilities may also influence individual differences in emotional function. At the same time, the biological and sociocultural factors that influence EI interact in complex and interrelated ways. We conclude this article by proposing a tentative ‘investment model’ for emotional competencies in children that accommodates the multifaceted nature of EI. Lower‐level competencies may provide a platform for developing more sophisticated emotion‐regulation skills, with competencies becoming increasingly differentiated over time.
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Emotional Competence and Early School Adjustment: A Study of Preschoolers at Risk
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  • Jan 2001
This short-term longitudinal study examined whether emotion regulation and emotion understanding made unique contributions towards at-risk preschoolers' classroom adaptation. To address this question, we assessed children's emotion regulation and their understanding of emotions in both self (self-awareness, emotion coping) and in others (emotion recognition, affective perspective taking, situation knowledge). Participants were 49 children (22 boys and 27 girls) who attended a Head Start program for low-income children. Seventy percent of this sample was Caucasian, with the remainder being of Latino, African American or biracial ethnicity. Emotion regulation at the start of the school year was associated with school adjustment at year's end, whereas early emotional lability/negativity predicted poorer outcomes. Children who made a smooth adjustment to preschool also were better able to take another person's affective perspective and to identify situations that would provoke different emotional responses. Emotion regulation and understanding made unique contributions towards school adjustment, even when controlling for potential confounds, including behavior problems and verbal abilities. Teachers appeared to influence children's emotional competence by serving an important regulatory function, especially for older preschoolers at-risk.
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Emotion and Cognition Processes in Preschool Children
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The core processes of emotion understanding, emotion control, cognitive understanding, and cognitive control and their association with early indicators of social and academic success were examined in a sample of 141 3-year-old children. Confirmatory factor analysis supported the hypothesized four-factor model of emotion and cognition in early childhood. A subsequent structural model indicated that emotion understanding processes were significantly positively associated with early indicators of academic success, while emotion control processes were inversely related to socioemotional problems. These results point to the utility of an integrated model of emotion and cognition in early development and offer support for the differentiation of understanding and control processes within these developmental arenas as a framework for future study.
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Emotional Development and School Readiness
Article
  • Jan 2002
Summarizes research on the contribution of young children's emotional competence to their school readiness. Describes ways early childhood teachers can support young children's emotional competence by creating a secure emotional environment, helping children understand emotions, modeling genuine appropriate emotions, supporting children's emotion regulation, recognizing and honoring children's expressive styles, and uniting learning with positive emotions. Lists ways early childhood professionals can advocate for children's emotional needs. (KB)
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Child Care Teachers' Response to Children's Emotional Expression
Article
  • Jan 2006
This observational study examined practices through which child care teachers socialize children's emotion. A specific aim was to describe strategies of teacher intervention in response to emotion displayed by children in child care centers, and to answer the question of differential interactions based on children's age and gender. The results of this study were as follows: (a) toddler teachers matched and encouraged children's positive emotion expression more often than did preschool teachers; (b) in response to children's negative emotion, toddler teachers used physical comfort and distraction more often than did preschool teachers who relied more on verbal mediation; (c) in response to girls' negative emotional expressions, teachers provided more physical comfort and distraction whereas they were more likely to provide boys with constructive ways to express negative emotion. The results of this study also revealed relatively infrequent teaching about constructive ways of expressing negative emotion and very few occurrences of teacher's empathy, two developmentally appropriate methods for socializing emotion. Teachers may benefit from a training program focusing on facilitating emotional competence.
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Low‐Income Mothers' Conversations About Emotions and Their Children's Emotional Competence
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Tuning in to Kids: An emotion-focused parenting program—Initial findings from a community trial
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