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Neuroscience of the Quiet Eye in Golf Putting

August 2012
International Journal of Golf Science 1(1)

DOI:10.1123/ijgs.1.1.2

Authors:

The University of Calgary

Over 50 refereed publications have been published on the quiet eye (QE, Vickers, 1996) in a wide range of motor tasks. Mean quiet eye duration in the golf putt is longer for highly skilled golfers (handicap less than 4), averaging 2.5–3.0 s, compared with 1.0–1.5 s for those with lower skill levels. A long duration QE not only helps organize and sustain the neural networks underlying the organization and control of the putt, but also may insulate the golfer from the normally debilitat-ing effects of distracting thoughts, high arousal and high pressure. Research from neuroscience using electroencephalograph (EEG) and imaging are beginning to identify the neural structures underlying QE focus of attention. QE training in the golf putt has proven to be effective and has been shown to increase performance under high pressure. Golf putting requires precise control of physical actions and vision is essential in providing the information the movement systems needs to perform at a high level. Vision and focus of attention play a critically important role as the ability to direct the gaze (i.e., the eyes, the head, and the body) to optimal areas of the golf environ-ment at the appropriate time is one characteristic of elite putting performance. One variable that has been consistently found to discriminate elite performers from their near-elite and novice counterparts is the quiet eye. In this paper the quiet eye is defined and the neural pathways of the visual-motor system are explained. Follow-ing there is a presentation of the results of recent neural imaging studies conducted during long duration movements which show increased activation of a frontal area that is central to both focus of visual attention and precise motor control. Following this, there is an explanation how QE training not only improves the performance of novice golfers, but also is of assistance to elite golfers in improving their accuracy during competition. The quiet eye (QE) is a perceptual-motor variable applicable to a wide range of motor skills (for review see Mann, Williams, Ward & Janelle, 2007; Vickers, 2007). The QE is defined as the final fixation or tracking gaze located on a specific location or object in the visuo-motor workspace within 3° of visual angle (or less) for more than 100 ms (Vickers, 1996; Vickers, 2007). The QE onset occurs before Articles

Mean Quiet Eye Duration of Low and Handicap Golfers as Found in Selected Studies.

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International Journal of Golf Science, 2012, 1, 2-9

Vickers is a Professor in the Faculty of Kinesiology University of Calgary, Alberta, Calgary, Canada.

Neuroscience of the Quiet Eye

in Golf Putting

Joan N. Vickers

University of Calgary

Over 50 refereed publications have been published on the quiet eye (QE, Vickers,

1996) in a wide range of motor tasks. Mean quiet eye duration in the golf putt

is longer for highly skilled golfers (handicap less than 4), averaging 2.5–3.0 s,

compared with 1.0–1.5 s for those with lower skill levels. A long duration QE not

only helps organize and sustain the neural networks underlying the organization

and control of the putt, but also may insulate the golfer from the normally debilitat-

ing effects of distracting thoughts, high arousal and high pressure. Research from

neuroscience using electroencephalograph (EEG) and imaging are beginning to

identify the neural structures underlying QE focus of attention. QE training in the

golf putt has proven to be effective and has been shown to increase performance

under high pressure.

Keywords: performance under pressure, vision, attention, brain, quiet eye, focus

Golf putting requires precise control of physical actions and vision is essential

in providing the information the movement systems needs to perform at a high level.

Vision and focus of attention play a critically important role as the ability to direct

the gaze (i.e., the eyes, the head, and the body) to optimal areas of the golf environ-

ment at the appropriate time is one characteristic of elite putting performance. One

variable that has been consistently found to discriminate elite performers from their

near-elite and novice counterparts is the quiet eye. In this paper the quiet eye is

dened and the neural pathways of the visual-motor system are explained. Follow-

ing there is a presentation of the results of recent neural imaging studies conducted

during long duration movements which show increased activation of a frontal area

that is central to both focus of visual attention and precise motor control. Following

this, there is an explanation how QE training not only improves the performance of

novice golfers, but also is of assistance to elite golfers in improving their accuracy

during competition.

The quiet eye (QE) is a perceptual-motor variable applicable to a wide range

of motor skills (for review see Mann, Williams, Ward & Janelle, 2007; Vickers,

2007). The QE is dened as the nal xation or tracking gaze located on a specic

location or object in the visuo-motor workspace within 3° of visual angle (or less)

for more than 100 ms (Vickers, 1996; Vickers, 2007). The QE onset occurs before

Articles

Neuroscience Quiet Eye 3

a nal critical movement in the task and offset when the gaze deviates off the loca-

tion or object by more 100 ms. The onset of the QE in elite athletes occurs earlier

and the duration is longer compared to near-elite or non-elites. It is also earlier and

longer during higher levels of performance (success, fail). The QE in the golf putt

is the nal xation located on the top or back of the ball within 1° of visual angle

for more than 100 ms. The QE onset occurs before the onset of the backswing

and QE offset when the gaze deviates off the top or back of the ball by more than

100 ms. QE research in golf has grown over the years with some of the major stud-

ies shown in Table 1. Across the studies (with one exception), QE duration of low

handicap golfers averaged between 2.0-3.0 seconds compared to 1-1.5 seconds for

high handicap or lower skilled golfers (Vickers, 2007, 1992; Vine & Wilson, 2011;

Vine, Moore & Wilson, 2011; Mann, Coombes, Mousseau, & Janelle, 2011). The

one exception is Van Lier, van der Kamp & Savelsbergh (2010) who found a QE

of 1080 ms that did not differ due to expertise or accuracy. It appears the authors

dened the QE as the nal xation before the ball was contacted, instead of the

nal xation that had an onset prior to the backstroke.

Neural Pathways and Visuo-Motor Control of the Quiet Eye

Humans see with clear acuity when light falls on a small region of the retina called

the fovea. Because of this humans are able to see with full acuity over a relatively

small visual angle of 3° (Coren, Ward, & Enns, 2004). Elite golfers control their

gaze precisely to process critical aspects of the ball, hole, breakpoint and other

locations with full acuity. Researchers who use mobile eye trackers measure the

location of the gaze in space over this small visual angle, with two eye movements,

xations and saccades being of greatest interest. A xation occurs when the gaze is

held stable on an object (ball, club head, part of green, hole or other location) within

3° of visual angle for 100 ms or longer (Carpenter, 1988). The 100 ms threshold is

the minimum amount of time needed to recognize or become aware of a stimulus.

Saccades occur when the eyes move quickly from one xated location to another,

for example when looking from the hole to the ball when putting. During xations

information is processed by the brain, but during saccades it is suppressed.

During the QE visual information is registered rst by the retina, then passes

rapidly through the optic nerve, the lateral geniculate nucleus, and the optic/straite

Table 1 Mean Quiet Eye Duration of Low and Handicap Golfers

as Found in Selected Studies.

Studies Low Handicap High Handicap

Vickers, 1992 2200 ms 900 ms

Vickers & Crews, 2004 2210 ms 1680 ms

VanLier et al., 2009** 1080 ms 1100 ms

Mann et al., 2011** 3300 ms 2900 ms

Vine et al., 2011 2794 ms 1405 ms

Mean QU Duration 2317 1597

** est. 1 s for stroke duration

4 Vickers

radiations to the visual/cortex occipital lobe at the back of the head. Located in

the occipital cortex are visual sensors that begin the processing of registering and

interpreting what the golfer sees, with specic detectors for initial registration (V1),

shape (V2), angles (V3), motion (V3a), color (V4), V5 (motion with direction),

depth and self motion (V6) and depth of stereo motion (V7) (Carter, 2009; Kolb &

Whishaw, 2009; Corbetta, Patel, & Shulman, 2008; Corbetta, & Shulman, 2002).

During a long duration QE the gaze is stable for 2-3 seconds depending on the

distance of the putt; therefore, from the outset of the xation the golfer perceives a

constant and relatively stable stream of information about the ball and its location

relative to the club face and intended target as determined before onset. Extensive

testing of golfers has shown that only highly skilled golfers are consistently able

to hold the QE stable on the ball for about one second before the backswing, one

second during the stroke, and a half second after contact. Instead, for lower skilled

golfers it is more common for the gaze to shift once the stroke begins as indicated

by higher xation rates to more locations (Vickers, 1992; Vickers, 2004) therefore,

the brain registers information from multiple sources using the V1-V7 sensors.

Instead of receiving input about one location re the position of the ball and its

relationship to the intended target as occurs with elite golfers, lower skilled golfers

take more information from many sources and therefore may be unable to maintain

the precise alignment of the club face on the ball that must occur in order for high

levels of putting accuracy to occur (Pelz, 2000).

Role of Dorsal Attention Network (DAN)

and Ventral Attention Networks (VAN)

Once an object is perceived by the visual cortex, visual information moves rapidly

forward in the brain, along two routes (Corbetta, Patel, & Shulman, 2008; Corbetta,

& Shulman, 2002; Milner & Goodale, 1995). The dorsal attention network (DAN)

projects from the occipital lobe to parietal lobe and forward to the frontal lobe in

a journey that goes over the top of your head to the frontal lobe, while the ventral

attention network (VAN) projects forward along the sides of the head through the

temporal lobes to the frontal areas (Corbetta, Patel, & Shulman, 2008; Corbetta,

& Shulman, 2002). The primary function of the DAN is to sustain spatial focus of

attention on one location, thereby blocking out competing stimuli that may intrude

from the VAN system. The VAN includes the hippocampus and amygdala, which

are located on the inside of the temporal lobe on each the side of the head. The hip-

pocampus is responsible for recording memories and the amygdala for emotional

control and regulation. Imagine for example, that a golfer has had a particularly

bad experience. This would be dually registered by the hippocampus and amygdala.

When a long duration QE is maintained on an optimal location a mental buffer

or barrier is created that prevents intruding thoughts or bad experiences arising in

the hippocampus and amygdala from distracting attention and leading to higher

levels of anxiety. Evidence in support of this is provided in studies by Land (2009),

Corbetta, Patel, & Shulman, (2008), and Corbetta, & Shulman, 2002, which show

the VAN network is activated when visual attention switches from one location to

another. We can speculate that when the QE duration is lower the DAN system has

been deactivated and the gateway is opened to potentially harmful memories and

emotions that contribute to higher levels of anxiety and lower levels of performance.

Neuroscience Quiet Eye 5

Evidence in support of this speculation comes from QE studies conducted under

conditions of high pressure and/or anxiety which show that when the QE duration

declines, performance also decreases. This has been shown in table tennis (Wil-

liams, Vickers & Rodrigues, 2002), shooting (Vickers & Williams, 2007; Causer,

Holmes, Smith & Williams, 2011) basketball shooting and golf (Vine, Moore &

Wilson, 2011; Wilson, Vine & Wood, 2009).

Both the DAN and VAN send information to the frontal lobes, where the stroke

is planned, initiated and controlled. Only recently have imaging studies provided

some insight into the role of the frontal areas during long duration movements like

the putt. This is due to the vast majority of EEG and MRI studies concentrating on

the preparation of the stroke and/or the use of tasks that require rapid movements

(such as a key press). In contrast, studies by Swinnen and colleagues have suc-

ceeded in imaging the brain not only before, but during, long duration movements

with time spans similar to the one second found in the putting stroke. Callaert et

al. (2011) have shown that a new dorsal spatial attention frontal area is activated

during long duration movement planning and control, irrespective of which hand

is used, having the eyes open or closed, or whether feedback is available or not.

The dorsal spatial attention frontal area is located in the right inferior, medial and

superior frontal gyrus and activated when spatial information must be continuously

exploited to maintain accurate long duration movements.

Quiet Eye Training

QE training studies are designed to help novices acquire the quiet eye charac-

teristics of experts (Vickers, 2009, 2007). Table 2 provides an overview of some

studies completed to date, in the volleyball serve reception (Adolphe, Vickers &

LaPlante, 1997), basketball free throw (Harle & Vickers, 2001), golf putt (Vickers,

2007; Vine, Moore & Wilson, 2011) and skeet shooting (Causer et al., 2011). Using

this approach, Vine, Moore and Wilson (2011) randomly placed 22 elite golfers

into 2 groups (QE trained; Control) based on their handicaps. Changes in putting

performance and QE duration were determined during a pretest, a posttest under

pressure in the laboratory and a follow-up transfer test of 10 rounds of competi-

tive golf. Although both groups had similar accuracy and QE scores in the pretest,

the QE-trained group was signicantly more accurate and lagged the ball closer

to the hole than the Control group during the pressure test. They also increased

the QE duration by 800 ms while the control group decreased their QE duration

by 400 ms. Over the course of 10 competitive rounds the QE-trained group made

1.9 fewer putts per round (p < .05) compared with their pretest while the Control

group showed no change in their putting statistics.

Neuroplasticity in Golf

The concluding topic now considers the type of neural structures that may change

as a result of QE training. Jancke, Koeneke, Hoppe, Rominger and Hanggi (2009)

scanned 40 golfers using MRI: 10 professional golfers (handicap 0), 10 highly-

skilled golfers (handicap range 1–14); 10 golfers at the intermediate level (handicaps

15 and 36), and 10 individuals with no golf experience. Signicant differences were

found between the two high skilled groups (handicap range 0–14) when compared

with the lower skilled (handicap range 15–36 plus novices). Specically, changes

Table 2 Selected Quiet Eye Training Studies by Sport, Skill Level and Increase in Performance with and

without Quiet Eye Training.

Study Sport & Task Skill Level QE Trained Control

Adolphe et al. 1997 Volleyball Team Canada +7% 0

Harle & Vickers 2001 Basketball Varsity +23% +6%

Ouedjans et al., 2005 Basketball Professional +14% 0%

Vine et al., 2011 Golf Putt Low Handicap -1.9 putts/ round 0/round

Causer et al., 2011 Skeet Shooting Olympic +5% 0%

Vine et al., 2011 Basketball Novices +34% +23%

Neuroscience Quiet Eye 7

occurred primarily in the dorsal premotor and parietal cortex, the area also identied

by Callaert et al. The authors concluded that extensive practice in golf, which is

necessary to achieve a handicap ranging from 0 to 14, leads to signicant changes

in the dorsal spatial attention frontal area. In a follow-up study, Bezzola, Merillat,

Gaser and Jancke (2011) trained novice golfers using 40 hours of golf practice

and play and compared with a control group with no experience in golf. The pre-/

post MRI showed signicant increases in the dorsal spatial attention frontal area

of the trained group that were not present in the control group. In particular there

were changes in the parietal-occipital junction (POJ) which is functionally and

anatomically connected to the visual system. Increases in gray matter in this area

provide an additional clue why a long duration QE is essential to golf success; it

assists and establishes, in a consistent manner, visuospatial attention control that

is associated with enhanced spatial learning and body perception/control. Similar

results have been shown for elite ballet dancers (Hangii, et al 2010).

Recently Wood & Wilson (2012) have established that when athletes receive

QE training this endows them with a higher sense of perceived control and con-

dence. In a study of skilled penalty takers in soccer, not only did the QE trained

group increase their QE duration on locations further from the goalkeeper, but

they also were more accurate to these locations than a control group in both

a laboratory based retention test and a high stress shootout. Perceived control

was determined from a questionnaire developed by the authors based on the work

of Jordet et al. (2006) that assessed perceptions of contingency and competence.

The authors are the rst to show that QE training not only increases QE duration

and performance but also positively alters control beliefs when performing under

high pressure.

In summary, a long duration QE is an objective measure of a golfer’s ability to

detect the critical cues underlying putting success and maintain visual focus under

conditions of high anxiety and pressure. The QE prevents a loss of visual focus

and task relevant attention by providing the information the brain needs to control

the hands and club face as precise contact with the ball is made. In support of this

notion, MRI studies of subjects, including golfers, show increased activation of a

neural area within the dorsal spatial attention frontal network and decreased activa-

tion in ventral temporal areas, areas central to attention switching and emotional

activation. A long duration QE appears to help maintain focus on the task at hand

while at the same time blocking out destructive thoughts known to lead to lower

levels of performance.

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Background: The purpose of this study was to explore the gaze behavior of tennis players with different skill levels when receiving serves through eye movement information. Methods: The skill level was divided into group A (experts, with more than 10 years of playing experience) and group B (novices, with less than 2 years of playing experience). We compared the differences in gaze behavior between groups A and B at the head-shoulder, trunk-hips, arm-hand, leg-foot, racket, ball, and racket-ball contact area seven positions using the Eye-gaze Response Interface Computer Aid (ERICA) device. Data were analyzed using two-way ANOVA. Results: Compared with the novices, the experts have more gaze time in the head–shoulders, rack, and ball when serving forehand (p < 0.01). The experts also have more gaze time on the head–shoulders, trunk–hips, racket, ball, and racket–ball contact area when serving backhand (p < 0.05). Conclusions: Expert athletes have a longer stare time for a specific position, which mainly determines the direction of the ball. Tennis coaches can increase the gaze time for these four positions and improve tennis players’ ability to predict the direction of the ball.

Visual Performance and Sports: A Scoping Review

Article

May 2024

Vision is central to success in nearly all sports, and there is an emerging body of research investigating the links between visual abilities and athletic performance. This preregistered scoping review seeks to clarify the topics of study, methodologies used, populations under investigation, researchers, and disciplines driving this field. Systematic searches of English-language articles were conducted in PubMed and Web of Science, with additional literature identified through bibliographic searches. Six hundred sixty-seven articles published between 1976 and 2023 were identified with 547 empirical studies, 58 review articles, 20 commentaries, and 4 meta-analyses, among others. Among the empirical papers, 411 reported on visual assessments and 98 on vision training interventions. The most represented sports included baseball, soccer, basketball, and cricket, with over 150 articles reporting on professional, elite, or Olympic athletes. This scoping review describes the breadth of this emerging field, identifies its strengths and weaknesses, and provides recommendations for future improvement.

Predictive visual patterns during table tennis forehand rallies

Preprint

May 2024

The purpose of this study was to clarify predictive visual patterns of skilled table tennis players during forehand rallies. Collegiate male table tennis players (n = 7) conducted forehand rallies at a constant tempo (100, 120 and 150 bpm) using a metronome. In each tempo condition, participants performed a total of 30 strokes (three conditions). Gaze fixation time, gaze targets and saccade eye movements were detected by video footage of an eye tracking device. We found that participants gazed at a ball approaching them only 20 % of the total rally time. Participants tended to gaze at the ball when the opponent hit the ball and move their gaze away from the ball after that. Furthermore, saccades were directed toward the opposite side of the court including the opponent after tracking the ball. These findings suggest that focusing on the opponent motion is important for successful forehand table tennis rallies. Taken together, skilled table tennis players are likely to use unique visual patterns for interceptive sports players to estimate spatiotemporal information about the ball.

The Effects of Instructional Self-Talk on Quiet-Eye Duration and Golf-Putting Performance

Article

Sep 2023

While the impact of strategic self-talk on performance is well documented, examination of the attentional–perceptual mechanisms of self-talk is still at early stages. This study’s aim was to examine the effects of instructional self-talk on quiet-eye durations and putting performance. Thirty participants were recruited and randomly assigned to self-talk or control conditions. Participants performed a golf-putting task in a mixed between (self-talk vs. control) and within (pre- vs. postintervention) design. Two 2 × 2 mixed-design analyses of variance were conducted for performance and quiet-eye durations as dependent variables. A mediation analysis was conducted to examine the mediating effect of quiet-eye durations on performance. Results showed that self-talk use led to longer quiet-eye durations and better performance compared with controls. The mediation analysis indicated that performance was mediated by quiet-eye durations. Discussion centers on the role of quiet-eye in motor performance and how self-talk can assist in regulating quiet-eye.

Perzeptuelle Expertise im Sport

Chapter

Mar 2023

Das Kapitel „Perzeptuelle Expertise im Sport“ stellt überblicksartig den Forschungsstand zur Wahrnehmung bei sportlichen Spitzenleistungen dar. Nach der Erläuterung des Expertiseansatzes werden verschiedene Forschungsideen, strukturiert nach der taktischen Situationskomplexität, vorgestellt. Zunächst wird die perzeptuelle Expertise in einer 1:0-Situation und anschließend in individual- und mannschaftstaktischen Aufgaben aufgezeigt. Zuletzt werden Umwelteinflüsse thematisiert. Abschließend werden weitere Forschungsfelder dargestellt. Dieser Beitrag ist Teil der Sektion Sportmotorik, herausgegeben von den Teilherausgebern Alfred Effenberg und Gerd Schmitz, innerhalb des Handbuchs Sport und Sportwissenschaft, herausgegeben von Arne Güllich und Michael Krüger.

A QE Study on Golf Putting

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2022

PURPOSE The quiet eye (QE) is defined as the final fixation time that is a specific target prior to initiating movement. This study aimed to identify the cause of QE in golf putting and to present an efficient practice method for improving putting skills. METHODS Thirty participants were randomly assigned to one of three groups. Each group practiced golf putting in different ways for two days. RESULTS The QE group showed a significant difference in putting scores, which was higher than that of the control group. The visual-occlusion group showed no difference compared to the other groups in terms of putting scores. The QE group showed a significant difference in terms of QE in the retention and competition tests compared to the pretest. The control group tended to have a slightly longer QE in competition tests compared to the pretest. The visualocclusion group showed no statistically significant difference in QE based on the period. All three groups had significantly longer swing times over the selected period. There was no significant difference in terms of the alpha power of the occipital lobe based on group and period. CONCLUSIONS The position of the visual-occlusion group became stable. However, the QE did not lengthen. The QE group had a longer QE. Furthermore, the control group that practiced with their eyes open tended to have longer QE. Therefore, QE may be related to visual-based cognitive processing rather than posturalkinematics. Finally, this study proved that QE practice is a more efficient method for novices in golf putting.

Perception, cognition and decision training: The quiet eye in action

Book

Full-text available

Jun 2007

Joan N Vickers

Athletes must be able to make split-second decisions under the pressures of competition, but often this vital learning is left to chance. With Perception, Cognition, and Decision Training: The Quiet Eye in Action, readers gain access to the research foundations behind an innovative decision-training system that has been used successfully for years in training athletes. Certain to become the definitive guide to decision making in sport, this text presents three innovations solidly based in research. The first is the vision- in-action method of recording what athletes actually see when they perform. The second is the quiet eye phenomenon that has attracted considerable media attention. The third innovation is decision training to identify not only how athletes make performance decisions but also how to facilitate visual perception and action to enhance performance. Author Joan Vickers—who discovered the quiet eye and developed the vision-in-action method—takes the next step by integrating all three innovations into a system for helping athletes improve. Together, these advances provide scientific evidence of the effectiveness of perception– action coupling in athletes’ training.

The "Russian roulette" of soccer?: Perceived control and anxiety in a major tournament penalty shootout

Article

Full-text available

Apr 2006
INT J SPORT PSYCHOL

Kicks from the penalty mark (official term for the "penalty shootout") are regularly featured in major soccer tournaments to determine the outcome of tied games. Based on the contingency-competence-control (CCC) model (Weisz & Stipek, 1982), this study provides an examination of the control beliefs and anxiety experienced by W elite soccer players in the context of a major tournament penalty shootout. Measures included interview questions and CSAI-2R (Cox, Martens, & Russell, 2003) with direction instructions (Jones & Swain, 1992 The results gave some support to the model's predictions. The quantitative analyses demonstrated that perceived contingency and competence correlated with anxiety. For example, believing that outcome is based on luck was associated with debilitative interpretation of somatic anxiety symptoms. Most findings were supported by the qualitative analyses. The CCC-model can be useful for researchers endeavouring to learn more about perceived control in competitive sport.

The effects of training visual attention on gaze behaviour and accurcy: A pilot Study

Article

Full-text available

Jan 1997

The quiet eye: it's the difference between a good putter and a poor one. Here's proof

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2004

Joan N Vickers

Describes how The Quiet Eye separates good putters from the others. Explains the concept of The Quiet Eye and why it is essential that The Quiet Eye is developed. Describes the strategies good putters use.

The Effects of Anxiety on Visual Search, Movement Kinematics, and Performance in Table Tennis: A Test of Eysenck and Calvo’s Processing Efficiency Theory

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2002

Processing efficiency theory predicts that anxiety reduces the processing capacity of working memory and has detrimental effects on performance. When tasks place little demand on working memory, the negative effects of anxiety can be avoided by increasing effort. When tasks impose a heavy demand on working memory, however, anxiety leads to decrements in efficiency and effectiveness. These presumptions were tested using a modified table tennis task that placed low (LWM) and high (HWM) demands on working memory. Cognitive anxiety was manipulated through a competitive ranking structure and prize money. 10 participants' (mean age 28.9 yrs) accuracy in hitting concentric circle targets in predetermined sequences was taken as a measure of performance effectiveness, while probe reaction time (PRT), perceived mental effort (RSME), visual search data, and arm kinematics were recorded as measures of efficiency. Anxiety had a negative effect on performance effectiveness in both LWM and HWM tasks. There was an increase in frequency of gaze and in PRT and RSME values in both tasks under high vs. low anxiety conditions, implying decrements in performance efficiency. However, participants spent more time tracking the ball in the HWM task and employed a shorter tau margin when anxious. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

Gaze in golf putting: Effects of slope

Article

Apr 2010
INT J SPORT PSYCHOL

We introduced a sideward slope to the putting surface (i.e., 0%, 1% and 2% slopes) to examine the effects of task complexity on visual search behaviour during golf putting. Seventeen high-skilled golf players were divided into two groups on the basis of their overall putting performance. Slope did not affect the number of holed putts, but it did significantly influence the type of miss. A significantly higher proportion of balls were missed at the low side than at the high side of the hole, the effect being more pronounced for the group of less successful participants. With respect to gaze, it was found that increasing the steepness of the slope resulted in more fixations to the high side of the hole. Furthermore, the participants also spent less time viewing the ball for the steeper slopes. The final fixation durations were not affected by steepness of slope. It is argued that in dealing with a sloped green, the prime adjustment in gaze is in the spatial domain rather than in the temporal domain.

Control of goal-directed and stimulus-driven attention in the brain

Article

Mar 2002
NEUROSCIENCE

We review evidence for partially segregated networks of brain areas that carry out different attentional functions. One system, which includes parts of the intraparietal cortex and superior frontal cortex, is involved in preparing and applying goal-directed (top-down) selection for stimuli and responses. This system is also modulated by the detection of stimuli. The other system, which includes the temporoparietal cortex and inferior frontal cortex, and is largely lateralized to the right hemisphere, is not involved in top-down selection. Instead, this system is specialized for the detection of behaviourally relevant stimuli, particularly when they are salient or unexpected. This ventral frontoparietal network works as a 'circuit breaker' for the dorsal system, directing attention to salient events. Both attentional systems interact during normal vision, and both are disrupted in unilateral spatial neglect.

Sensation and Perception

Article