Preliminary assessment of the archive of faunal

remains from excavated Irish cave sites

Report for the Heritage Council (Grant Ref. No. R00359)

Ruth Carden and Helen Lewis

University College Dublin

November 30, 2010

2

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank Matthew Parkes, Nigel Monaghan and Raghnall O’Floinn, National

Museum of Ireland for their support, assistance and the use of facilities throughout the

duration of this project. Additionally, we thank Peter Woodman and Marion Dowd for the

support, invaluable advice and the fruitful discussions on the Irish cave faunal bone

assemblages. RC would like to thank Andrew Kitchener and his staff of the National

Museums of Scotland, Edinburgh for the loan of the comparative animal skeleton collection

and the following NMINH volunteers who assisted with the counting of bone fragments,

Amy Geraghty, and preliminary examination of the geological specimens, Stephen

Callaghan. Thanks also to Gabriel Cooney, Conor McDermott and Angela McAteer at UCD

School of Archaeology for their assistance. We gratefully acknowledge the support of the

Heritage Council for this research.

Summary

This report describes the results of preliminary assessment of faunal remains archives held

in the National Museum of Ireland from early Irish cave excavations. This project set out to

reassess these archives from cave sites previously identified as having preserved sediments

available for potential future stratigraphic and morphological study, with the aim of

beginning to explore contextual issues in the Irish cave archive. The animal bone archives

from the cave sites are divided between several storage locations, are very numerous but

with many missing specimens, and are in variable states of organisation. The collections

were seen to also include other unstudied faunal and environmental remains (e.g. molluscs),

human remains, and artefacts, including bone tools. A number of culturally-modified bones

were identified, and the possibility of bone damage in archive storage was also noted. In the

course of this preliminary study it was only possible to assess in some detail the archives of

caves from the Edenvale complex, Co. Clare, in comparison to the excavation notebooks

from the early 1900s. A catalogue of these remains has been made for submission to the

National Museum of Ireland (a summary is included in this report), detailing all identifiable

specimens from the 11,710 bones that could be studied during the grant period. The full

assemblage from Edenvale was not assessed due to time constraints and the fact that an

estimated 58,000 of reported bones were not found in the museum archives. Several

recorded bones identified by the original excavators to particular species have been

reclassified as originating from other species. Since the Irish vertebrate record from cave

sites is vital to models of European palaeoenvironmental change, the history of Irish fauna,

the environmental impact of human colonisation, and the cultural history of Ireland, it is

recommended that reassessment and consolidation of the entire archive from cave

excavations be carried out to advance our understanding of these important heritage issues.

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Introduction

Cave sites in Ireland have provided a wealth of information on palaeoenvironment and the

palaeogeography of the island, particularly from the Pleistocene, from their abundant bone

inclusions (e.g. Woodman et al. 1997), and their frequent speleothem formations (e.g.

McDermott et al. 2001; Baker et al. 2000). They have also contributed enormously to our

understanding of the Holocene, providing evidence of human occupation, use and

perception of caves throughout prehistory and history (e.g. Dowd 1997; 2004; 2008), and of

Holocene landscape history (e.g. Jones and McKeever 1987; Mitchell and Ryan 1997;

Woodman et al. 1997). There has been a justified focus on the important vertebrate bone

remains from the many caves investigated in Ireland since antiquarian times, but there

remains a relative poverty of relevant contextual information necessary to more fully

discuss archaeological, palaeoenvironmental and depositional history, and local and regional

environmental and landscape change. This preliminary project builds on a previous

assessment of some Irish caves for survival of sedimentary material that could be studied to

better contextualise these remains (Lewis 2008), by carrying out a complementary study of

the archive of animal bones from caves identified in that project as having potential for

future investigations of contextual integrity . Much effort has been made recently to date

cave remains such as bones, thereby establishing sequences of the presence/absence of

particular vertebrates over time, and allowing better assessment of inferred environmental

changes (e.g. Woodman et al. 1997; McCormick 1999; Woodman 2008; Searle 2008). Recent

cave investigations (e.g. Dowd 2002; 2008; O’Drisceoil and Jennings 2004) have also made

concerted efforts to conduct more detailed palaeoenvironmental reconstruction, date

sediments, and develop more complete understandings of contextual information regarding

specific cave histories, and the lifestyles of prehistoric and historic people represented

therein. This project marks a small step in reassessing the important archives held by the

National Museum of Ireland, as part of a larger brief to further develop these models, and

to identify caves which could see future, fully contextualised, palaeoenvironmental and

archaeological study.

Background

Ireland has over 300 caves that are an important and integral part of our natural

environment and heritage (Coleman 1965). Since the 19th century AD these cave sites have

been explored by naturalists, geologists, speleologists and archaeologists, who continue to

investigate and re-visit today. This pattern of cave exploration is exemplified by the

existence of the growing membership of the Speleological Union of Ireland (www.caving.ie)

and its production of the Irish Speleology Journal. Irish cave sites are important in the

conservation of many extant faunal and floral species, such as the lesser horseshoe bat that

is protected under the EU Habitats Directive. In addition, the unique variable preservation

environment and the cave sediments within these sites have not only yielded many remains

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of extinct and other Irish faunal species, but hold an invaluable record of past environments,

along with numerous archaeological artefacts and sites.

This project aimed to explore the record of past environments and cultural activities by

focusing on faunal remains, in particular bones. Bone remains of extinct, extirpated and

extant vertebrate fauna tend to survive only under particular circumstances, such as those

found in many of the Carboniferous limestone caves of Ireland. A combination of the

alkaline environment and relative protection from weather and biological activity, even

where cave sediments have been influenced by influxes of water, has ensured their long-

term survival (Coleman 1965). These cave environments thus have very good preservation

of animal bones through recent geological time relative to open-air sites, due to small

fluctuations of temperature, reduced humidity, protection from the elements, reduced

scavenging and relatively slow decomposition rates. Indeed, preservation is of such quality

that ancient DNA has been extracted successfully from Late Pleistocene bones (c. 26,000 yr.

BP) from Irish caves (Carden et al. in prep.). The faunal record of Irish caves has formed the

backbone of current understanding of ancient climate change, palaeoenvironments, and

animal migration and evolution in ancient Ireland, and has contributed greatly to European

reconstructions of both Pleistocene and Holocene ecosystems, as well as to the place of

human beings within those ecosystems (Mitchell 1941; Savage 1966; Fairley 1975; Stuart

1977; Wilson 1984; Stuart and Wijngaarden-Bakker 1985; Preece et al. 1986; O’Floinn 1992;

Coxon 1993; Woodman et al. 1997; Yalden 1999). Caves also form a significant component

of our understanding of the archaeological record of Holocene Ireland, being sites of both

short-term habitation and of burial practices in many periods (e.g. Dowd 2002; 2009).

Animal bones are part of this record as well, and can inform on human-animal interactions,

socio-economic systems, and the place of animals in ancient human cultures.

Animal bones in Irish caves have either been brought into the caves by biotic processes

involving a predator, or through abiotic processes (e.g. flooding events). In the majority of

Irish limestone caves, due to the permeability of the bedrock, groundwater and rainfall

levels, and characteristics of the surrounding landscapes, repeated influxes of water through

localised flooding events can bring many deposits, including bones and artefacts, into the

caves, and can lead to substantial reworking of previous deposits. Therefore, the

stratigraphy within these cave systems is not straightforward, and needs to be examined

with an eye to understanding post-depositional processes. For example, directly-dated

remains could represent either in situ material, in which case dates might also represent the

age of the sediments in which they are found, or intrusive or mixed deposits which are

younger or older than the soft sediments in which they are found. The latter was noted by

Scharff et al. (1906) during excavations of caves in Co. Clare, and has been further explored

by Simms (1994). As Woodman et al. (1997) cautioned, the practice of dating the

sedimentary stratigraphy in Irish caves by the presence of an identified species (such as red

deer representing the Holocene) is not sufficient to validate the age of the soft sediments

themselves. In Ireland, approaches to palaeoenvironment have relied greatly on direct

5

dating of animal bones, to develop a stratigraphy of species presence and absence, which

has resulted in a strong model of animal movement to the landmass over time (Woodman

et al. 1997). While the soft sediments also have potential for environmental reconstruction

and the study of human use-of-space, appropriate geomorphological and sedimentological

research has yet to be carried out on extant sediment sequences (Lewis 2008).

Nevertheless, this study forms an early stage in the assessment of the contextual integrity of

bone and other assemblages from Irish caves, focused in this case on the identification and

context of animal bones from a few previously-excavated caves, in relation to the original

excavation records held in the National Museum of Ireland.

Many Irish caves were excavated during the late 19th/early 20th centuries AD and produced

large collections of animal bones, which were subsequently identified post-excavation and

influenced contemporary histories of the vertebrate fauna of Ireland. From the 1850s to the

mid-1930s, at least 34 of the cave sites in Ireland, mainly situated in limestone areas, were

extensively explored and excavated to some degree (see Coleman 1965 for further details).

Of these 34, at least 11 have evidence of human remains and/or cultural use in conjunction

with the presence of animal remains; only five cave sites did not yield any animal or human

remains (Coleman 1965). These excavations were led or conducted by the leading scholars

and experts at that time (e.g. Adams 1876; Plunkett 1879; Ussher 1881; Scharff et al. 1906).

It is estimated that more than 300,000 fragments of vertebrate bones and artefacts were

recovered from these cave sites. The majority of these collections are held by the National

Museum of Ireland in the Antiquities (human remains and associated artefacts) and Natural

History (faunal remains excluding humans) divisions.

Aims, procedures and limitations of this study

This study intended to critically re-examine the vertebrate assemblages held by the National

Museum of Ireland, Natural History Division (NMINH), from three separate cave sites:

Kilgreany Cave (Waterford), the Kesh Corran complex (Sligo) and the Edenvale complex

(Clare). Reassessment of the material was originally proposed to be carried out in

conjunction with environmental analyses of cave sediments; the cave sites chosen were

identified based on a previous pilot study exploring the extent of preservation of sediments

in excavated relict (‘dry’) archaeological cave sites (Lewis 2008), and on recent

investigations of Kilgreany Cave (Dowd 2002). The funding granted was not sufficient to

carry out this entire study, and only one cohesive part of it was undertaken at this time: the

preliminary assessment of the faunal remains (vertebrate and invertebrate) held in the

National Museum of Ireland. The faunal analytical aspect of the study aimed to explore

assemblages for any bones misidentified to other species (from both wild and/or

domesticated animals), and to assess the potential for reconstruction of contextual

information for the bone assemblages based on the excavation notebooks. The implications

of potential misidentification and subsequent misinterpretations of the material from these

6

early excavations have led some researchers to adopt a sceptical approach to using the

original species lists of remains from Irish caves in general (see Wilkinson et al. 2006;

O’Regan et al. 2008). In addition, the modified proposal included separating and cataloguing

any molluscan or other invertebrate remains for specialist investigation, and generally listing

any other types of environmental remains held in each cave archive for future study.

The proposal as revised due to funding constraints had budgeted for the time involved for

sorting, identifying and analysing the museum collections from the three cave complexes;

however, these assemblages proved to be randomly arranged, mixed and frequently

unidentified in the NMINH collections. Therefore the original proposed work was suitably

adjusted. Of the three cave complexes, the sorting and identification of all bone fragments

from the Edenvale complex was initiated first. About midway after commencement of this,

it became clear that there was insufficient time to re-examine the assemblages from all

three major cave complexes due to the number of bone fragments not only within the

Edenvale collection, but also in the other two major collections. It was estimated that the

Kilgreany Cave and Kesh Corran complex assemblages include well in excess of 10,000

vertebrate bone fragments. Discussions were held with the Museum Geological curator (M.

Parkes), and it was deemed preferable that each cave complex should be worked through in

sufficient detail to provide a substantial catalogue at the end. As such, work on the Edenvale

cave complex assemblage continued, while Kilgreany and Kesh await future investigation.

The assemblages held at the Museum are of a much greater volume than anticipated, and a

great number of identifiable bone fragments had seen no significant investigation to date

(e.g. not even identified to type), meaning that the scope of this study had to be

substantially revised.

11,710 bones and other remains from the Edenvale complex were sorted, analysed and

catalogued. This represents approximately 17% of the total excavated assemblage. Despite

devoting all of the allocated work-time on the project to this collection, an estimated 6,000

to 8,000 animal bone fragments remain unsorted and unidentified to a minimal taxonomic

level. We provide below a general overview of these assemblages, which should be

considered to be a work in progress at this time, as the full assemblages have not been

completely sorted, identified and catalogued. As such, this report provides a catalogue of

the sorted and identified vertebrate bone material from the Edenvale cave complex, some

preliminary general interpretative observations, and recommendations on the importance

of these data and on their continued assessment and interpretation. Details of sorting,

identification and interpretative methods are presented below. The full catalogue, in

accordance to NMINH format, will be deposited with NMI and the UCD School of

Archaeology.

The vertebrate bones held within the Natural History Division of NMI from the Edenvale

cave complex were originally stored in three separate buildings, the off-site stores, firstly

located on Fenian Street, Dublin (pre 1990) then from there to the Beggars Bush stores on

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Haddington Road, Dublin 4 and in cabinets on the uppermost balcony in the Natural History

Museum, Merrion Street, Dublin 2 (since the 1920s). All material from Merrion Street was

suitably packed and transferred to the off-site stores at Beggars Bush, subject to suitable

standard quarantine procedures (invertebrate pest control/management), to be reunited

with the rest of the assemblage. The stored remains had been housed in a variety of

cardboard boxes and plastic bags that were seriously degraded. Suitable handling

procedures of these boxes were adopted from the start and no damage was incurred during

the transfer of this collection. Upon examination of the collections, it was seen that the

remains from all of the four caves examined were mixed together to varying degrees from

box to box. Therefore, before each bone fragment could be identified, the bone remains

had to be sorted to individual cave site. Subsequent to this, the remains were then sorted

per bone element and then identified where possible to a minimal taxonomic level.

The use of comparative osteological collections of complete animal skeletons can greatly

benefit studies involving identification of bone fragments, improving the overall level and

accuracy of taxonomic identification, and providing additional support in the detection of

subspecies or species previously unidentified due to the availability, or lack thereof, of

reference material. In addition to the extensive use of the personal osteological collection of

the first author, specific reference skeletons were borrowed from the National Museum of

Scotland, Edinburgh for this study. Further reference material was derived from the

osteological collection held by the Natural History Division (NMI).

In addition to these skeletal reference sets, published literature such as bone atlases (e.g.

Schmid 1972; Hillson 1992; Cohen and Serjeantson 1996; NABO 2002) and papers (e.g.

Boessneck 1969; O’Connor 2007; Monchot and Gendron 2009; Zeder and Lapham 2010),

and other sources (e.g. Carden unpub. data), outlining anatomical morphological differences

were used to aid in the separation of morphologically similar species, such as sheep/goat,

fox/dog (small breeds), rabbit/hare, red deer/reindeer, arctic fox/red fox, domestic cat/wild

cat, although separation traits of these species more often than not rely on size differences.

These bone size characteristics are problematic when dealing with differences between

development stages and male/female traits, where males are often larger than females

within the same species.

For each identified animal bone fragment, the following information was recorded where

possible: cave code and number, taxon, the type of bone element, left or right, whole or

partial, the state of the bone fusion (after Carden and Hayden 2006), evidence of carnivore

(e.g. Plate 1) and rodent scavenging and gnawing (e.g. Plate 2), evidence of human agency

(worked, burned, or marks associated with butchery practices), the condition of the bone,

evidence of bone arthropathies, estimated age or developmental stage and other

noteworthy observations. Evidence of butchery marks included short, thin cut marks (e.g.

Plate 3) and very even breaks or slices through (chopping of) the bone shafts (e.g. Plate 4).

The number of identified specimens (NISP) by anatomical element and species was recorded

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for each cave within the complex. The NISP is a fundamental unit by which faunal remains

are recorded and comprises all bone fragments that have been identified to some level of

taxa. A list of the vernacular and species names is provided in Appendix I; the vernacular

names are used in the main body of text below.

Plate 1. Carnivore damage (canine tooth puncture marks) on an immature partial femur

(proximal) of Hare sp.

Plate 2. Severe rodent damage (parallel teeth marks) on the shaft of partial tibia bone of

Hare sp.

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Plate 3. Butchery cut-marks (a series of parallel marks) on distal tibia portion of pig/wild

boar.

Plate 4. Butchery chop-marks (straight edged slice through bone shaft) of distal tibia bone of

pig/wild boar.

The Edenvale cave complex: the nature of the archive

The Edenvale cave complex, County Clare, comprises four limestone cave sites situated a

couple of square kilometres apart from one another, surrounded by two lake systems

(Edenvale caves – Edenvale Lake; Newhall caves – Ballybeg Lough):

(1) Craigmore Cave or Barntick Cave, Newhall townland

(2) Elderbush Cave and Bat’s Cave, Newhall townland

(3) Alice and Gwendoline Cave, Edenvale townland

(4) The Catacombs or Boat Cave, Edenvale townland

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A series of excavations of the Edenvale cave complex were conducted from 1902 to 1904, by

teams lead by RJ Ussher (see Scharff et al. 1906). The excavators found mixing between the

various cave strata and animal bone remains therein, whereby the bones of domestic

animals were mixed with those of extinct or older animals. Scharff et al. (ibid.) concluded

that the cave sediments had been subjected to bioturbation by the activities of badgers.

Disarticulated human bones, archaeological artefacts and a variety of faunal species were

found in the Edenvale cave complex excavations.

As part of ‘The Irish Quaternary Fauna Project’, Woodman et al. (1997) radiocarbon dated

six bones from six faunal species from the Edenvale cave complex: horse (Bat’s Cave, 2nd

stratum), reindeer (The Catacombs, upper stratum), giant deer (The Catacombs, 1st

stratum), Arctic lemming (Alice and Gwendoline Cave, upper and lower stratum), red deer

(Bat’s Cave, 1st Stratum) and wolf (Elderbush Cave, base of 1st stratum). These dates

provided a succinct archaeological time frame for this cave complex, although the dating

programme was not extensive in terms of numbers of different faunal species, dates ranged

from approximately 11,700 to 1,600 yr. B.P. Within these caves, numerous artefacts and

disarticulated human skeletons have been seen to range from prehistoric times to at least

the Early Medieval period (Woodman et al. 1997; Dowd 2009). Elderbush Cave contains

intact sediments of potential for future palaeoenvironmental study, contextual analyses,

radiometric dating and isotope analysis (uranium series), although in comparison to the

excavation records the extant deposits do not appear to have been ‘fossil-bearing’ (Lewis

2008).

Scharff et al.’s (1906) report on the Edenvale caves states that more than 50,000 bone

fragments were recovered from Alice and Gwendoline Cave and the Catacombs, and a

further 20,000 bone fragments found from excavations at Craigmore, Elderbush and Bat’s

Caves. These were sent to the National Museum of Ireland, along with numerous geological

specimens and archaeological artefacts. Our investigation of the archives shows in excess of

16,000 vertebrate bone fragments from these caves to be held in the Natural History

Division of the National Museum of Ireland. A further unknown number of human remains

and associated artefacts are held in the Antiquities Division (a current five-year

documentation programme is currently underway in NMI on all collections). A subset of

animal bone fragments (although the cave and number code are recorded in archived

records, the type of bone and total numbers are unknown) from the Edenvale caves was

sent to the Liverpool Museum and to University College Cork in June 1907 by the NMI.

Therefore, there is the possibility, which only will be ascertained after full examination of

this assemblage, that the location of a large number of excavated bone fragments may be

unaccounted for. One plausible scenario is that bones were discarded due to limited

museum storage space available at that time, as noted by Woodman et al. (1997).

Scharff et al. (1906) describe the general procedures adopted for all recovered artefacts and

vertebrate remains during the original excavations of the four caves in the Edenvale cave

11

complex (1902-1904). Every two feet of earth from the mouth of each cave inwards were

collected and transferred to a numbered bag, subsequently examined for any remains and

artefacts before the ‘dirt’ was thrown out. All of the strata were treated similarly. Scharff et

al. (ibid.) subsequently state that every recovered specimen was numbered as per the

position it was found in the cave (vertically and horizontally). However, to date, a

corresponding detailed map or grid matrix that allows translation of these numbered

specimens to their respective positions in the caves has not been located, but it has been

possible to at least group remains on the basis of the numbering system. The codes assigned

to each of the cave sites within the Edenvale complex by the original excavators are adopted

in this report as well as in the NMI catalogue produced by this project, and are as follows:

• C.B. – Craigmore cave (or Barntick cave)

• N.H. – Elderbush cave and Bat’s cave

• E.A. – Alice and Gwendoline cave

• E.C. – The Catacombs (or Boat cave)

During the course of this study, a small number of animal remains were identified amongst

the Edenvale boxes from yet another cave in Co. Clare, Glencurran Cave (denoted here by

G.B.). This cave is situated in the Tullycommon townland on the eastern side of the Burren

National Park and the human presence within this cave has been subjected to various

studies, recent examination and excavation (see Dowd 2009 for further details). The finds

from this cave are summarised below, although the main archive for it has not been

assessed.

Summary of findings

A total of 11,710 vertebrate bone fragments examined from the five caves of the Edenvale

cave complex were initially sorted into two broad categories, unidentifiable and identifiable

to a minimal taxonomic level. Of this total number, approximately 2200 bone fragments

were sorted into the identifiable category from the N.H. caves but await identification. Of

the total number of sorted bones, in excess of 500 were identified as birds (Class Aves;

awaiting identification to a minimal taxonomic level). Due to fragmentation and erosion,

only 4,327 (or 37%) of the total number could be identified to a minimal taxon (Family group

and Genus, if not to Species levels). The total number of amphibians identified was 19 bone

fragments, some of these remains were encased in encrusted sediments along with insect

(beetles) remains (e.g. Plate 5), whereas the identified mammals were represented by 4,308

bone fragments.

In terms of the gross numbers of identified animal bone remains (excluding birds) per cave

site: 1,928 (with a dry bone weight of 14.91kg) were identified in N.H., followed by 1,026

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(5.45kg) in E.C., 702 (2.43kg) in E.A., 665 (2.05kg) in C.B. and finally 6 in G.B. The full

catalogue for each cave is presented in Appendix II.

Plate 5a, b. Remains of frog bones and insect (beetle) remains encrusted in sediment. The

second image is detailed portion of the top image.

(i) Craigmore cave (or Barntick cave), Edenvale, Co. Clare (C.B.)

Eighteen taxonomic groups were identified from the 665 sorted animal bone fragments

from this cave. In all cases, the smaller, more compact bones such as the astragalus,

calcaneus, phalanges, sacrum and teeth were whole (n = 270), whereas the remaining bones

13

were found in varying fragmented states. A further 1,875 animal bone fragments were

unidentifiable due to degree of fragmentation and erosion or poor preservation of the bone.

A summary of the identified bone fragments per species is presented in Tables 1 and 2.

Only eight (1.2%) of the 665 bones from this cave were identified as amphibian, represented

by seven frog bones and one possible toad bone (much larger in overall dimensions than the

comparative reference common frog skeletons). A large humerus was preliminary identified

as possible belonging to a toad species; it was on average much larger in overall dimensions

than the frog sp. comparative material. Other than overall gross size of the bones, there are

little anatomical/morphological characteristics that distinguish between toad and frog

bones. Scharff et al. (1906) found frog remains abundantly in the Edenvale caves and these

remains are were found in both the upper and lower strata in Craigmore cave. Whether

these amphibian remains represent recent intrusions or antiquity requires further

investigation; molecular phylogeographic studies based on extant genetic diversity and

sequences throughout their respective biogeographic ranges on the histories of both these

species in Ireland are indicating a recolonisation event of Ireland just after c. 11,000 yrs BP

and localised presence thereafter (Rowe et al. 2006; Teacher et al. 2009).

A tibia was identified as that of belonging to a rat, but it was not apparent which species this

bone was from (black or brown rat). Rat was not recorded by Scharff et al. (1906) in their

report. This rat tibia appeared very fresh or recent (light brown colour) and therefore may

represent an intrusion of brown rat remains pre-excavation.

Damage by various carnivore species as indicated by presence of tooth pits and associated

marks were found on 121 (or 18.2%) of the identified bones from Craigmore cave. Rodent

gnawing damage was evident on just six (0.9%) bones. Possible evidence of human activity

14

Table 1. Frequency (NISP) of the identified main bone fragments from Craigmore cave (or

Barntick cave) from the main taxa identified and the respective bone weights of these

groups. The use of ‘?’ indicates a possible identification to the relevant

genus/species/taxonomic group. 1Dog/Wolf and Dog/Fox groups were combined into the

Canid sp. group; 2Red fox and Fox sp. were combined into Fox sp. group.

Taxa

Number of

identified

bones

Weight (g)

Frog 7 0.5

? Toad 1 0.07

Mouse sp. 1 0.2

Rat sp. 1 0.03

Sheep / Goat 12 36.4

Sheep 9 54.7

Cat sp. 5 4.6

1

Canid sp. 13 17.21

Hedgehog 2 1.7

Hare sp. / Rabbit 78 20.6

Hare sp. 220 266.5

Rabbit 141 83.8

Horse 4 218.8

2

Fox sp. 72 168.1

Badger 39 246.1

Red deer 4 197

Pig / Wild boar 13 103.5

Cattle 31 451.4

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Table 2. Frequency (NISP) of the identified main bone fragments by anatomical element and main taxa identified in Craigmore cave (or

Barntick cave. The use of ‘?’ indicates a possible identification to the relevant genus/species/taxonomic group. 1Dog/Wolf and Dog/Fox groups

were combined into the Canid sp. group; 2Red fox and Fox sp. were combined into Fox sp. group.

Horncore

/ Antler

Skull Mandible

& Teeth

Atlas Axis Scapula Humerus Radius Ulna Meta-

carpal

Pelvis Femur Tibia Astragalus Calcaneus Meta-

tarsal

Phalanges

Frog - - - - - - 1 2 2 - - 1 - - - - -

?Toad - - - - - - 1 - - - - - 3 - - - -

Mouse sp. - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 - - - -

Rat sp. - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 - - - -

Sheep / Goat - - 4 - - - - 1 - - - 1 - - - - 1

Sheep 1 - - - - - - - - 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 -

Cat sp. - - 5 - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

1

Canid sp. - 1 3 - - 2 - 1 - - - 1 1 - - 1 1

Hedgehog - - 1 - - - 2 - - - - - 1 - - - -

Hare sp. / Rabbit - 3 19 - 1 2 - 1 2 - 1 10 4 - 8 1 5

Hare sp.

-

3

18

1

-

5

9

15

11

13

11

14

29

8

17

47

11

Rabbit - 1 11 - 2 3 11 5 6 1 11 9 16 1 9 38 3

Horse - - - - - - - - 1 - - 1 - 1 - - -

2

Fox sp. - 3 6 2 2 4 3 6 5 8 4 6 3 - 3 23 2

Badger

-

5

11

-

2

10

-

4

-

2

-

1

-

Red deer ?1 - 1 - - - - - 1 - - - - 1 - 1 -

Pig / Wild boar - 3 7 - - - - - - 1 - - 1 1 - - -

Cattle - - 21 - - - 1 2 - - - - 1 1 1 - 4

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as indicated by butchery marks (cut, chop marks and burning/scorching) occurred in 31

(4.7%) of the identified bones, predominantly those identified as hare sp. (n=25). Bone

arthropathies were recorded from four bones (0.6%).

(ii) Elderbush cave and Bat’s cave, Newhall, Co. Clare (N.H.)

A total of 1,928 bones were identified to 23 levels of taxa of the sorted identifiable animal

bone remains, of which just under 50% (n=938) of the remains examined were whole, intact

smaller foot and leg bones (e.g. astragalus, metacarpals/tarsals, calcaneus), other compact

bones (e.g. sacrum) and various teeth. The summarised frequencies (NISP) of these

identified remains are presented in Tables 3 and 4. The remaining bones were in varying

fragmented states. Some 3,427 bone fragments were unidentifiable to any minimal

taxonomic level. A further c. 2,000 bones were sorted and identifiable to a minimal taxon

level, however due to time/budget constraints these still await identification.

A portion of a clay pipe (N.H.118, Plates 6a, 6b) and a worked bone artefact (N.H.107, Plates

7a, 7b) were discovered during sorting of one box labelled “Junk, Miscellaneous, Co Clare

caves”. These will be deposited with NMI Antiquities Division.

Damage by various carnivore species as indicated by presence of tooth pits and associated

marks were found on 364 (or 19%) of the identified bones from the Newhall caves. Rodent

gnawing damage was evident on 69 (3.6%) bones. Possible evidence of human activity as

indicated by butchery marks (cut, chop marks and burning/scorching) was evident in 99

(5.1%) of the identified bones, predominantly those identified as hare sp. but also bones of

red deer, bear, cattle, dog/wolf and badger. Bone arthropathies were recorded from 17

bones (0.9%).

Plate 6a. Portion of a clay pipe (N.H.118), Elderbush cave and Bat’s cave, Newhall, Co. Clare.

17

Plate 6b. Portion of a clay pipe (N.H.118), Elderbush cave and Bat’s cave, Newhall, Co. Clare.

Plate 7a. Worked bone artefact (N.H.107), Elderbush cave and Bat’s cave, Newhall, Co.

Clare.

18

Plate 7b. Worked bone artefact (N.H.107), Elderbush cave and Bat’s cave, Newhall, Co.

Clare.

19

Table 3. Frequency (NISP) of the identified main bone fragments from Elderbush cave and

Bat’s cave from the main taxa identified and the respective bone weights of these groups.

The use of ‘?’ indicates a possible identification to the relevant genus/species/taxonomic

group. 1Dog/Wolf and Dog/Fox groups were combined into the Canid sp. group; 2Red fox

and Fox sp. were combined into Fox sp. group.

Taxa

Number of

identified

bones

Weight (g)

Frog 10 3

Pine marten 1 1.60

Lemming sp. 1 0.30

Rat sp. 1 0.30

Sheep / Goat 69, ?1 321.50

Sheep 8 42.90

Cat sp. 17 19.10

1

Canid sp. 142 311.20

Otter 5 5.80

Hare sp. / Rabbit 41 24

Hare sp. 411 1296.20

Rabbit 270 245.90

Horse 8 362.20

2

Fox sp. 89 170

Badger 241 2045.46

Red deer 66 2269.20

Pig / Wild boar 340, ?1 3542

Cattle 110 2304.03

?Bear sp. 1 133.80

Bear sp. 42 1353.30

Giant deer 3 376.70

Reindeer 2 8

Ungulate sp. 33 246.10

20

Table 4. Frequency (NISP) of the identified main bone fragments by anatomical element and main taxa identified from the Elderbush and Bat’s

Caves. The use of ‘?’ indicates a possible identification to the relevant genus/species/taxonomic group. 1Dog/Wolf and Dog/Fox groups were

combined into the Canid sp. group; 2Red fox and Fox sp. were combined into Fox sp. group.

Horncore

/ Antler

Skull Mandible

& Teeth

Atlas Axis Scapula Humerus Radius Ulna Meta-

carpal

Pelvis Femur Tibia Astragalus Calcaneus Meta-

tarsal

Phalanges

Frog - - - - - - 1 - - - - - 9 - - - -

Pine marten - - - - - - - - - - - 1 - - - - -

Lemming sp. - - 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Rat sp. - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 - - - -

Sheep / Goat 2 5 46 1 - 5 ?1 1 2 2 - - 1 2 - 1 2

Sheep - - - 1 1 - 1 - - - - - - 3 - - 1

Cat sp. - - - - - - 3 - 1 4 - - - - 1 9 -

1

Canid sp. - - 38 5 - 3 3 1 1 46 1 4 - 1 1 18 18

Otter - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 4 -

Hare sp. / Rabbit - - 23 - - 15 - - 1 - - 5 3 - - 4 4

Hare sp.

-

14

-

11

35

38

13

6

44

52

81

3

20

70

16

Rabbit - 9 10 3 - - 29 20 14 3 33 14 25 - 10 56 19

Horse - - 3 - - - - - - 2 - - - 1 - - -

2

Fox sp. - - 1 2 1 4 - 3 1 20 11 3 1 - 1 38 3

Badger

-

13

72

3

1

9

34

20

19

7

18

16

1

3

2

-

Red deer 5, ?2 - 12 - - 4 3 - - 5, ?1 - 1 5 8 1 - 21

Pig / Wild boar - 28 147 2 2 9 11, ?1 6 5 24 2 5 8 9 15 20 47

Cattle 1 2 39 - 1 1 3 - - 1 - 3 - 7 6 1 43

?Bear sp. - - - - - - - 1 - - - - - - - - -

Bear sp. - 1 11 - - 2 - - 2 7 2 - - - - 3 7

Giant deer - - - - - - - - - - 1 - - - - - 2

Reindeer - - 2 - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Ungulate sp. 1 - 19 - - - 1 - - - - - - 5 5 - 5

21

(iii) Alice and Gwendoline cave, Edenvale, Co. Clare (E.A.)

Fourteen taxa were identified from a total of 702 bones of the sorted identifiable animal

bone remains, of which 76% (n=536) were generally whole, intact smaller foot and leg

bones (e.g. the tarsals and the phalanges) and various teeth. The summarised frequencies

(NISP) of these identified remains are presented in Tables 5 and 6. The remaining bones

were in varying fragmented states. A further 169 (1,422g) bone fragments were

unidentifiable to any minimal taxonomic level.

Damage by various carnivore species as indicated by presence of tooth pits and associated

marks were found on 111 (or 16%) of the identified bones from the Newhall caves. Rodent

gnawing damage was evident on 63 (8.8%) bones. Possible evidence of human activity as

indicated by butchery marks (cut, chop marks and burning/scorching) was evident in just 31

(4.4%) of the 702 identified bones, predominantly those identified as hare sp. but also on

bones of fox sp. and bear sp.. Bone arthropathies were recorded from just six bones (0.8%).

A single bear sp. phalange II bone (all sutures were fused) (E.A.162) had a very unusual

smooth surface which appeared to be ‘polished’.

22

Table 5. Frequency (NISP) of the identified main bone fragments from the Alice and

Gwendoline caves from the main taxa identified and the respective bone weights of these

groups. The use of ‘?’ indicates a possible identification to the relevant

genus/species/taxonomic group. 1Dog/Wolf and Dog/Fox groups were combined into the

Canid sp. group; 2Red fox and Fox sp. were combined into Fox sp. group.

Taxa

Number of

identified

bones

Weight (g)

Frog Undet. (1+) 2.9

Pine marten 4 1.1

Lemming sp. 2 0.2

Cat sp. 8 4.5

1

Canid sp. 145 292.6

Dog 29 31.5

Hare sp. 176 300.1

Rabbit 75 9.6

Horse 15 378.6

2

Fox sp. 177 376.3

Badger 13 51.9

Pig / Wild boar 8 56.3

Cattle 1 32.07

?Bear sp. 2 309.1

Bear sp. 19 572

23

Table 6. Frequency (NISP) of the identified main bone fragments by anatomical element and main taxa identified from the Alice and

Gwendoline caves. The use of ‘?’ indicates a possible identification to the relevant genus/species/taxonomic group. 1Dog/Wolf and Dog/Fox

groups were combined into the Canid sp. group; 2Red fox and Fox sp. were combined into Fox sp. group. *The frog bones were encased in

earth and thus could not be identified to bone element without destroying the sample, there was a minimum of one bone present.

Horncore

/ Antler

Skull Mandible

& Teeth

Atlas Axis Scapula Humerus Radius Ulna Meta-

carpal

Pelvis Femur Tibia Astragalus Calcaneus Meta-

tarsal

Phalanges

Frog*

-

Pine marten - - 1 - - - - - - - - - - 1 - 2 -

Lemming sp.

-

2

-

Cat sp. - 1 4, ?2 - - 1 - - - - - - - - - - -

1

Canid sp. - - 41 - - - - - - 35 - - 1 - 1 30 39

Dog - - 2 - - - - - - 2 - - - 1 - 3 40

Hare sp.

-

2

6

-

3

4

11

5

2

14

10

14

1

32

46

20

Rabbit - 1 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - 4 71

Horse - - 9 - - - - 1 - 1 - - - - - 1 3

2

Fox sp. - 7 44 2 1 3 7 10 7 4 1 4. ?1 11 2 3 37 29

Badger - - 2 - - - 1 - 1 - - 1 1 - - 5 2

Pig / Wild boar - - 3 - - - - - 1 - - - - - - - 4

Cattle - - - - - - - 1 - - - - - - - - -

?Bear sp. - - - - - 2 - - - - - - - - - - -

Bear sp. - - 1 - - - - - - 3 - - - - - 1 4

24

(iv) The Catacombs (or Boat cave), Edenvale, Co. Clare (E.C.)

A total of 1,026 bones were identified to 17 levels of taxa, of which just over half (51.6%,

n=529) of the remains examined were generally whole, intact limb bones and smaller leg

bones along with various teeth from hare sp., rabbit, bear sp., fox sp., badger, sheep/goat,

red deer and stoat. The summarised frequencies (NISP) of these identified remains are

presented in Tables 7 and 8. The remaining bones were in varying fragmented states. A

further 293 (3,528g) bone fragments were unidentifiable to any minimal taxonomic level.

A distal portion of a human scapula was found (E.C.49) in a box labelled 'junk,

miscellaneous, unidentified'. This bone was independently verified by Linda Fibiger of

Cardiff University (human osteologist) from digital images (2010, pers. comm.). The

measurement of the scapular glenoid fossa (38mm; >37mm) indicates that the scapula

belongs to a male, after Bass (1995) (Carden 2010, pers. obs.).

A single fragment of a radius was identified as that of an otter. Scharff et al. (1906) did not

document the presence of otter bones in the Catacombs.

Damage by various carnivore species as indicated by presence of tooth pits and associated

marks were found on 299 (or 29.1%) of the identified bones from the Catacombs. Rodent

gnawing damage was evident on 50 (4.9%) bones. Possible evidence of human activity as

indicated by butchery marks (cut, chop marks and burning/scorching) was evident in 162

(16%) of the 1,026 identified bones, predominantly those identified as hare sp., fox sp., bear

sp., badger, cat and deer. Bone arthropathies were recorded from 23 bones examined

(2.2%).

25

Table 7. Frequency (NISP) of the identified main bone fragments from The Catacombs (or

Boat cave) from the main taxa identified and the respective bone weights of these groups.

The use of ‘?’ indicates a possible identification to the relevant genus/species/taxonomic

group. 1Dog/Wolf and Dog/Fox groups were combined into the Canid sp. group; 2Red fox

and Fox sp. were combined into Fox sp. group.

Taxa

Number of

identified

bones

Weight (g)

Cat sp. 26, ?2 44.3

1

Canid sp. 5 35.1

Dog 3 6.2

2

Fox sp. 351, ?1 1751.6

Hare sp. 288 769

Rabbit 27 5.9

Rabbit / Hare 1 0.2

Sheep / Goat 8 33.2

Horse 7 31.2

Pig / Wild boar 8 293.7

Cattle 5, ?1 80.2

Badger 249, ?3 1758.2

Bear sp. 25 507.6

Otter 1 3.28

Stoat 4 1.6

Red deer 5 86.7

Deer sp. 4 43

26

Table 8. Frequency (NISP) of the identified main bone fragments by anatomical element and main taxa identified from The Catacombs (or Boat

cave). The use of ‘?’ indicates a possible identification to the relevant genus/species/taxonomic group. 1Dog/Wolf and Dog/Fox groups were

combined into the Canid sp. group; 2Red fox and Fox sp. were combined into Fox sp. group.

Horncore

/ Antler

Skull Mandible

& Teeth

Atlas Axis Scapula Humerus Radius Ulna Meta-

carpal

Pelvis Femur Tibia Astragalus Calcaneus Meta-

tarsal

Phalanges

Cat sp. - - 8, ?2 2 1 2 - - - - 2 - 3 - 2 5 1

1

Canid sp. - - 1 - - - - - - - - - 1 - - 1 -

Dog - - 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2

2

Fox sp. - 20 38 4 4 11 32 26 28 10 16 42, ?1 40 5 62 9

Hare sp. - 4 14 1 - 9 26 19 12 - 41 34 42 1 19 43 7

Rabbit - - - - 1 - - - - 25 - - - - - - 1

Rabbit / Hare - - 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Sheep / Goat - - 2 1 - 2 - - 1 - - - - - 1 - -

Horse - - - - - - - - - 1 - 1 1 - - - 5

Pig / Wild boar - - 2 - - - 2 1 - - 1 - - - - - 1

Cattle

-

2

-

1

-

1

Badger - 9 50, ?3 8 2 6 24 23 25 - 10 19 16 1 3 38 -

Bear sp. - 5 4 - 1 - - 1 - 5 - - - - - 4 5

Otter - - - - - - - 1 - - - - - - - - -

Stoat

-

1

-

1

-

Red deer - - 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3

Deer sp. - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3 - - -

27

(v) Glencurran cave, Tullycommon, Co. Clare (G.B.)

Of all of the animal bone fragments sorted and identified, just six bones and teeth were

identified to three taxa from this cave: fox sp. (n=3, atlas, radius and metatarsal), horse (n=2

teeth) and hare sp. (n=1, calcaneus). Three displayed evidence of carnivore damage; no

other damage (rodent, arthropathies or human-inflicted marks/burns) was evident.

Preliminary conclusions

Although not all of the Edenvale cave complex bone assemblage was sorted and identified

within this study, a diverse number of species (24 taxa) of wild and domesticated species

were represented in those bones studied. Not all of these identified taxa can be

categorically classified as Late Pleistocene/Holocene fauna in light of either their position in

the excavated cave strata, of which further knowledge is required, or based on the

colouration of the bones. Generally with cave faunal remains, the darker and blacker the

bone the deeper into the sediment it is found (or recesses of the cave) the older the bone,

although no dates can be assigned on this basis. These generalities cannot, however, be

assumed for the Irish cave sediments and the faunal remains contained therein, and degree

of alteration over time/depth would need to be demonstrated on a cave-by-cave basis.

Since this would require contextual information that remains to be reconstructed for most

early Irish cave excavations, bone colouration will be disregarded at the present time.

Scharff et al. (1906) recorded abundant giant deer remains from the upper strata (surface

layer) of the Catacombs cave, relative to the lower strata and also noted mixing between

strata within each cave. During excavation, it was recorded that there were numerous and

very abundant remains of badgers, hares, foxes and rabbits in these caves. Badgers and

rabbits do disturb soils and sediments due to their burrowing behaviour, digging out tunnels

and burrows. These activities may have introduced recent faunal remains into lower strata,

including small mammal species such as rodents (mouse, rat), fox, rabbit, hare, badger,

stoat, otter and so on. However, recent molecular data indicate distinct genetic lineages and

suggestions of an ancient providence for the hare, stoat, otter and woodmouse in Ireland

(Hamill et al. 2006; Hughes et al. 2006; Martínková et al. 2007; Finnegan and Ó Néill 2010),

so it cannot be assumed that these remains represent more recent intrusions.

Reindeer, as indicated by the radiocarbon C14 dated remains from Irish cave sites (Woodman

et al. 1995), became extirpated around 10,500 yrs BP, similar to the localised extinction of

the giant deer. To date, there have been no reindeer or giant deer remains found in

archaeological deposits post-dating Holocene settlement of Ireland by humans (c. 9,000 yrs

BP) and no wild reindeer exist in the modern Irish landscape. Thus both reindeer and giant

deer can be considered as representatives of Late Pleistocene Irish fauna, and remains of

these were found in Elderbush and Bat’s caves, along with a species of bear (all bones

28

examined in this study were very similar morphologically to those of the brown bear) and a

lemming that has been previously identified as Arctic lemming. The majority of the lemming

bones were found in the upper strata of three of the caves (E.C., E.A., N.H.) (Scharff et al.

1906), again reinforcing the premise that the location within the cave sediments cannot be

used to provide chronological dating of these faunal remains.

The lemming, reindeer, red deer, giant deer, wolf, stoat and hare are considered cold

tolerant species. From Woodman et al.’s (1995) study, of these aforementioned cold-

tolerant species, only the bear appeared to survive (and/or re-colonised) through the Late

Pleistocene/Early Holocene transition, and is dated to c. 9,000 yr. B.P. There are probably

numerous inter-correlated biological, environmental and climatic factors as to why there

was a restricted suite of fauna during the early Holocene in Ireland, and further

investigations are warranted. All other species (wild and domesticates) represented in the

assemblage were introduced to and subsequently colonised Ireland during the Holocene

through anthropogenically-mediated or natural events. Until such time the full assemblage

is examined and analysed in conjunction with palaeoenvironmental data and the strata from

which they were excavated, we cannot extrapolate further on these preliminary

observations.

Butchery and animal exploitation

There is evidence of human use of various animal parts of many species as indicated by cut

marks and presence of burned/scorched bones in all four caves studied. These patterns

were also noted by Scharff et al. (1906). Rodent gnawing damage on the bones noted during

sorting and identification, however, was not recorded by Scharff et al. (ibid.) in their report,

therefore this damage could have occurred in various long term storage facilities since their

original excavation.

The NISP data would appear to suggest some bias towards the bones of the hind limbs

rather than those of the forelimbs, and towards certain species, however these

observations are preliminary and such data should be viewed with caution since the whole

assemblage has not been fully analysed. Once the full assemblage has been sorted and

identified, the human artefacts/worked bone examined and any missing quantities of bone

related to the animal exploitation pattern (re. species and bone elements) should be further

explored and critically examined and assessed in relation to other sites within Ireland and

abroad, in a similar vein to reassessments of large bone assemblages from archaeological

sites such as Star Carr (e.g. Legge and Rowley-Conwy 1988) and the city of Lincoln (Dobney

et al. 1996), both in England.

29

Bone arthropathies

The presence of bone arthropathies on the examined bones was very low; osteomyelitis

(infection of the bone) and arthritic related manifestations such as enurbation associated

with arthritic joints were recorded.

Mis-identifications of skeletal remains

Due to the nature of the bone assemblage, the unknown quantities of possible absent

material from the NMI collections, and the shortcomings of the archived records and

notebooks, it was impossible to determine which bone fragments (as per cave

code/number) were previously identified to a level of taxa. Scharff et al. (1906) did specify

some particular bone fragments from red deer in particular along with their designated cave

code and number, which allowed a few direct comparisons with the identifications made

during this study (see Table 9). As is evident in the table, there are distinct differences

between the identifications. Such misidentifications are seen to recur throughout the Irish

cave bone assemblages held in NMI. For example, red deer skeletal remains previously

identified from the Shandon Cave assemblage (Adams 1876) have since been identified as

reindeer and horse (Ruth Carden, pers. obs. 2010). In light of these observations, further

reassessment and re-examination of bone assemblages excavated in previous centuries

from cave sites are greatly warranted and justified.

Table 9. Comparisons between identifications by Scharff et al. (1906) and this study from

bone fragments excavated from Elderbush and Bat’s caves.

From Scharff et al. (1906) This study

N.H.77 Antler fragment – d

istinct deer

species other than red deer or

reindeer, an Indian deer species

Shed antler, partial – red deer

N.H.78 Antler fragment – d

istinct deer

species other than red deer or

reindeer, an Indian deer species

Shed antler, partial – red deer

N.H.207 Partial mandible – d

istinctly different

to red deer and other deer species

Mandible, partial with erupting

molar 1 and deciduous premolar 4

– red deer, calf or yearling

N.H.115 Premolar – red deer Premolar – reindeer

N.H.129 Premolar – red deer Premolar - reindeer

30

Final remarks

Zooarchaeology is an interdisciplinary field studying past animal populations and ecology,

and their interactions with people, through the skeletal remains of animals and other traces

in the archaeological record. We can gain valuable insight and understanding of the

behavioural ecology of humans and animals. An interdisciplinary study of both human and

animal remains from cave sites is required, as both are concomitant within the Irish

landscape during at least the last 9,000 years. The remarkable potential of cave sites and

their respective excavated assemblages and artefacts, held by the National Museum of

Ireland, can address questions of Late Pleistocene and Holocene (c. 28,000 yr BP to Recent)

climate and environment, biodiversity, human activities within caves (e.g. see Dowd 2002,

2009), people’s engagement with the landscape they inhabit as foragers and farmers, and

the nature of the transition from foraging to farming.

The study of past human settlements and use of the Irish landscape and the environment is

concomitant with the study of animal remains. Humans use and hunt what is readily

available from the environment, and animals interact with ecosystems and different species;

therefore by critically examining all of the cave sites and their human-animal assemblages

simultaneously, we can begin to form a complete picture of the complex patterns of animal

and human settlement, biodiversity and colonisation of our island in conjunction with

environmental and climatic changes during the past 10,000 years.

The assessment of cave assemblages with an aim to also reconstruct contextual

information, where possible, greatly augments our understanding of the potential and

limitations of interpretations based upon these collections from early excavations. With

further study it will be possible to assess the integrity of these important archives and to

produce recommendations for future work to augment our understanding of Irish and

northwest European palaeoenvironments and cultural history from relict Irish cave sites.

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Appendix I

List of animal species found in the Edenvale cave complex.

Horse, Equus sp.

Dog, Canis familiaris

Wolf, Canis lupus

Cat, Felis silvestris

Sheep, Ovis aries

Goat, Capra hircus

Pig / Wild boar, Sus sp.

Cattle, Bos sp.

Rabbit, Oryctolagus cuniculus

Mouse sp., Mus sp. / Apodemus sylvaticus (Woodmouse)

Rat sp., Rattus sp.

Red deer, Cervus elaphus

Reindeer, Rangifer tarandus

Giant deer, Megaloceros giganteus

Badger, Meles meles

Fox sp., Vulpes sp.

Hare sp., Lepus sp.

Stoat, Mustela erminea

Otter, Lutra lutra

Pine marten, Martes martes

Frog sp., Rana sp.

Toad sp., Bufo sp.

Lemming sp., Lemmus sp. / Dicrostonyx torquatus (Arctic Lemming)

Bear sp., Ursus sp.

35

Appendix II

Preliminary catalogue of each of the identified animal fragments from the Edenvale cave

complex bone assemblages: Craigmore cave (or Barntick Cave), C.B.; Elderbush cave and

Bat’s cave, N.H.; Alice and Gwendoline cave, E.A.; The Catacombs (or Boat cave), E.C.

Cave

code

Bone element

L / R

Whole / Partial

Bone fusion

state

Vernacular

C.B.1

skull

partial

ventral foramen magnum

? Red fox

C.B.1

tooth

R

partial

maxilla, c1

Badger

C.B.1

ulna

L

partial

proximal

fused

Badger

C.B.1

tooth

whole

molar

Cow

C.B.1

calcaneus

L

whole

all fused

Hare sp.

C.B.1

tibia

L

partial

proximal

fused

Hare sp.

C.B.1

tibia

L

partial

n/a

Pig / Wild boar

C.B.1

humerus

R

partial

distal

distal fused

Red deer

C.B.1

skull

R

partial

dorsal posterior

Red fox

C.B.1

tooth

R

whole

mandible c1

Badger

C.B.2

tooth

whole

mandible molar

Bos sp.

C.B.2

tooth

whole

mandible molar

Bos sp.

C.B.2

radius

L

partial

proximal

fused

Hare sp.

C.B.2

radius

L

whole

all fused

Hare sp.

C.B.2

ulna

L

partial

proximal

fused

Hare sp.

C.B.2

femur

L

partial

all fused

Hare sp.

C.B.2

femur

L

partial

proximal

fused

Hare sp.

C.B.2

mandible

R

partial

no teeth in situ

Pig / Wild boar

C.B.2

mandible

R

partial

4 teeth in situ

Rabbit / Hare sp.

C.B.2

tibia

partial (distal)

F

Hare sp.

C.B.2

humerus

R

partial

n/a

Hare sp.

C.B.2

astragalus

L

whole

Red deer

C.B.3

calcaneus

R

whole

fused

Badger

C.B.3

ulna

L

partial

distal

distal fused

Badger

C.B.3

ulna

L

partial

n/a

Badger

C.B.3

spur

BIRD

C.B.3

tooth

whole

premolar

Bos sp.

C.B.3

tooth

partial

decid incisor

Bos sp.

C.B.3

phalange I

R

partial

prox open, distal

fusing

Bos sp.

C.B.3

phalange II

R

partial

all fused

Bos sp.

C.B.3

mandible

R

partial

no teeth in situ

Cat sp.

C.B.3

tooth

whole

canine

Cat sp.

C.B.3

tooth

whole

premolar

Cow

C.B.3

tooth

whole

molar

Cow

C.B.3

tooth

whole

molar

Cow

C.B.3

tooth

whole

molar

Cow

C.B.3

tooth

whole

molar

Cow

C.B.3

tooth

L

whole

canine

Fox sp.

C.B.3

mandible

L

partial

Fox sp.

C.B.3

mandible

partial (coronoid & articulation)

Fox sp.

C.B.3

humerus

L

partial

distal

distal fused

Fox sp.

36

C.B.3

humerus

partial

proximal

prox open

Fox sp.

C.B.3

radius

R

partial

proximal

fused

Fox sp.

C.B.3

radius

R

partial

proximal

fused

Fox sp.

C.B.3

calcaneus

R

partial

fused

Fox sp.

C.B.3

femur

L

partial

proximal

fused

Fox sp.

C.B.3

femur

L

partial

distal

fused

Fox sp.

C.B.3

sacrum

partial

distal

fusing

Fox sp.

C.B.3

atlas

whole

Fox sp.

C.B.3

metacarpal

R

whole

all fused

Fox sp.

C.B.3

metacarpal

R

whole

all fused

Fox sp.

C.B.3

metacarpal

L

whole

all fused

Fox sp.

C.B.3

tarsal

whole

all fused

Fox sp.

C.B.3

metacarpal

whole

all fused

Fox sp.

C.B.3

metatarsal

L

whole

all fused

Fox sp.

C.B.3

metatarsal

whole

all fused

Fox sp.

C.B.3

metatarsal

whole

all fused

Fox sp.

C.B.3

metatarsal

whole

all fused

Fox sp.

C.B.3

tooth

L

whole

premolar, mandible

Fox sp.

C.B.3

tooth

R

whole

premolar, mandible

Fox sp.

C.B.3

tooth

L

whole

canine

Fox sp. / Dog

C.B.3

tibia

L

partial (proximal)

O

Hare sp.

C.B.3

skull fragment

partial

Hare sp.

C.B.3

metatarsal

partial (proximal)

F

Hare sp.

C.B.3

metatarsal

partial (proximal)

F

Hare sp.

C.B.3

metatarsal

partial (proximal)

F

Hare sp.

C.B.3

metatarsal

L

whole

all fused

Hare sp.

C.B.3

metatarsal

whole

all fused

Hare sp.

C.B.3

metatarsal

L

whole

all fused

Hare sp.

C.B.3

metatarsal

R

partial

prox fused, distal

open

Hare sp.

C.B.3

metatarsal

L

whole

all fused

Hare sp.

C.B.3

phalange I

whole

all fused

Hare sp.

C.B.3

phalange I

whole

all fused

Hare sp.

C.B.3

phalange I

whole

all fused

Hare sp.

C.B.3

phalange I

whole

all fused

Hare sp.

C.B.3

mandible

R

partial

molars in situ

Hare sp.

C.B.3

tooth

whole

mandible molar

Hare sp.

C.B.3

tooth

whole

maxilla, incisor

Hare sp.

C.B.3

scapula

L

partial

distal

fused

Hare sp.

C.B.3

calcaneus

R

whole

all fused

Hare sp.

C.B.3

calcaneus

R

whole

all fused

Hare sp.

C.B.3

calcaneus

R

whole

all open

Hare sp.

C.B.3

femur

R

partial

all open

Hare sp.

C.B.3

astragalus

R

whole

Hare sp.

C.B.3

astragalus

R

whole

Hare sp.

C.B.3

astragalus

R

whole

Hare sp.

C.B.3

metatarsal small

bone

R

whole

Hare sp.

C.B.3

metatarsal small

bone

R

whole

Hare sp.

C.B.3

humerus

L

partial

all fused

Hare sp.

C.B.3

metatarsal

partial

prox fused, distal

open

Hare sp.

C.B.3

metatarsal

whole

all fused

Hare sp.

C.B.3

metacarpal

L

whole

all fused

Hare sp.

C.B.3

metacarpal

L

partial

distal

distal fused

Hare sp.

37

C.B.3

femur

R

partial

shaft

n/a

medium-size mammal

C.B.3

skull

L

partial

maxilla fragment; pm2, pm3, pm4 in situ

Pig / Wild boar

C.B.3

pelvis (os ilium)

partial

O

Rabbit

C.B.3

scapula

L

partial

distal

F

Rabbit

C.B.3

metatarsal

R

whole

all fused

Rabbit

C.B.3

metatarsal

R

whole

all fused

Rabbit

C.B.3

metatarsal

L

whole

all fused

Rabbit

C.B.3

metatarsal

R

partial

partially broken

proximally

all fused

Rabbit

C.B.3

metatarsal

R

whole

prox fused, distal

open

Rabbit

C.B.3

metacarpal

L

whole

all fused

Rabbit

C.B.3

metatarsal

L

whole

prox fused, distal

open

Rabbit

C.B.3

tooth

partial

mandible incisor

Rabbit

C.B.3

axis

whole

Rabbit

C.B.3

lumbar vertebra

partial

Rabbit

C.B.3

lumbar vertebra

partial

Rabbit

C.B.3

thoracic vertebra

partial

Rabbit

C.B.3

cervical vertebra

whole

Rabbit

C.B.3

cervical vertebra

whole

Rabbit

C.B.3

scapula

L

partial

distal

fused

Rabbit

C.B.3

ulna

L

partial

proximal

open

Rabbit

C.B.3

humerus

R

partial

all open

Rabbit

C.B.3

humerus

R

partial

all open

Rabbit

C.B.3

humerus

R

partial

all open

Rabbit

C.B.3

humerus

L

partial

all open

Rabbit

C.B.3

humerus

L

partial

all open

Rabbit

C.B.3

radius

L

partial

proximal

fused

Rabbit

C.B.3

calcaneus

R

whole

all fused

Rabbit

C.B.3

tibia

R

partial

all open

Rabbit

C.B.3

tibia

R

partial

all open

Rabbit

C.B.3

tibia

R

partial

all open

Rabbit

C.B.3

tibia

L

partial

all open

Rabbit

C.B.3

tibia

L

partial

all open

Rabbit

C.B.3

tibia

L

partial

all open

Rabbit

C.B.3

metatarsal small

bone

L

whole

Rabbit

C.B.3

metatarsal small

bone

L

whole

Rabbit

C.B.3

tooth

whole

incisor

Rabbit

C.B.3

femur

R

whole

O

Rabbit / Hare

C.B.3

radius

L

partial (proximal and shaft)

F

Rabbit / Hare

C.B.3

mandible

L

partial

3 teeth in situ

Rabbit / Hare sp.

C.B.3

mandible

R

partial

4 teeth in situ

Rabbit / Hare sp.

C.B.3

mandible

R

partial

3 teeth in situ

Rabbit / Hare sp.

C.B.3

mandible

L

partial

4 teeth in situ

Rabbit / Hare sp.

C.B.3

mandible

L

partial

4 teeth in situ

Rabbit / Hare sp.

C.B.3

mandible

R

partial

4 teeth in situ

Rabbit / Hare sp.

C.B.3

mandible

R

partial

3 teeth in situ

Rabbit / Hare sp.

C.B.3

mandible

R

partial

4 teeth in situ

Rabbit / Hare sp.

C.B.3

scapula

L

whole

distal

open

Rabbit / Hare sp.

C.B.3

calcaneus

L

whole

all open

Rabbit / Hare sp.

C.B.3

calcaneus

L

whole

all open

Rabbit / Hare sp.

C.B.3

calcaneus

L

whole

all open

Rabbit / Hare sp.

C.B.3

pelvis

R

partial

acet - open

Rabbit / Hare sp.

38

C.B.3

femur

L

partial

all open

Rabbit / Hare sp.

C.B.3

femur

R

partial

all open

Rabbit / Hare sp.

C.B.3

femur

R

partial

all open

Rabbit / Hare sp.

C.B.3

pelvis (os ilium)

anterior, ventral

F

Sheep

C.B.3

metatarsal

partial (proximal)

F

Sheep

C.B.3

horncore

partial

Sheep

C.B.3

cuboid

whole

Sheep / Goat

C.B.3

mandible

partial (Pm4, M1, M2 in situ)

Sheep / Goat

C.B.3

tooth

whole

premolar/molar

Sheep / Goat

C.B.3

tooth

whole

molar

Sheep / Goat

C.B.3

scapula

partial

distal

wolf/dog/fox

C.B.3

femur

partial (distal epiphysis)

O

wolf/dog/fox

C.B.3

metapodia

C.B.3

metapodia

C.B.3

metapodia

C.B.3

tibia

R

partial

distal

fused

Hare sp.

C.B.5

pelvis

L

partial

acet - fusing

Badger

C.B.5

mandible

L

partial

no teeth in situ

Badger

C.B.5

astragalus

R

whole

Bos sp.

C.B.5

tooth

partial

molar

Bos sp.

C.B.5

calcaneus

R

partial

fused

Bos sp.

C.B.5

tooth

whole

premolar

Cat sp.

C.B.5

mandible

R

partial

M1, PM3,4 in situ

Cat sp.

C.B.5

tooth

whole

incisor

Cow

C.B.5

tooth

whole

incisor

Cow

C.B.5

radius

L

partial

proximal

fused

Dog

C.B.5

tooth

R

whole

molar1, mandible

Dog / Wolf

C.B.5

tooth

R

whole

molar1, mandible

Dog / Wolf

C.B.5

tooth

L

whole

molar1, mandible

Dog / Wolf

C.B.5

mandible

R

partial

Fox sp.

C.B.5

tarsal

partial

distal

distal fused

Fox sp.

C.B.5

phalange I

whole

prox fusing, distal

fused

Fox sp.

C.B.5

metacarpal

(McIV)

L

partial (proximal and shaft)

F

Fox sp.

C.B.5

ulna

L

partial

proximal

prox fused

Fox sp.

C.B.5

radius

R

partial

distal

fused

Fox sp.

C.B.5

femur

L

partial

shaft

all open

Fox sp.

C.B.5

Axis

partial

Fox sp.

C.B.5

Axis

partial

Fox sp.

C.B.5

metatarsal

R

whole

proximal

fused

Fox sp.

C.B.5

metatarsal

R

whole

all fused

Fox sp.

C.B.5

tarsal

whole

all fused

Fox sp.

C.B.5

tarsal

whole

all fused

Fox sp.

C.B.5

metacarpal

whole

all fused

Fox sp.

C.B.5

tooth

R

whole

canine

Fox sp. / Dog

C.B.5

tooth

R

whole

canine

Fox sp. / Dog

C.B.5

tibia & fibula

partial

all open

Frog sp.

C.B.5

mandible

L

partial

1 molar in situ

Hare sp .

C.B.5

humerus

L

partial

distal

F

Hare sp.

C.B.5

radius

R

partial (distal and shaft)

n/a

Hare sp.

C.B.5

metatarsal

partial (proximal)

F

Hare sp.

C.B.5

metatarsal

R

whole

all fused

Hare sp.

C.B.5

tarsal

whole

all fused

Hare sp.

39

C.B.5

tarsal

partial

distal

distal fused

Hare sp.

C.B.5

metatarsal

R

whole

all fused

Hare sp.

C.B.5

metatarsal

R

partial

prox fused, distal

open

Hare sp.

C.B.5

metatarsal

L

whole

all fused

Hare sp.

C.B.5

metatarsal

L

partial

proximal

prox fused

Hare sp.

C.B.5

metatarsal

L

whole

all fused

Hare sp.

C.B.5

metatarsal

L

whole

all fused

Hare sp.

C.B.5

metatarsal

L

partial

proximal

prox fused

Hare sp.

C.B.5

phalange I

whole

all fused

Hare sp.

C.B.5

phalange I

whole

all fused

Hare sp.

C.B.5

phalange I

whole

all fused

Hare sp.

C.B.5

phalange I

whole

all fused

Hare sp.

C.B.5

phalange I

whole

all fused

Hare sp.

C.B.5

pelvis

R

partial

acet - fused

Hare sp.

C.B.5

tooth

whole

incisor, mandible

Hare sp.

C.B.5

mandible

L

partial

molars in situ

Hare sp.

C.B.5

tooth

whole

mandible molar

Hare sp.

C.B.5

tooth

L

whole

maxillar incisor

Hare sp.

C.B.5

scapula

R

partial

distal

fused

Hare sp.

C.B.5

ulna

L

partial

proximal

fused

Hare sp.

C.B.5

humerus

R

partial

distal

fused

Hare sp.

C.B.5

humerus

R

partial

distal

fused

Hare sp.

C.B.5

radius

R

partial

shaft

Hare sp.

C.B.5

radius

R

partial

n/a

Hare sp.

C.B.5

calcaneus

R

whole

all fused

Hare sp.

C.B.5

calcaneus

R

partial

all open

Hare sp.

C.B.5

calcaneus

R

whole

prox open, distal

fused

Hare sp.

C.B.5

calcaneus

L

whole

all fused

Hare sp.

C.B.5

femur

L

partial

distal

fused

Hare sp.

C.B.5

metacarpal

L

whole

all fused

Hare sp.

C.B.5

astragalus

L

whole

Hare sp.

C.B.5

astragalus

L

whole

Hare sp.

C.B.5

metatarsal small

bone

R

whole

Hare sp.

C.B.5

tibia & fibula

R

whole

all fused

Hare sp.

C.B.5

metatarsal

whole

all fused

Hare sp.

C.B.5

metatarsal

whole

all fused

Hare sp.

C.B.5

metatarsal

partial

proximal

prox fused

Hare sp.

C.B.5

metatarsal

whole

all fused

Hare sp.

C.B.5

metatarsal

whole

all fused

Hare sp.

C.B.5

metatarsal

partial

prox fused, distal

open

Hare sp.

C.B.5

metacarpal

L

whole

all fused

Hare sp.

C.B.5

metacarpal

L

whole

all fused

Hare sp.

C.B.5

metacarpal

L

whole

all fused

Hare sp.

C.B.5

humerus

L

partial

all open

Hedgehog

C.B.5

tooth

partial

canine

Pig / Wild boar

C.B.5

skull

L

partial

maxilla m1, m2 erupting

Pig / Wild boar

C.B.5

tibia

partial (proximal)

F

Rabbit

C.B.5

radius

partial (distal and shaft)

F

Rabbit

C.B.5

ulna

partial (proximal)

n/a

Rabbit

C.B.5

tarsal

whole

all fused

Rabbit

C.B.5

tarsal

whole

all fused

Rabbit

C.B.5

tarsal

whole

all fused

Rabbit

40

C.B.5

tarsal

whole

all fused

Rabbit

C.B.5

tarsal

whole

all fused

Rabbit

C.B.5

tarsal

whole

all fused

Rabbit

C.B.5

tarsal

whole

all fused

Rabbit

C.B.5

tarsal

whole

all fused

Rabbit

C.B.5

metatarsal

L

whole

all fused

Rabbit

C.B.5

metatarsal

L

whole

all fused

Rabbit

C.B.5

metatarsal

L

whole

all fused

Rabbit

C.B.5

metatarsal

L

partial

partially broken

proximally

all fused

Rabbit

C.B.5

metatarsal

L

whole

all fused

Rabbit

C.B.5

metatarsal

R

whole

all fused

Rabbit

C.B.5

metatarsal

R

whole

all fused

Rabbit

C.B.5

metatarsal

R

whole

all fused

Rabbit

C.B.5

metatarsal

L

whole

prox fused, distal

open

Rabbit

C.B.5

Phalange II

whole

all fused

Rabbit

C.B.5

phalange I

whole

all fused

Rabbit

C.B.5

sacrum

whole

Rabbit

C.B.5

pelvis

L

partial

acet - fused

Rabbit

C.B.5

mandible

R

partial

molars in situ

Rabbit

C.B.5

scapula

R

partial

distal

fused

Rabbit

C.B.5

humerus

R

partial

all open

Rabbit

C.B.5

humerus

L

partial

all open

Rabbit

C.B.5

calcaneus

R

whole

all fused

Rabbit

C.B.5

calcaneus

L

whole

all fused

Rabbit

C.B.5

calcaneus

L

whole

all fused

Rabbit

C.B.5

calcaneus

L

whole

all fused

Rabbit

C.B.5

tibia

L

partial

distal

fused

Rabbit

C.B.5

tibia

L

partial

distal

fused

Rabbit

C.B.5

tibia

R

partial

distal

fused

Rabbit

C.B.5

tibia

L

partial

all open

Rabbit

C.B.5

femur

L

partial

proximal

open

Rabbit

C.B.5

mandible

L

partial

3 teeth in situ

Rabbit / Hare sp.

C.B.5

mandible

R

partial

5 teeth in situ

Rabbit / Hare sp.

C.B.5

mandible

R

partial

4 teeth in situ

Rabbit / Hare sp.

C.B.5

mandible

R

partial

2 teeth in situ

Rabbit / Hare sp.

C.B.5

mandible

R

partial

1 tooth in situ

Rabbit / Hare sp.

C.B.5

skull

R

partial

maxilla & 3 teeth

Rabbit / Hare sp.

C.B.5

skull

partial

maxilla & 5 teeth

Rabbit / Hare sp.

C.B.5

scapula

R

whole

open

Rabbit / Hare sp.

C.B.5

ulna

L

partial

all open

Rabbit / Hare sp.

C.B.5

calcaneus

R

whole

all open

Rabbit / Hare sp.

C.B.5

calcaneus

L

whole

all open

Rabbit / Hare sp.

C.B.5

calcaneus

L

partial

proximal

open

Rabbit / Hare sp.

C.B.5

calcaneus

L

whole

all open

Rabbit / Hare sp.

C.B.5

tibia

R

partial

distal

open

Rabbit / Hare sp.

C.B.5

tibia

R

partial

proximal

open

Rabbit / Hare sp.

C.B.5

femur

L

partial

all open

Rabbit / Hare sp.

C.B.5

femur

R

partial

all open

Rabbit / Hare sp.

C.B.5

femur

R

partial

all open

Rabbit / Hare sp.

C.B.5

Phalange II

whole

all fused

Rabbit / Hare sp.

C.B.5

tibia & fibula

L

partial

prox open, distal

fused

Rat sp.

C.B.5

tooth

whole

canine

Red deer

41

C.B.5

calcaneus

L

whole

O-prox head

Sheep

C.B.5

femur

R

partial (distal)

F

Sheep

C.B.5

femur

L

partial (shaft)

O

Sheep / Goat

C.B.5

cuboid

whole

Sheep / Goat

C.B.5

cuboid

whole

Sheep / Goat

C.B.5

cuboid

whole

Sheep / Goat

C.B.5

metapodia

C.B.5

phalange I

R

whole

all fused

Bos sp.

C.B.5

astragalus

R

whole

Pig / Wild boar

C.B.6

scapula

L

partial

distal

fused

Badger

C.B.6

tooth

partial

maxilla molar

Bos sp.

C.B.6

skull

partial

maxilla, m1, c1 erupting

Canid sp.

C.B.6

mandible

L

whole

M1, PM3,4 in situ

Cat sp.

C.B.6

Phalange II

whole

F

Dog/Wolf

C.B.6

sacrum

partial

distal

fusing

Fox sp.

C.B.6

metacarpal

L

partial

prox fused, distal

open

Fox sp.

C.B.6

femur

n/a

partial (distal)

F

Hare / Rabbit

C.B.6

mandible

partial (and 2 teeth)

Hare / Rabbit

C.B.6

femur

n/a

partial (distal epiphysis)

O

hare / rabbit /

wolf/dog/fox

C.B.6

mandible

R

partial

molar1, 2 in situ

Hare sp .

C.B.6

radius

R

partial

distal

F

Hare sp.

C.B.6

scapula

L

partial

distal

F

Hare sp.

C.B.6

metatarsal

R

partial

proximal

prox fused

Hare sp.

C.B.6

metatarsal

R

whole

all fused

Hare sp.

C.B.6

metatarsal

L

whole

all fused

Hare sp.

C.B.6

sacrum

partial

all fused

Hare sp.

C.B.6

pelvis

L

partial

acet - fused

Hare sp.

C.B.6

pelvis

L

partial

acet - fused

Hare sp.

C.B.6

tooth

whole

molar

Hare sp.

C.B.6

ulna

R

partial

proximal

open

Hare sp.

C.B.6

ulna

R

partial

proximal

fused

Hare sp.

C.B.6

radius

L

partial

all open

Hare sp.

C.B.6

radius

L

partial

proximal

open

Hare sp.

C.B.6

radius

L

partial

distal

fused

Hare sp.

C.B.6

calcaneus

L

partial

all fused

Hare sp.

C.B.6

tibia

L

partial

shaft

n/a

Hare sp.

C.B.6

femur

R

partial

proximal

fused

Hare sp.

C.B.6

metatarsal small

bone

L

whole

Hare sp.

C.B.6

metacarpal

L

whole

all fused

Hare sp.

C.B.6

metatarsal

whole

all fused

Hare sp.

C.B.6

metatarsal

whole

all fused

Hare sp.

C.B.6

pelvis (os ilium)

partial

F

Rabbit

C.B.6

pelvis (os ilium)

partial

O

Rabbit

C.B.6

metatarsal

R

whole

prox fused, distal

open

Rabbit

C.B.6

metatarsal

L

whole

prox fused, distal

open

Rabbit

C.B.6

metatarsal

L

whole

prox fused, distal

open

Rabbit

C.B.6

metatarsal

L

whole

all fused

Rabbit

C.B.6

sacrum

whole

all fused

Rabbit

C.B.6

mandible

L

partial

molars in situ

Rabbit

42

C.B.6

mandible

R

partial

molars in situ

Rabbit

C.B.6

skull

partial

near orbit

open

Rabbit

C.B.6

lumbar vertebra

partial

Rabbit

C.B.6

radius

L

partial

proximal

fused

Rabbit

C.B.6

calcaneus

L

whole

all fused

Rabbit

C.B.6

tibia

L

partial

distal

fused

Rabbit

C.B.6

femur

R

partial

proximal

fused

Rabbit

C.B.6

femur

R

partial

proximal shaft

n/a

Rabbit

C.B.6

femur

R

partial

distal

fused

Rabbit

C.B.6

calcaneus

R

whole

all fused

Rabbit / Hare sp.

C.B.6

tibia

R

partial

proximal

open

Rabbit / Hare sp.

C.B.6

tibia

partial (distal)

F

Sheep

C.B.6

cuboid

whole

Sheep / Goat

C.B.6

mandible & teeth

partial

Ungulate

C.B.6

mandible & teeth

partial

Ungulate

C.B.6

skull fragment

partial with initial horncore

O

Ungulate -

goat/sheep/cow

C.B.6

ulna

R

whole

all fused

Hare sp.

C.B.7

antler

partial (coronet)

? Red deer

C.B.7

humerus

R

partial

prox open, distal

fused

? Toad sp.

C.B.7

ulna

L

partial

proximal

open

Badger

C.B.7

humerus

partial (proximal)

Bird sp.

C.B.7

tooth

partial

decid incisor

Bos sp.

C.B.7

tooth

whole

incisor

Canid

C.B.7

tooth

whole

incisor

Cow

C.B.7

tooth

whole

incisor

Cow

C.B.7

tooth

whole

incisor

Cow

C.B.7

humerus

R

partial

all open

Fox sp.

C.B.7

calcaneus

L

partial

Fox sp.

C.B.7

calcaneus

R

whole

fused

Fox sp.

C.B.7

metacarpal

whole

all fused

Fox sp.

C.B.7

Phalange II

whole

all fused

Fox sp.

C.B.7

tibia & fibula

partial

all open

Frog sp.

C.B.7

radius & ulna

partial

all fused

Frog sp.

C.B.7

humerus

L

partial

prox open, distal

fused

Frog sp.

C.B.7

femur

partial

all open

Frog sp.

C.B.7

tibia & fibula

partial

n/a

Frog sp.

C.B.7

radius & ulna

partial

all open

Frog sp.

C.B.7

femur

L

partial (proximal epiphysis)

O

Hare / Rabbit

C.B.7

Axis

nearly complete

Hare / Rabbit

C.B.7

mandible

L

partial

all molars in situ

Hare sp .

C.B.7

mandible

R

partial

molars in situ

Hare sp .

C.B.7

mandible

R

partial

2 molars & canine in situ

Hare sp .

C.B.7

mandible

L

partial

all molars in situ

Hare sp .

C.B.7

mandible

L

partial

molars in situ

Hare sp .

C.B.7

tibia

partial (distal and shaft)

F

Hare sp.

C.B.7

tibia

partial (distal)

n/a

Hare sp.

C.B.7

skull fragment

partial (near foramen magnum)

O

Hare sp.

C.B.7

metatarsal

partial (proximal)

F

Hare sp.

C.B.7

metatarsal

L

whole

all fused

Hare sp.

C.B.7

metatarsal

whole

all fused

Hare sp.

C.B.7

tarsal

partial

distal

distal fused

Hare sp.

43

C.B.7

metatarsal

L

whole

all fused

Hare sp.

C.B.7

metatarsal

L

whole

all fused

Hare sp.

C.B.7

phalange I

whole

all fused

Hare sp.

C.B.7

tooth

whole

incisor, mandible

Hare sp.

C.B.7

skull

partial

ear bulla

Hare sp.

C.B.7

atlas

partial

Hare sp.

C.B.7

ulna

L

partial

proximal