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Effect of soaking process on nutrient bio-accessibility and phytic acid content of brown rice cultivar
Abstract
Grain soaking treatment could reduce phytates improving mineral and protein bioavailability. To evaluate the effects of soaking process with lactic acid on phytates and nutrient content (Fe, Zn, and proteins) from whole rice grain, a surface response methodology with a 32 factorial experimental design was used. The independent variables were time (24, 36 and 48 h) and temperature (35°, 45° and 55 °C) of soaking.The results showed that soaking decreased total phosphorus (TP) in the range of 35–92.4 mg/100 g compared to 255 mg/100 g in whole rice. The losses of phytate in the grains were between 87 and 91%, the remnant phytic acid phosphorus in the grains being between 15.1 and 20.9 mg/100 g, and the most effective treatment was soaking at 45 °C for 48 h. The losses of the different nutrients were high in all of the different soaking treatments, reaching 50% for Fe, more than 64% for Zn, and around 45% for proteins. Although protein digestibility and mineral dialyzability were improved, acid soaking of brown rice would not be suggested as a useful process to reduce phytates from whole rice grains, if the production of a staple food is the main objective.
... Various approaches to the utilisation of endogenous phytase for lowering phytic acid were reported in brown rice, sorghum, whole grain cereals and sunflower seeds (Egli et al., 2003;Liang et al., 2008a;Agostini et al., 2010;Afify et al., 2011;Albarracín et al., 2013). RSM of phytic acid and phytase activity in whole grain rice was only reported for the soaking process, which was accompanied by high nutrient losses (Liang et al., 2008a;Albarracín et al., 2013). ...
... Various approaches to the utilisation of endogenous phytase for lowering phytic acid were reported in brown rice, sorghum, whole grain cereals and sunflower seeds (Egli et al., 2003;Liang et al., 2008a;Agostini et al., 2010;Afify et al., 2011;Albarracín et al., 2013). RSM of phytic acid and phytase activity in whole grain rice was only reported for the soaking process, which was accompanied by high nutrient losses (Liang et al., 2008a;Albarracín et al., 2013). Therefore, this study aimed to determine the effect of germination conditions on phytic acid and phytase activity and optimise the phytic acid content, endogenous phytase activity and mineral bioaccessibility in whole grain rice through rotatable CCD. ...
... The acidic germination condition effectively reduced the phytic acid content, possibly due to better solubility of phytate complexes in low pH conditions. The high solubility of the phytate complexes under acidic conditions could accelerate the diffusion of soluble phytate and further enzymatic hydrolysis of phytate complexes by phytase enzyme (Liang et al., 2008a;Albarracín et al., 2013). However, prolonged germination time under an alkaline environment promoted lower phytic acid, possibly due to protein denaturation of phytate globoids. ...
Phytic acid (IP6), stored in seeds as metal salts known as phytates, binds to micronutrients and prevents its absorption by the human body. The germination process could improve cereal nutritional values by stimulating endogenous phytase activity and promoting phytate degradation. This study evaluated the physicochemical changes of phytates in rice cultivars with different IP6 contents, followed by optimisation of phytate degradation using response surface modeling. The magnitude of changes in IP6 content and phytase activity differed among rice cultivars. This suggested that the efficiency of germination treatments relied on the amount of natural phytic acid and phytase activity present in the rice grains. The cultivar “Tuan” was then selected and studied for the germination effect on phytate degradation using a central composite design. The cultivar gave a lower IP6 content, enhanced phytase activity and improved minerals bioaccessibility under acidic conditions. Acidic germination facilitated the degradation of phytate complexes in whole grain rice by making phytate complexes more soluble, accelerating phytase activity and thus, releasing mineral micronutrients from phytate globoids. The optimum germination condition was identified at pH 2.7, 25 °C over 12 h. In conclusion, germination processing facilitated phytate degradation in whole grain rice to make value-added rice products with low phytic acid and good mineral bioaccessibility.
... Food processing may produce either beneficial or deleterious effects on nutrient bioavailability. Regarding minerals, processing could increase the content of some minerals, destroy some inhibitors, or form beneficial complexes between minerals and matrix components [33]. The mean±sd of magnesium content of the tamarind fruit sample is stated in Table 2. ...
... It shows that both soaking and roasting significantly decreased the phytate content. According to Albarracín et al. [33], soaking treatment could reduce phytates, improving mineral and protein bioavailability. ...
The sweet, acidic pulp of the tropical fruit known as the tamarind (Tamarindus indica, Fabaceae), which is found throughout Africa and Asia, is highly prized. Ethiopia's Dire Dawa is home to a large tamarind consumption. This study aimed to investigate the physicochemical, antioxidant, antibacterial, antinutritional, and sensory properties of tamarind indica pulp under different processing conditions (roasted and soaking). As a remedy, tamarind pulp that had been raw, steeped, and roasted was utilized. These treatments were examined for their antinutritional capabilities using the disc diffusion method, their proximate composition using gravimetric analysis, their antioxidant and antinutritional components using UV spectrophotometry, and their sugar profile using HPLC. All but crude fat showed a significant (p<0.05) difference in proximate composition between the soaked, roasted, and control samples. The mineral profile revealed the presence of calcium, magnesium, manganese, sodium, and potassium, and a significant difference (p < 0.05) was found between the treatments. The antinutritional analysis showed that both soaked and roasted tamarind had a significant reduction in tannin, phytate, and oxalate. Tamarind fruit extract had 76.12 µg/mL, 79.86 µg/mL, and 105.51 µg/mL antioxidant activity in the DPPH assay for control, soaked, and roasted treatments, respectively. In comparison to the control treatment, the results showed that soaking and roasting enhanced the nutritional profile, antioxidant and sensory qualities, and decreased the antinutritional aspects. This could be helpful input for making the most of and promoting the traditional uses of tamarind in the community.
... 5 (abd el-Hady and abdel-Galeel 2012;abubakar et al. 2018;abulude 2004;albarracin, Gonzalez, and drago 2013;Banchuen et al. 2009;Beaulieu et al. 2020a;Caceres et al. 2014b;Caceres et al. 2019;Cao et al. 2018;Chaijan and Panpipat 2020;Charoenthaikij et al. 2009;Charoenthaikij et al. 2012;Chatchavanthatri et al. 2021;Chen et al. 2018;Choi et al. 2009;Chung, ryu, and Kang 2016;Chung and Kang 2021;ding et al. 2018;esa et al. 2011;Han et al. 2016a;He et al. 2022;Jayadeep and Malleshi 2011;Jung et al. 2007b;Kamjijam et al. 2020;Kamjijam et al. 2021;Kim et al. 2011;Kim et al. 2012;Kim et al. 2015c;Kim et al. 2021;Komatsuzaki et al. 2007;lee et al. 2004;lee et al. 2016;li et al. 2017;lim, lee, and Jang 1993;liu et al. 2011;Maksup et al. 2018;Megat rusydi et al. 2011;Moon, lee, and Han 2010;Moongngarm and Khomphiphatkul 2011;Moongngarm and saetung 2010;Munarko et al. 2021a;nakamura et al. 2020;nascimento et al. 2020;ohtsubo et al. 2005;owolabi, Chakree, and Yupanqui 2019;Pal et al. 2016;roohinejad et al. 2011;shallan et al. 2010;shen et al. 2015;sibian, saxena, and riar 2017;toyoizumi et al. 2021;ukpong et al. 2021;wu et al. 2013a;wu et al. 2013c;Xia et al. 2017;Yao et al. 2008;Zhang et al. 2020;Zhao et al. 2017). nd = not detected. ...
... 9 (abd el-Hady and abdel-Galeel 2012;abubakar et al. 2018;abulude 2004;albarracin, Gonzalez, and drago 2013;azeke et al. 2011;Banchuen et al. 2009;Beaulieu et al. 2020a;Beaulieu et al. 2020b;Caceres et al. 2014b;Caceres et al. 2019;Chatchavanthatri et al. 2021;Chung, ryu, and Kang 2016;Chung and Kang 2021;esa et al. 2011;Han et al. 2016a;Hong et al. 2004;ismail et al. 2014;Jayadeep and Malleshi 2011;Kaur, asthir, and Mahajan 2017;Kim et al. 2011;Kim et al. 2012;Kim and Jang 2004;Kim et al. 2015c;Kim et al. 2015a;lee et al. 2016;lee et al. 2007b;lestienne et al. 2005;li et al. 2018;li et al. 2017;liang et al. 2008;liang et al. 2009;Megat rusydi et al. 2011;Moon, lee, and Han 2010;Moongngarm and Khomphiphatkul 2011;Moongngarm and saetung 2010;noreen et al. 2009;ohtsubo et al. 2005; owolabi, Chakree, and Yupanqui 2019;Pal et al. 2016;shallan et al. 2010;sibian, saxena, and riar 2017;singh, sharma, and singh 2018;ukpong et al. 2021;Xia et al. 2017;Yang, sun, and Gu 2018). na = not applicable because of few data points (N = 1) for the calculations. ...
Over the last 30 years, thousands of articles have appeared examining the effects of soaking and germinating brown rice (BR). Variable germination conditions and methods have been employed to measure different health-beneficial parameters in a diverse germplasm of BR. Research results may therefore appear inconsistent with occasional anomalies, and it may be difficult to reach consensus concerning expected trends. Herein, we amassed a comprehensive review on germinated brown rice (GBR), attempting to codify 133 peer-reviewed articles regarding the effects on 164 chemical parameters related to health and nutrition in BR and in value-added food products. The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA-2020) approach was used to direct the flow of the literature search. A pair-wise comparison t-test was performed to deliver an overall approach indicating when a given compound has been found to significantly increase or decrease through germination, which was grouped into GABA and polyamines, γ-Oryzanol and phytosterols, phenolic compounds, vitamins, proteins and amino acids, starchy carbohydrates, free sugars, lipids, minerals and phytic acid. This resource will stimulate interest in germinating rice and optimistically help increase both production and consumption of highly nutritious, health-beneficial rice with pigmented bran.
FULL TEXT LINK: https://www.tandfonline.com/eprint/IV4E8UGZBT6J45MCEYWW/full?target=10.1080/10408398.2022.2094887
... In cereals, also "antinutrients" can reduce the digestibility of proteins. Sorghum protein is 15% to 25% less digestible than other cereal proteins because it contains condensed tannins and trypsin inhibitors ( Afify et al., 2012;Albarracín, González, & Drago, 2013;T.Y. Chung et al., 1989;Swieca & Dziki, 2015), which limit digestibility of proteins by forming complexes with proteolytic enzymes ( Elmaki et al., 1999;Ogbonna et al., 2012). ...
... However, it has been reported that phytate breakdown can be achieved by hydrothermal processing of cereals at high temperature (38 to 45 °C) and low pH (2.0 to 6.0) during steeping. In brown rice, 90% of the phytate is hydrolyzed when the grains are first steeped in 0.6% v/v lactic acid at 45 °C for 48 hours and subsequently sprouted for 2 days at 28 °C ( Albarracín et al., 2013). In contrast, Teixeira et al. (2016) & Trèche, 2005). ...
Sprouting induces activation and de novo synthesis of hydrolytic enzymes that make nutrients available for plant growth and development. Consumption of sprouted grains is suggested to be beneficial for human health. Positive consumer perceptions about sprouted cereals have resulted in new food and beverage product launches. However, because there is no generally accepted definition of “sprouting,” it is unclear when grains are to be called sprouted. Moreover, guidelines about how much sprouted grain material food products should contain to exert health benefits are currently lacking. Accordingly, there is no regulatory base to develop appropriate food labeling for “sprouted foods.” This review describes the nutritional and technological properties of sprouted grains in relation to processing conditions and provides guidelines to optimize sprouting practices in order to maximize nutritive value. Relatively long sprouting times (3 to 5 days) and/or high processing temperatures (25 to 35 °C) are needed to maximize the de novo synthesis and/or release of plant bioactive compounds. Nutrient compositional changes resulting from sprouting are often associated with health benefits. However, supportive data from clinical studies are very scarce, and at present it is impossible to draw any conclusion on health benefits of sprouted cereals. Finally, grains sprouted under the above‐mentioned conditions are generally unfit for use in traditional food processing and it is challenging to use sprouted grains as ingredients without compromising their nutrient content. The present review provides a basis for better defining what “sprouting” is, and to help further research and development efforts in this field as well as future food regulations development.
... When these germinated components were compared with the white polished rice, they were ten times higher for GABA, nearly four times higher for dietary fibre, vitamin E, niacin and lysine (Cho and Lim, 2016). The nutritional value of seeds is also improved through an increase in amino acids (because storage proteins get decomposed by the action of proteolytic enzymes) (Komatsuzaki et al, 2007), and increase in amino acid bioavailability (Sangronis and Machado, 2007) and a decrease in some antinutrients such as phytic acid (Albarracín et al, 2013). Proteins can break down into amino acids especially glutamic acid, which can be changed into GABA by glutamate decarboxylase enzyme (Mayer et al, 2009). ...
... The increase of phytase activity may account for the reduction of phytic acid content of cereal seeds during germination (Liang et al, 2008;Murugkar and Jha, 2009). The phytase activity increase is involved in the generation of low molecular weight inositols and phosphoric acid for seedling during germination (Albarracín et al, 2013). ...
Present study was conducted to characterise ten rice (Oryza sativa L.) cultivars viz. IET-23466, Dhan-201, IET-23448, MAS-946, IET-23445, IET-23463, IET-23455, PR-123, PR-115 and IET-23449 based on antioxidants (total phenolics, flavonols and tannins), bioactive compounds (phytic acid, gamma amino butyric acid, tocopherol and reduced ascorbate) and antioxidant activity (1,1-diphenyl-2- picrylhydrazyl radical scavenging activity, hydroxyl radical scavenging activity, free radical antioxidant power and total reducing power) with an aim to identify cultivars containing higher health promoting components after germination. Three cultivars IET-23466, IET-23463 and PR-123 performed better as revealed by higher level of antioxidants, bioactive compounds and antioxidant activity before and after germination. Three cultivars MAS-946, IET-23445 and IET-23449 had moderate level of antioxidants, bioactive compounds and antioxidant activity. Four cultivars Dhan-201, IET-23448, IET-23455 and PR-115 performed intermediately. Strong positive correlation was observed among total phenolics and the antioxidant activity. Phytic acid was found to be negatively correlated to the antioxidant activity. Our results highlighted that cultivars IET-23466, IET-23463 and PR-123 hold great potential after germination and would open up a useful opportunity for the functional food industry, and consumption of these cultivars after germination would afford health benefits to consumers since they contain higher level of antioxidants.
... Data from this study agree with some previous studies, for example, Albarracín et al. (2013) reported that acidic lactic acid solution soaking reduced significantly phytic acid in rice but, in the same study the reduction of the amount of the phytic acid changed with duration and temperature. In this study, acidic solutions of vinegar and vinegar-water mix caused maximum reduction of phytic acid in HSM, and this situation can be explained by endogenous phytases having the optimal action at pH 4-5 (Yoshida et al., 1975). ...
Hemp plants are notable for their climate resilience, and hempseed meal (HSM) is a potential high-protein feed for poultry. However, HSM has high levels of the antinutritional factor phytic acid (PA). This study aimed to evaluate the effects of heat and soaking treatments on the protein and PA content of HSM. HSM was obtained through cold pressing of whole hempseed and then subjected to heat treatment at 70°C for 24 hours. Soaking treatments involved water, water-vinegar mix, and vinegar for 1, 7, and 24 hours, followed by drying and analysis of PA and protein content. Results indicated that heating increased PA content without affecting protein levels. Soaking duration did not significantly alter protein content but did affect PA levels, with 24-hour soaking significantly increasing PA compared to 1-hour and 7-hour durations. The soaking material also influenced PA content: water soaking increased PA, while a 1-hour vinegar-water mix and 7-hour vinegar soaking significantly reduced PA. The highest PA concentration occurred with 24-hour water soaking. The protein content was highest with 7-hour vinegar soaking. In conclusion, acidic soaking solutions, particularly vinegar and vinegar-water mix, effectively reduced PA in HSM without protein loss.
... Cereal's nutritional value in the context of mineral amount, bioavailability, and bioaccessibility is affected by soaking in the following manners: removal of minerals and antinutrients by leaching into medium, PA hydrolysis (by activation of endogenous phytase) and pH changes. It was observed that soaking causes undesirable losses of minerals for pearl millet and sorghum, such as Zn and Fe, decreased to 30 and 60 %, respectively (Albarracín et al., 2013). Afify et al. (2011) reported that Zn and Fe leach out in the soaking water from sorghum and reduced levels of Zn and Fe up to 30 and 60 %, respectively. ...
Minerals are essential to our diet. They affect nerve and muscle function, build materials for our bones, and regulate the body's water balance. The bioaccessibility and bioavailability of cereal minerals depend upon various aspects, such as plant cell wall configuration, storage chemical form of a mineral, plant tissue localization, and processing conditions. Fortification of minerals is done through classical methods and agro-biotechnological techniques to combat micronutrient deficiencies and improve bioavailability. The recent innovative approaches (chelation and encapsulation) overwhelm issues associated with classical fortification methods, specifically those influencing bioavailability and organoleptic properties. Food processing techniques, such as fermenting, soaking, cooking, and germination, significantly improved mineral bioavailability by reducing phytic acid and other antinutritional factors. Minerals, particularly micro-ones, are lost irreversibly during food processing, and their losses can be reduced by changing the processing strategies. The current review explores minerals in cereals, their bioaccessibility, bioavailability, fortification strategies, the impact of food processing on bioavailability, and their therapeutic potential.
... Furthermore, the optimum phytate degradation was shown to be close to a pH value of 5.5 (Greiner and Konietzny, 2006), indicating that a higher LA concentration and an adequate treatment time (enable LA infiltration) may be more efficient in enhancing P availability . Some studies have suggested that heating during LA treatment, typically at 45-55 • C for 48 h, better facilitates the scavenging of InsP 6 (Albarracín et al., 2013;Gruber et al., 2017). Overall, LA treatment of cereal is promising for eliminating the use of minerals in the diet of ruminants, and such retrieval will undoubtedly be a more cost-effective approach. ...
Cereals serve as a shared energy source for both humans and feedlot animals. For producers, large incorporations of cereals in the ruminant diet have resulted in foreseeable profits from production. For ruminant nutritionists, improving the gastrointestinal utilization of cereals while minimizing drawbacks to health is a crucial concern. Over the past decade, studies have shown promising outcomes in ruminant performance using cereals treated with lactic acid (LA). These benefits are concentrated on enhanced production performance and reduced high cereal diet-induced health issues. However, inconsistencies in experimental conditions and the diversity of cereal cultivars used in these studies hindered the pace of reaching conclusive remarks. In this review, we summarize data about cereal nutrient variations induced by LA treatment and the underlying mechanisms involved in these variations. We also discuss how LA-treated cereals benefit ruminant gastrointestinal homeostasis and enhance overall health. We aimed to provide an overview of LA modifications on cereal nutrients and frame the functional role of LA-treated cereals on ruminant performance. We also propose research gaps, which are intended to stimulate future research.
... The combination of dehulling, soaking, and cooking methods led to an increase in IVPD from 62.3% in untreated foxtail millet to 83%. 126 Jha et al. 127 soaked bran-and endosperm-rich pearl millet fractions in different pH solutions and germinated and steamed them. Iron, zinc, polyphenols, phytic acid, ber, and avonoids were abundant in bran. ...
The Global Report on Food Crises underscores the urgent need for sustainable food solutions as the world faces a 34% increase in acute food insecurity. Millets, which are ancient grains abundant in proteins with essential amino acids, dietary fiber and some essential minerals, are resistant to climate change and thus have become an important tool in the fight against this issue. A comprehensive analysis of millets is presented in this review, covering their historical relevance, sustainable production, nutritional value, novel sustainable processing methods, product development and digestibility for health benefits. In terms of agriculture, millets provide a viable choice as they are resilient to climate change and boost productivity. Because millets have a high quantity of vital amino acids and antioxidants, their nutritional composition makes them an important tool in the fight against malnutrition and the prevention of chronic illnesses. Furthermore, eco-friendly millet processing technologies are discussed, highlighting the contribution of both low-temperature and green processes as sustainable approaches to improve their nutritional value and reduce detrimental environmental effects. Millets demonstrate versatility in food production, ranging from classic recipes to cutting-edge items such as extruded snacks and 3D-printed meat substitutes. However, nutrient-dense millets encounter challenges from anti-nutritional elements. Their digestibility is affected by elements such as the starch structure, poor protein solubility, tannins and processing techniques. Important roles are played by processing techniques such as soaking, germination, cooking, and fermentation. Protein digestion is improved by soaking, but the content of tannins, phytic acid, oxalates and other antinutrient compounds may decrease by germination. Alternatively, fermentation increases protein and starch digestibility and reduces anti-nutrients. Thus, to create a more resilient and sustainable future, millets have enormous potential to help achieve a number of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), presenting a strong argument for their inclusion in global food systems.
... Although there are reports that suggest the health benefits of phytic acid, which include being an antioxidant and anti-carcinogenic mainly due to its inositol hexaphosphoric acid component (Adebo et al., 2017;Jyoti et al., 2022), phytic acid is nonetheless considered a major antinutritive component in rice since it chelates minerals such as magnesium, iron, calcium, and zinc, and negatively influences protein and starch absorption (Oatway et al., 2001). Previous investigation has established that the reduction of phytic acid content by soaking and germination of rice caused an improvement in mineral bioavailability and protein digestibility (Albarracín et al., 2013). Zn and Fe dialyzability, which is the measure of bioavailability, improved significantly from 9.89% and notdetected levels to 35.97% and 30.36%, respectively, while protein digestibility increased from 74.90% to 86.30% after 48 h of germination at 45 • C. It was also observed that phytic acid levels reduced when brown rice was steeped and germinated , and the highest reduction of phytic acid (25%) was observed after 12 and 48 h of germination. ...
Rice is a popular grain and forms part of the daily diet of people throughout the world. However, the consumption of rice and its products is sometimes limited by its high glycemic index due to its high starch content, low protein content and quality, and low bioavailability of minerals due to the presence of anti‐nutritional factors. This has partly stimulated research interest in recent times toward the use of bioprocessing techniques such as germination as cheap and natural means to improve the nutritional quality, digestibility, and health properties of cereals, including rice, to partially achieve nutrition and food security in the developing regions of the world. This review highlights the impact of germination on the nutritional quality, health‐promoting properties, and techno‐functional characteristics of germinated brown rice grains and their products. The review demonstrated that germinated rice grains and their products have improved nutritional quality and digestibility, modified functional properties, and showed antioxidant, anti‐inflammatory, anti‐diabetic, anti‐obesity, anti‐cancer, and anti‐cardiovascular activities. Germination appears to be a suitable bioprocessing method to improve the nutritional quality and bioactive constituents and modify the techno‐functional properties of rice grains for diverse food applications and improved global nutrition and food safety.
... This relies on changes in food preparation practices that include soaking cereals to allow leaching and degradation of water-soluble phytate (25). This method was shown to reduce the phytate content in maize by up to 36% and in brown rice by up to 91% (26,27). Similarly, parboiling significantly diminished phytate content in finger millet (28). ...
A holistic view on possible determinants of human health within a poor subsistence farming community is important to addressing pressing issues surrounding hidden hunger. This survey study assesses the mineral nutrition of women in rural tribal communities of Jharkhand, India, and its possible connection with the mineral status of the soils and the staple crop rice. Associations were explored with inherent and dynamic life features namely geography; socio-demographics; and agronomic, processing and cooking practices. A total of 43 soil and rice and 35 human hair samples were collected from 43 rice fields and their associated households. All samples were analyzed for micronutrients and toxic elements, which included As, B, Ba, Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Mo, Ni, Pb, Se, Sr, V and Zn. Soil samples were additionally analyzed for biological and physical indicators. Kruskal-Wallis ANOVA tests and regularized regressions methods (ridge and lasso) were performed on qualitative parameters with respect to the soil, rice and hair mineral content. For soil data, associations existed between (i) livestock management and Mo and Cd levels in the soil, and (ii) most soil micronutrients and toxic elements with districts and soil textural groups. For rice, Fe concentrations differed among variety types (traditional> hybrid> improved), Cu between landscape positions (midland > lowland), Mn, Ba and Pb among soil textural classes, and Cr, Ba and Pb among districts. In hair, Cd significantly differed between cooking water sources (well water > other), Mn between rice cooking methods (absorption > boil and drain), and Fe, Cr and Ba between the hair-dyed groups. Linear regressions with quantitative variables such as age, household size, number of years farming, fertilization duration (as proxy for land size ownership) and hair sampling length (cm) showed that only hair Ni and Cr were significantly affected by land size ownership, and that the latter mineral is also affected by hair sampling length. The regularized regressions revealed many interlinkages between soil and humans through the rice crop intermediate, as well as between socio-demographics and human health, albeit complex and indirect. To this end, associations were in many cases uninterpretable, yet, they present insight into the confounding factors and possible challenges in the assessment of soil-to-human mineral interlinkages. Future studies are advised to account for these to pinpoint direct and causational relationships in the soil-to-human pathway.
... Plant seed utilised phytate as a source of inorganic phosphate during germination and thus tend to improve palatability and nutritive value. As put forward by Albarracín et al., (2013), effort on reducing antinutritional factor like phytic acid could be achieved via soaking and germination treatment leading to protein digestibility and mineral disability. ...
Jackfruit waste is attracting considerable widespread interest due to their good nutritious profiling. The seed of jackfruit comprises a good level of macronutrients such as dietary fiber, protein, fat as well as micronutrients like vitamins and essential acid amino. Few compounds in the seed were reported to have a beneficial role for the human health. Nevertheless, a trace level of antinutritional factors has been reported to be founded in the seeds. Tannin, phytic acid and saponin are few antinutritional factors that are regularly associated with agricultural waste. The existence of these compound in human diets may affect the overall nutritional value of the foods by averting nutrient bioavailability. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of these two methods (germination and roasting) in minimizing the level of these antinutrients i.e. tannin and phytic acid before applying. Samples were subject to two pretreatment processes: germination and roasting. Quantifying of these two antinutritional factors was conducted via spectrophotometry method. Our results revealed that both pretreatment methods may reduce the level of tannin and phytic acid. In addition, roasted jackfruit seed contained the lowest level of tannin and phytic acid (0.1039 0.06 % DW and 0.0159 0.1g/100g respectively).
... No previous studies have investigated the effect of rice processing methods on the bioaccessibility of this compound. However, similar decreases in bioaccessibility have been observed with arsenic when parboiling 19 and cooking rice: 20 total phosphorus and phytate when soaking 21 and zinc when cooking. 22 The greater bioaccessible fraction encountered in the parboiled flour samples is most likely a surface area effect because of milling. ...
For pesticide registration a post application assessment is made on the safety of any residue remaining in the edible portion of the treated crop. This assessment does not typically consider the bioaccessibility of pesticide residues. The effects of this on potential exposure the behaviour of incurred difenoconazole residues passing through the human gastrointestinal tract was studied, including if commodity processing results in significant changes in their bioaccessibility. It has previously been demonstrated that solvent extraction methods have the potential to overestimate the bioaccessible fraction, so in vitro simulated gut systems may offer a better approach to determine residue bioaccessibility to refine the risk assessment process. The bioaccessibility and total solvent extractable concentration of difenoconazole residues associated with processed rice samples, ranging from pre-cleaned grain to cooked polished parboiled rice, were assessed using in vitro intestinal extraction and colonic fermentation methods. Mean bioaccessibility following intestinal digestion was 33.3% with a range of 13% to 70.6%. Quantification of the colonic bioaccessible fraction was not possible due to compound metabolism. Mechanical processing methods generally increased the residue bioaccessibility while chemical methods resulted in a decrease. This was most apparent for the milling processes, where the rise in bioaccessibility was likely a function of increased sample surface area. Conversely, mechanical and chemical processing methods both reduced the total residue level by c. 50%. Furthermore, there was significant evidence to suggest human colonic bacteria possess the necessary metabolic capability to metabolise non-plant associated difenoconazole.
... Upon soaking the rice grain in water, the phosphorus content reduced to 1.29 × 10 3 mg kg −1 . Soaking process has been shown to decrease the total phosphorus content in rice (Albarracín, González, & Drago, 2013). The reduction of phosphorus content is indicative of the dissolution of water-soluble phosphorus compounds such as the phytic acid salts leaching out of the grains (Liu, Zheng, Wang, & Chen, 2019). ...
... However, it could be useful [57]. Some authors have studied the effect of soaking process on phytase activity and phytic acid hydrolysis from cereals [57][58][59][60]. For example, in one study, ...
The phytic acid, phenolic compounds, tannins, oxalate and trypsin inhibitors are known as antinutritional factors (ANFs) that commonly are present in cereal grains. They contribute to a lower nutritional value of cereals because they indirectly decrease the bioavailability of nutrients. Fortunately, these ANFs can be modified or reduced through different processing methods such as mechanical (decortication and milling), physical (soaking), heat (boiling, pressure cooking, autoclaving, roasting, extrusion and microwave cooking) and chemical (germination and fermentation). The purpose of this review is to discuss different ANFs of cereals and the influence of their processing on the levels of ANFs.
... However, hydrothermal treatments decreased the digestibility of GBR starch, suggesting that digestibility and physical properties of BR can be controlled by germination and hydrothermal treatments (Chung, Cho, Park, Kweon, & Lim, 2012). Another study showed that soaking of BR with lactic acid improved protein digestibility and mineral dialyzability (Albarracín, González, & Drago, 2013). Furthermore, a high-temperature air fluidization treatment at 110, 130, and 150°C decreased rapid digestible starch and increased slowly digestible and resistant starch levels in GBR (Li, Su, Shi, Wang, & Chen, 2017). ...
Obesity and chronic diet‐related diseases such as type 2 diabetes, hypertension, cardiovascular disease, cancers, and celiac are increasing worldwide. The increasing prevalence of these diseases has led nutritionists and food scientists to pay more attention to the relationship between diet and different disease risks. Among different foods, rice has received increasing attention because it is a major component of billions of peoples’ diets throughout the world. Rice is commonly consumed after polishing or whitening and the polished grain is known a high glycemic food because of its high starch content. In addition, the removal of the outer bran layer during rice milling results in a loss of nutrients, dietary fiber, and bioactive components. Therefore, many studies were performed to investigate the potential health benefits for the consumption of whole brown rice (BR) grain in comparison to the milled or white rice (WR). The objective of this work was to review the recent advances in research performed for purposes of evaluation of nutritional value and potential health benefits of the whole BR grain. Studies carried out for purposes of developing BR‐based food products are reviewed. BR safety and preservation treatments are also explored. In addition, economic and environmental benefits for the consumption of whole BR instead of the polished or WR are presented. Furthermore, challenges facing the commercialization of BR and future perspectives to promote its utilization as food are discussed.
... Soaking can be used as a process to decrease phytic acid (PA) content of the grains, since both phytase activation and PA lixiviation are promoted (Albarracín, González, & Drago, 2013;Egli, Davidsson, Juillerat, Barclay, & Hurrell, 2003). Also, before germination, grains are soaked to achieve the adequate moisture. ...
Modifications of nutritional properties (amino acids, available lysine, protein digestibility, fatty acids, fiber, inositol phosphate (IPs), free and bound phenolics, and antioxidant properties) of whole rice ingredients processed by soaking, germination, and/or extrusion cooking were evaluated. Soaking and germination reduced proteins by lixiviation and hydrolysis, respectively. Lysine was the limiting amino acid. Polyunsaturated fatty acids increased after germination. Protein digestibility was 100% for germinated rice, decreased to 75% after the extrusion process. Fiber content decreased around 73% after the extrusion of soaked and germinated flours. Soaking‐extrusion combined processes produces >50% IPs reduction. Germination‐extrusion produced flours with the highest antioxidant capacity (54 µmol trolox g⁻¹), which was in accordance with the highest content of free and bound phenolics (66 and 69 mg GA 100 g⁻¹, respectively). Grain treatments changed nutritional properties of flours resulting in low antinutrient whole grain ingredients, which could be used to develop whole grain‐based foods.
Practical applications
Phytic acid (PA) is an antinutrient having negative effects on mineral bioavailability and protein digestibility. There are processes such as soaking, germination, and extrusion, which alone or combined can decrease PA. However, nutritional composition and functionality of flours can change. We observed PA was highly reduced by soaking or germination combined with extrusion and antioxidant capacity and phenolic content increased in germinated and germinated‐extruded flours compared to the other treatments. These modified whole grain rice flours low in anti‐nutrients could be used in the production of expanded products or pre‐cooked ingredients to develop whole grain based foods nutritionally improved.
... During germination of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), the composition is altered, including increases in free amino acids, free and bound phenolics, enzymatic activities, and protein and starch hydrolysis (Ohm et al., 2016;Simsek et al., 2014). The digestibility of protein and mineral dialyzability of grains are also improved as a result of germination (Albarracín et al., 2013). The increase in γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) during germination has attracted the interest of many researchers since GABA has been associated with the treatment of neurological disorders (Mody et al., 1994). ...
The compositional [phytic acid, thiamine, lysine, asparagine, and γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA)] and dough mixing properties, including dough strength and mixing time, and lipolytic activities, including lipase, esterase, and lipoxygenase, were quantified in whole wheat flour obtained from wheat kernels that had been germinated for 24 h, 48 h, or 72 h and dried at either 40 °C or 60 °C. The phytic acid, thiamine, and dough strength of whole grain flour from germinated wheat decreased, whereas lysine, asparagine, GABA, lipase, esterase, and lipoxygenase activities increased compared with flour from ungerminated wheat. Mixing time was not affected by germination time. A small but significant effect of drying temperature was observed for asparagine, GABA, dough strength, and lipase and esterase activities. Drying temperature did not show any differences when the grains were germinated for up to 48 h. Whole grain flour from germinated wheat was added to ungerminated whole wheat flour at 2, 5, and 10% (flour basis). Doughs and breads made from these composite flours had improved mixing properties, loaf volume, and firmness, except at the highest proportions and from longer germination times. This study may provide important information to the food industry when formulating germinated, grain-based products.
... During germination of wheat, the composition is altered, including increases in free amino acids, free and bound phenolics, enzymatic activities, and protein and starch hydrolysis (Ohm et al., 2016;Simsek et al., 2014). The digestibility of protein and mineral dialyzability of grains are also improved as a result of germination (Albarracín et al., 2013). The increase in γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) during germination has attracted the interest of many researchers since GABA was first associated with the treatment of neurological disorders (Mody et al., 1994). ...
The numerous enzymes present in the bran and germ fractions of a wheat kernel initiate many chemical changes that affect the compositional and functional properties of whole wheat flour. This dissertation was focused on enzyme activities and compositional properties of whole wheat flour in different applications. In the first study, lipolytic activity, which leads to rancidity during storage of wheat, was affected by environment, fungicide application, disease resistance of cultivars, and the substrate being used in the assay. Subsequently, steaming of grains for 90 s before milling was found to reduce lipolytic activities and accumulation of free fatty acids during storage and reduce oxidation once the flour was made into a dough without affecting starch and gluten properties. In another study, germination of wheat increased lipolytic activities and affected several compositional and functional properties mainly due to germination time rather than drying temperature. A small proportion of germinated flour added to a whole wheat bread formulation was found to improve bread quality except when the flour from extensive germination or higher inclusion percentage was used. Next, a sensory-driven approach was taken to estimate the shelf-life of whole wheat flour. The estimated shelf life of whole wheat flour stored at 35 °C ranged from 8-11 months and was dependent on the wheat cultivar. In a comparative study between historical and modern wheat cultivars, minimal changes in compositional properties (except for tryptophan) were found due to year of introduction. Finally, evidence of the asparaginase activity in wheat kernels and their possible genotypic variation was discovered. In conclusion, the enzymatic activities and compositional properties of whole wheat flour were dependent on the genotype, environment, their interactions, and different processing methods. Advisor: Devin J. Rose
... Phytases are hydrolytic enzymes, phosphatases type, and belong to the subfamily of histidine acid phosphatases. They are responsible for catalyzing the hydrolysis of phytate phosphor mono ester bonds (salts myo-inositol hexakisphosphate) or myo-inositol 1,2,3,4,5,6-hexakisdihidrogeno phosphate (phytic acid) producing derivatives, such as tetra, tri, di and inositol monophosphate and inorganic phosphate (Pi) ( Shivanna and Venkateswaran, 2014;Albarracín et al., 2013;Bilgiçli et al., 2006). This enzyme is mainly applied in the animal feed industry, where it is used as supplement in feeds of non-ruminant animals (such as pigs, chickens, turkeys, etc.). ...
... Phytases are hydrolytic enzymes (phosphatases), belonging to the subfamily of histidine acid phosphatases. They catalyze the hydrolysis of phytate phosphomonoester bonds (salts myo-inositol A C C E P T E D M A N U S C R I P T hexakisphosphate) or myo-inositol 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6-hexakis dihydrogenphosphate (phytic acid), and produce derivatives such as tetra, tri, di and inositol monophosphate, as well as inorganic phosphate (Pi) (Bilgiçli et al., 2006;Albarracín et al., 2013). The main application of this enzyme is in the animal feed industry, where it is used as feed supplement for non-ruminant animals (such as pigs, chickens, turkeys, etc). ...
In this study, an extracellular phytase produced by Aspergillus niger 7A-1, was biochemically characterized for possible industrial application. The enzyme was purified from a crude extract obtained by solid-state fermentation (SSF) of triticale waste. The extract was obtained by microfiltration, ultrafiltration (300, 100 and 30 kDa) and DEAE-Sepharose column chromatography. The molecular weight of the purified enzyme was estimated to be 89 kDa by SDS-PAGE. The purified enzyme was most active at pH 5.3 and 56 °C, and retained 50% activity over a wide pH range of 4 to 7. The enzymatic thermostability assay showed that the enzyme retained more than 70% activity at 80 °C for 60 s, 40% activity for 120 s and 9% after 300 s. The phytase showed broad substrate specificity, a Km value of 220 μM and Vmax of 25 μM/min. The purified phytase retained 50% of its activity with phosphorylated compounds such as phenyl phosphate, 1-Naphthyl phosphate, 2-Naphthyl phosphate, p-Nitrophenyl phosphate and Glycerol-2-phosphate. The inhibition of phytase activity by metal ions was observed to be drastically inhibited (50%) by Ca⁺⁺ and was slightly inhibited (10%) by Ni⁺⁺, K⁺, and Na⁺, at 10 and 20 mM concentrations. A positive effect was obtained with Mg⁺⁺, Mn⁺⁺, Cu⁺⁺, Cd⁺⁺ and Ba⁺⁺ at 25 and 35% with stimulatory effect on the phytase activity.
... [7][8][9][10][11][12][13] This is because physical [soaking, steeping, and heating (autoclaving, and cooking)] and chemical (ion exchange and acid treatment) methods used for removal of phytic acid are known to negatively affect the nutritional value of foods. [14,15] Citrobacter koseri PM-7 has been shown to produce a thermo-stable, protease resistant, and pH (acidic to neutral) stable Phy-Ck under both submerged fermentation (SmF) and solid state fermentation. [16] In the present study, Phy-Ck production from Citrobacter koseri PM-7 was optimized using response surface methodology (RSM) [17] under SmF and the enzyme obtained was used to improve the bioaccessibility of mineral ions (Fe and Zn) and in vitro protein digestibility in selected high-phytate food. ...
The present study was aimed at enhancing phytase (Phy-Ck) production from Citrobacter koseri PM-7 using response surface methodology (RSM) and improving the bioaccessibility of minerals (Fe and Zn) and protein digestibility in high-phytate food using Phy-Ck. A five-variable and three-level central composite design of RSM using wheat bran (6.681% w/v), inoculum level (2.5% v/v), and triton-x-100 (0.2% v/v) resulted in up to 5.57-fold (1.047 U/ml) improvement in Phy-Ck yield from C. koseri PM-7 when compared with fermentation media I & II. The model was successfully validated in the design space by taking a random set of variable combinations. Treatment of high-phytate food with partially purified Phy-Ck showed improvement in mineral bioaccessibility maximally for defatted sesame flour (DSF) (Fe 45.5%; Zn 50.7%) followed by wheat flour (WF) (Fe 13.5%; Zn 14.4%), green gram flour (GGF) (Fe 0.7%; Zn 3.8%) and defatted groundnut flour (Zn 5.6%). The in vitro protein digestibility of WF increased from 48.83% to 65.04%, GGF from 45.04 to 57.12%, and DSF from 47.34 to 55.7% after Phy-Ck treatment.
... The phytic acid content was estimated by the procedure of Albarracín et al., 2013 [18]. The total phenolics were measured by spectrophotometer at 650 nm using Folin Ciocelteau reagent in alkaline medium, and were expressed as cafeic acid equivalents. ...
Phaseolus vulgaris L. beans have been characterized as a nearly perfect food in all around the world. It is consider functional in terms of providing nutrients and energy to sustain daily life. Red bean contain high protein, mineral, fibres and chemically diverse micronutrient composition, which can be affected by processing. The main aim of this work is to investigate the effect of open and controlled fermentation on the proximate composition, mineral elements, antinutritional factors and flatulence- causing oligosaccharides of a domesticated bean (Anger, conscope and Loko). Open fermentation was done using endogenous microorganism present in the seed of beans, while controlled fermentation was done on autoclaved beans flour inoculated with thermophilic lactic culture which is a mixed strain culture containing Lactobacillus acidophilus, Bifidobacterium and Streptococcus thermophillus. The result shows that the open and controlled fermentation increased the protein digestibility up to 90% in all samples and 4 days of fermentation time, loko red bean was found to more suitable. The chemical compositions and mineral contain was also high as compared to remaining two verities.
... Ba¤l› fosfor insanlar, köpekler, kufllar ve agastrik hayvanlar›n ba¤›rsaklar›nda fitaz sindirim enzimi bulunmamas›ndan dolay› s›n›rl› hidrolize u¤ramakta ve çok az miktarda kullan›labilmektedir. Oysa fitat fosforunun de¤erlendirilebilmesi için fitik asitin hidrolize u¤ramas› gerekmektedir. Islatma, çimlendirme, fitaz aktivitesi, depolama, piflirme, otoklavlama, d›fl kabu¤un soyularak ö¤ütme yapma ve fermantasyon ifllemleriyle fitat miktar› düflürülmektedir (36)(37)(38). Fitaz enzimi, fitik asidi defosforilasyona u¤ratarak serbet inorganik fosfat ve inositol fosfat esterlerine dönüfltürür. Bu bileflikler daha düflük flelatlama kapsitesine sahiptirler. ...
THE EFFECT of SOURDOUGH FERMENTATION on BREAD BIOACTIVE COMPOUNDS and THEIR BIOAVAILIBILITY
Abstract
The sourdough is a traditional method that has been used in bread making from ancient time and positively affects the quality and shelf life of bread. It occurs as a result of spontaneous fermentation of dough through the microorganisms from flour, water and environment; or it is produced by adding lactic acid bacteria (LAB) as starter to the flour/water mixture. In both methods, the formed metabolites depending on the sourdough microflora, affects the nutritional, flavour, textural and other physicochemical characteristics of the bread. The alterations on the bioactive attributes and the bioavailability of the bread result from biochemical reactions and metabolites of the sourdough fermentation. Most of them are nutritionally favorable effects such as; increase in the protein and mineral bioavailability, enrichment of bioactive compounds content, increase in resistant starch content, the formation of exopolysaccharides, gliadin (toxic to celiac patients) degradation, increase in dietary fiber content, increase in phytase activity, bile acids binding capacity and antioxidant activity due to phenolic compounds.
Keywords: Sourdough, bioactivity, bioavailability, protein digestibility, enzyme resistant starch
The pretreatment process of various foods has been reported to improve their nutritional properties. The soaking of brown rice improves the texture and nutrients, which are crucial for cooking and maintaining its high functional value. Illite, a clay mineral, has recently been discovered to improve the nutritional value of seeds. Based on these findings, we soaked brown rice with different concentrations of illite solution for different durations and allowed the germination to perform analyses. Soaking the brown rice for 6 h with a germination period of 48 h was determined to be the optimal condition because of its higher sprout length. In addition, this optimal condition had improved textural characteristics such as reduced hardness, gumminess, chewiness, and cohesiveness, and it also had increased adhesiveness and stabilized resilience and springiness. The treatment solutions were free from heavy metal contaminants, whereas the mineral contents such as K, Ca, Fe, Mg, and Na were significantly increased with the increase in illite concentration. Moreover, our results showed that illite treatment could preserve the color appearance and seed germination. The ratio of essential amino acids to non-essential amino acids and antioxidants (phenolic contentγ-oryzanol, and flavonoid) of germinated brown rice was considerably increased with illite treatment. In germinated brown rice, an increase in DPPH and superoxide dismutase levels, a slight decrease in flavonoids, and no difference in polyphenol content were observed. These findings suggest that pre-soaking brown rice seeds with the appropriate concentration of illite could enhance their nutritional properties, which might attract consumers' interest to include this in their daily diet.
To obtain rapeseed protein with low phytic acid (PA), soy protein isolate (SPI) was used to investigate the interactions between SPI and PA. The influence of pretreatment (soaking using salt solution and dialysis) of the defatted rapeseed meal on the PA and protein content in the final rapeseed proteins was also studied. The results showed that electrostatic interactions dominated the protein–PA interaction, which was affected by pH and ionic strength. Accordingly, the pH and ionic strength in the soaking medium also influenced the PA remained in the rapeseed proteins. The PA content decreased with the ionic strength (400–800 mM) and relatively low PA was obtained at pH 6.0 (soaking environment). Finally, 52.8 % of the PA have been removed and PA content remained in rapeseed protein isolate (RPI) reached about 0.84 mg/g, at the same time, the protein content was maintained around 86.70 %. Overall, soaking using salt solution and dialysis could be an effective method to achieve high quality rapeseed protein with low PA.
This article provides an overview of various studies reporting the correlation and mechanism of increased GABA, phenolic components, and antioxidant reactions in sprouted rice. Sprouted rice is viewed as a functional food because it contains nutrients such as GABA, antioxidants, and other metabolites that are excellent for health. The germination process significantly increases the availability of nutrients such as GABA by 15.4-fold and antioxidant activity by 0.43%. Germination not only adds to the nutrients already present but also introduces new components such as inositol, g-oryzanol, ferulic acid, phytic acid, zinc, tocotrienols, potassium, and prolyl endopeptidase inhibitors. Thus, sprouted rice products can be used as a means of dietary improvement and also as health-promoting foods.
Zinc is essential for the overall well-being of the human body due to its numerous structural, catalytic, and signalling functions. Therefore, maintaining a constant state of zinc homeostasis is crucial. The disturbances in zinc homeostasis are linked to numerous diseases and disorders, including metabolic syndrome and neurodegenerative diseases. In this review, we have discussed a general overview of zinc absorption and homeostasis, particularly the factors affecting zinc absorption and the body’s mechanisms to maintain zinc homeostasis at both the systemic and cellular levels.
In recent years, consumers have been concentrating on the health benefits and nutrition from food to preserve a healthy lifestyle. They are looking for colorants derived from natural sources to enhance the nutritional and antioxidant value of foods. Coloured cereals (wheat, rice, barley, oat, maize, sorghum, and millets) contain many phytochemicals, including anthocyanins and carotenoids associated with numerous health benefits. This book presents a comprehensive overview of the bioactive potential, food applications, and health benefits of coloured cereal grains. Novel approaches to the integration of coloured grain into food in the food processing industries are included, reviewing high-value pigments in the bran layer which can easily be extracted and utilized as functional foods and natural colorants.
Aimed at researchers carrying out innovative studies, food regulatory and safety authorities and food processing industries who are trying to minimize synthetic food colorants and dyes, this book provides a novel approach to the use of substitute synthetic dyes which can improve the nutritional value, appearance, texture, flavour, and storage properties of food products.
Phytic acid (PA), an endogenous antinutrient in cereals and legumes, hinders mineral absorption by forming less bioavailable, stable PA-mineral complexes. For individual micronutrients, the PA-to-mineral molar ratio below the critical level ensures better bioavailability and is achieved by adding minerals or removing PA from cereals and pulses. Although several PA reduction and fortification strategies are available, the inability to completely eradicate or degrade PA using available techniques always subdues fortification's impact by hindering fortified micronutrient absorption. The bioavailability of micronutrients could be increased through simultaneous PA degradation and fortification. Following primary PA reduction of the raw material, the fortification step should also incorporate additional essential control stages to further PA inactivation, improving micronutrient absorption. In this review, the chemistry of PA interaction with metal ions, associated controlling parameters, and its impact on PA reduction during fortification is also evaluated, and further suggestions were made for the fortification's success.
Due to the rapid increase of human pupolation, the need for food suplly particularly quality food has been increased. Cereals are one of the major foods in human dite that contain beneficial compounds such as minerals, fiber, vitamins and amino acids, so they are widely consumed by humans, animals and poultry. Phytic acid is one of the chemical compounds that is present in a large quantity in cereals. It can bind to other important elements such as iron, zinc, calcium, magnesium and manganese, in which prevents the human body and animals, especially simple stomach animals to absorb these elements. Also, most of the phosphorus, which is necessary for the formation of bones, has been locked in the structural composition of this material in such a way that it cannot be easily absorbed by the body. Decreased absorption of iron by the body due to the presence of phytic acid in cereals can cause anemia. In addition, it inhibits the production of pepsin and amylase enzymes, which in turn causes digestive problems. However, a number of scientists have reported its positive effects on cancer treatment, prevention of kidney stones and treatment of diabetes. Research findings show that phytic acid can be reduced by phytase enzymes, hydration, germination, heating, fermentation, parboiling and hot hydratation. In this article, the harmful effects of phytic acid on the nutritional quality of cereals are described and various methods of reducing phytic acid content are introduced to the reader based on the latest research findings from reliable sources.
PurposeIron deficiency is one of the most common nutrient deficiencies in developing countries. As synthetic iron supplements cause serious side effects, consumption of iron-rich natural food is encouraged. Moringa oleifera (Moringa) leaves are widely known for their rich iron content (28 mg/100 g). However, the bioavailability of iron is less due to the presence of anti-nutritional factors such as phytate, tannins, and polyphenols. Hence, the present study aimed to determine the optimal treatment method for reducing the phytate content in M. oleifera leaves.Methods
Powdered leaves were blanched and acid-soaked at different temperatures and pH. Then, the processed samples were estimated for their total phytate and iron content.ResultsBlanching at 100 °C for 10 min reduced phytic acid up to 61.5%. Soaking with lemon at pH 2 reduced the 67.25% of phytic acid. However, the treatment with tamarind caused a nominal phytate reduction (from 10.3 to 57.76%). Moreover, the molar ratio of phytate:iron obtained by acid soaking (0.76) was lesser than the critical value.Conclusion
Overall results suggest that the acid soaking of Moringa leaves at lower pH was more effective in reducing phytic acid and increased iron bioavailability.
This study investigated the effect of paddy rice and brown rice germination on their phytic acid, phytase, GABA, γ-oryzanol, phenolics, flavonoids and antioxidant capacity. The GABA content and phytase activity in the rice germinated in the form of paddy (GP) were respectively lower than those in the rice germinated in the form of brown rice (GBR), and the level of phytic acid in GP was higher than that in GBR during germination processes from 18 h to 72 h. However, the contents of total γ-oryzanol, free phenolic, total phenolics, free flavonoids and total flavonoids in GP were higher than those in GBR during germination processes (18-72 h). The antioxidant activities of DPPH and T-AOC in GP were respectively higher than those in the GBR during germination processes (18-72 h). These results demonstrated that GP produced more γ-oryzanol, phenolics, flavonoids content and higher antioxidant activities, but less GABA than those in GBR. This work might be useful for the specific aim of choosing germination ways and for the development of wholegrain foods.
The present chapter shows an overview of the production of bioactive peptides (BAPs) obtained from food matrices, using fermentation processes. It shows that it is possible to obtain BAPs from milk, meat, and vegetable proteins and emphasizes scientific production and the proven benefits that milk protein-derived BAPs provide to health. It also emphasizes a promising outlook in BAP production by fully using meat and vegetable proteins using food industry by-products, which also helps to mitigate waste environmental issue. For viable and safe BAPs industrial production, advances about in vivo research and adaptations of biotechnological processes for this scale of production are required.
Fermented food and beverages constitute a significant part of the human diet (5%–40%) worldwide. Fermentation has been used for preservation and to augment the flavor, texture, and nutritional qualities of the food, since antiquity. During fermentation, the bioavailability of vitamins, minerals, and other constituents increases due to the microorganisms’ metabolic activities. Besides enhancing nutritional quality, fermented foods contain live organisms reported to prevent/treat many health disorders. Types of the fermentation process are also classified based on these microorganisms. In developing countries, fermented foods were usually prepared using traditional methods without any standardized techniques. Considering the beneficial effects of fermented foods, industrial-level production requires consistent specific microorganisms, fermentation methods, evaluation of nutritional compositions, and food safety testing. This chapter discusses the fermented foods and associated organisms, different sources available for the consumption of fermented foods, and food component’s effect on microorganism’s efficacy.
Antinutritional factors (ANFs) are naturally occurring compounds present in foods that may be responsible for reduction of nutrient utilization after consumption. The plant-derived antinutrients have adverse effects that are responsible for the absorption of nutrients and micronutrients. Certain antinutrients can exhibit health benefits at lower concentrations. Based on their stability toward heat, the ANFs can be classified as heat-stable (tannins, saponins, phytic acid, alkaloids, nonprotein amino acids, etc.) and heat-labile (protease inhibitors, lectins, toxic amino acids, and cyanogenic glycosides, etc.) groups. The majority of deleterious effects of these compounds can be eliminated by processing methods like soaking, germination, boiling, autoclaving, fermentation, genetic manipulation, etc. The desirable benefits of fermentation along with its ability to enhance the bio-accessibility and bioavailability of nutrients from different crops make it a popular process for neutralizing the ANFs.
Methodology
Heat and mass diffusion phenomena are found in various processes of technological interest, including pasteurization, drying and water immersion of agricultural products, among others. The objective of this work was to study the process of water absorption by rice grains with and without husk, using diffusion and empirical models to describe the absorption kinetics. Rice grains were immersed (approximately 10 g for each experiment) in drinking water maintained at constant temperatures of 28, 40 and 50 ºC. In the experiments, the water contents absorbed by rice grains over time were obtained by the gravimetric method.
Purpose
To describe water absorption by the rice grains over time, diffusion and empirical models were used. Also, an optimization software was developed in this study to determine parameters and their uncertainties for the diffusion models (LS Optimizer, for partial differential equations). Parameters (and their uncertainties) for empirical models were determined by LAB Fit Curve Fitting Software.
Findings
Among empirical models, Peleg was the most satisfactory to describe the kinetics of water absorption by rice without husk, while Silva et alii model had the best statistical indicators for rice with husk. It was also verified that a diffusion model with boundary condition of the first kind showed the best (or equivalent) results in the description of all processes of kinetics of water absorption by rice grains, with and without husk. For grains without husk, the effective mass diffusivities were (1.186±0.045)x10-9, (1.312±0.024)x10-9 and (2.133±0.028)x10-9 m2 min-1, for the immersion temperatures of 28, 40 and 50 ºC, respectively. For grains with husk, diffusivities were (0.675±0.011)x10-9 and (1.269±0.017)x10-9 m2 min-1, for temperatures of 28 and 50 ºC, respectively.
Originality
This work developed a solver for the diffusion equation in cylindrical geometry and presented the LS Optimizer software developed to determine differential equation parameters through experimental data sets.
High content of biogenic amine (BA) in huangjiu could pose serious quality concerns. More than 71% of BA in huangjiu were carried over from seriflux (rice soaking wastewater), which were produced by some BA producing bacteria during rice soaking process. A BA non-producing strain, Lactobacillus plantarum JN01, was introduced to rice soaking process, which decreased BA content in seriflux by 93.8% by niche competition at bench scale. Recycling of seriflux inoculated with L. plantarum JN01 at pilot run scale for ten batches demonstrated that BA in seriflux and huangjiu were reduced by 78.4% and 87.7%, respectively. The safety of huangjiu was enormously improved without affecting on the profiles of flavor compounds. Our results demostrated that seriflux recycling technology could reduce 50% of water consumption and achieve “zero effluents” in rice soaking process, which might potentially be a “green technology” not only for huangjiu brewing industry, but also for other related traditional fermented food industries.
Phytic acid (PA) is the primary phosphorus reserve in cereals and legumes which serves the biosynthesis needs of growing tissues during germination. It is generally considered to be an anti-nutritional factor found in grains because it can bind to minerals, proteins, and starch, limiting their bioavailability. However, this same mineral binding property can also confer a number of health benefits such as reducing the risk of certain cancers, supporting heart health, and managing renal stones. In addition, the ability of PA to bind minerals allows it to be used in certain food quality applications such as stabilizing the green color of vegetables, preventing lipid peroxidation, and reducing enzymatic browning in fruits/vegetables. These beneficial properties create a potential for added-value applications in the utilization of PA in many new areas. Many possible processing techniques for the preparation of raw materials in the food industry can be used to reduce the concentration of PA in foods to mitigate its anti-nutritional effects. In turn, the recovered PA by-products could be available for novel uses. In this review, a general overview of the beneficial and anti-nutritional effects of PA will be discussed and then dephytinization methods will be explained.
In this study, raw and germinated quinoa seed flour was utilized in gluten-free pasta formulation. Rice:corn semolina (50:50) blend was used in gluten-free pasta as a control group. Quinoa flours were replaced with rice:corn semolina blend at different (0–30%) ratios in gluten-free pasta formulation. Guar gum (3%) was also used to tolerate structural defects caused by gluten deficiency. Trials were conducted according to (2 × 4) × 2 factorial design. Color values, cooking properties, and chemical and sensory attributes of gluten-free pasta samples were determined. Quinoa flour type and quinoa flour addition ratio factors significantly (p < 0.05) affected the L*, a* color values and all of the cooking properties of the gluten-free pasta samples. Utilization of germinated quinoa flour in gluten-free pasta revealed lower water uptake, volume increase, firmness, and higher cooking loss values than that of raw quinoa flour. Quinoa flour especially improved the mean values of protein, total phenolic content, antioxidant activity from 8.1%, 0.7 mg GAE/g, and 13.4%, up to 12.7%, 1.5 mg GAE/g, and 28.8%, respectively. A significant (p < 0.05) increment was observed in Ca, Fe, K, Mg, P, and Z content of the gluten-free pasta and all addition ratios of quinoa flour. As a result, increasing amount of quinoa flour enriched the nutritional composition of gluten-free pasta but high utilization ratio resulted in slight sensory losses.
The effects of soaking, germination, fermentation, and thermal processing on the bioaccessible copper (Cu), manganese (Mn), and chromium (Cr) from selected food grains as well as from some chiefly consumed food products—idli, dosa, and dhokla were investigated. Soaking of the legumes (chickpea and green gram) and cereal–pulse combinations (rice + black gram) used for idli and dosa preparation, improved the bioaccessible Cr; however, the bioaccessible Cu and Mn were reduced. Germination improved the Cu and Cr bioaccessibility. Fermentation enhanced only the Cr bioaccessibility in idli and dosa batter. Also, cooking enhanced only the bioaccessible Cu in idli and dosa. The beneficial effects of these processing methods were more visible in Cr bioaccessibility, followed by Cu. The present study can be helpful in understanding the effects of household methods on the bioaccessibility of less understood minerals (Cu, Mn, and Cr), and thus, in developing dietary strategies. Copper (Cu), manganese (Mn), and chromium (Cr) are the essential trace minerals required by humans for normal physiological functions. Cereals and pulses are the primary sources of these minerals. However, the bioavailabilities of these minerals from plant foods are compromised due to the presence of several antinutrients such as phytates, polyphenols, oxalates, etc. Household methods such as soaking, germination, fermentation, and thermal processing are known to affect the bioavailability of minerals both positively and negatively. However, the information on the effect of these food processing methods on Cu, Mn, and Cr is poorly documented. In this study, we reported the beneficial effect of germination and thermal processing on bioaccessible Cu, and, soaking, germination, and fermentation on bioaccessible Cr from food grains. Thus, we can recommend using these household methods to access the plant foods with higher bioavailability of essential trace minerals, Cu and Cr.
Although rice bran (RB) as a healthy-functional ingredient can be utilized to develop newly texturized foods, the phytic acid (PA) present in this bioactive constituent can significantly reduce the digestibility and quality of the final products. RB was hydrothermally processed at different operational conditions (i.e., temperature (Tp, 45–90 °C), time (Ti, 50–110 min), pH (3.0–6.0) and solid/solvent (So/St, 3–6 w/v) and optimized to attain the lowest PA content and color changes (ΔE) by response surface methodology-central composite design (RSM-CCD). The optimal hydrothermally RB (3.0–9.0% flour) was mixed and the dough rheology (e.g., farinographic (i.e., water absorption (WA); development time, stability time (ST), and softening degree (SD)), and extensographic (extension resistance (ER), extensibility, and energy) factors) was assessed. The second-order polynomial model (R2 = 0.987) was adequately fitted to the PA experimental data. The optimization results revealed that the least response variables (PA of 788 mg/kg and ΔE of 22) were obtained at 43.37 °C Tp, 94.38 min Ti, pH 7.0, and So/St of 8.0. An increase in the RB concentration led to a significant decrease in ER, ST, and extensibility (p < 0.05), whereas the WA, ER, and energy were increased remarkably. Moreover, the SD value (171.0 BU) was maximized by adding 3% treated-RB, while the incorporation peak level resulted in the minimum level (146.0 BU) of SD (p < 0.05). An integration of optimized hydrothermal processing and formulation enrichment might improve the nutritional and rheological quality of structured wheat flour-based doughs.
Optimal cookies formulation was determined by conducting an experimental design and used to make gluten‐free products with native and malted, white and red sorghum flours. Cookies were evaluated regarding physicochemical, sensory, nutritional, and bio‐functional properties. The cooking effect was determined by comparing the content of bioactive compounds before and after baking. Cookies based on malted sorghum flours showed higher protein digestibility (42% vs. 38%), chemical score (98% for malted red sorghum cookies), and bio‐functional components (GABA and free phenolic acids) than those made with native sorghum flours. Moreover, the cooking process increased the extractability of phenolic acids and maintained a high level of GABA. White and red sorghum flours could be a potential biofunctional gluten‐free ingredient, with high bakery, sensory, and bio‐functional attributes. Moreover, cookies could be a good vehicle for bioactive compounds since the mild heat treatment used for baking. The increased demand for functional foods and new foods suitable for the celiac population by consumers creates a challenge for food scientists and technologists. Even though scientists often study different bioactive compounds and healthy food ingredients, most of the studies do not cover the effects of cooking on these bioactive compounds in specific foods, which involve different conditions of humidity, temperatures and times. In this sense, native and malted whole sorghum flours are an interesting alternative of whole grain‐gluten‐free ingredients. Cookies made with these ingredients showed good sensory and cooking characteristics, as well as a high content of bioactive compounds. Moreover, the cooking process increased the bioactive potential. Thus, cookies made with white and red sorghum flours could be a very good vehicle for these compounds. This work could be used by the food industry to obtain new gluten‐free products with biofunctional properties.
In this research, effect of soaking time, acidity and temperature on the removal of lead and cadmium from rice was investigated. Different rice treatments were involved i.e. three soaking times (0, 15, and 30 min), three temperatures (20, 25, and 30 °C) and four concentrations of glacial acetic acid (0.5%, 1%, 2%, and 3%). Results showed that few samples have shown lead concentrations above the maximum limit set by the World Health Organization (WHO) and the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of 0.2 mg/kg, whereas, all cadmium concentrations were below the limit of 0.4 mg/kg. A decrease in lead and cadmium concentrations were observed with increasing time of soaking. Lead had the lowest concentration at 20 °C, while cadmium had the lowest concentration at 30 °C. Cadmium concentration decreased with increasing water acidity, while the lead concentration reached the lowest concentration with 1% acidity.
Plant-based foods gain more importance since they play a key role in sustainable, low-meat and healthy diets. In developing countries, these food products, especially legumes and cereals, are important staple foods. Nevertheless, the question arises on how efficient they are to deliver minerals and if it is useful to encourage their consumption to reduce the prevalence of mineral deficiencies? This review paper focuses on the discrepancy between the mineral content and the amount of minerals that can be released and absorbed from plant-based foods during human digestion which can be attributed to several inherent factors such as the presence of mineral antinutrients (phytic acid, polyphenols and dietary fiber) and physical barriers (surrounding macronutrients and cell wall). Further, this review paper summarizes the effects of different processing techniques (milling, soaking, dehulling, fermentation, germination and thermal processing) on mineral bioaccessibility and bioavailability of plant-based foods. The positive impact of these techniques mostly relies on the fact that antinutrients levels are reduced due to removal of fractions rich in antinutrients and/or due to their leaching into the processing liquid. Although processing can have a positive effect, it also can induce leaching out of minerals and a reduced mineral bioaccessibility and bioavailability.
Background
As minerals have diverse functionalities and potentials in the body's metabolism and homeostasis, deficiency of these bioactive constituents can result in an abundant incidence of common disorders and disease symptoms. Maintenance knowledge of the mineral content in terms of safe food fortification and processing techniques can significantly increase their absorption and bioavailability rate.
Scope and approach
This overview mainly discusses current investigations about the identification of high-available sources and remarkable functions of mineral elements, quantification methods for the bioavailability assessment, and influence of different processing practices and usual fortification strategies on mineral content and quality of staple food products.
Key findings and conclusions
The most dominant minerals to fortify various food preparations are iron, calcium, zinc and iodine. Utilization of isotopic approaches can sensitively determine the bioavailability values of food minerals. Modern processing techniques (e.g., high pressure and sonication) compared with the conventional processes have lower negative impacts on the content of micro- and macro-minerals. Accumulation of mineral elements in the edible tissues of crops using agrobiotechnological techniques (e.g., gene overexpression and activation control) and their direct fortification into formulation of processed foods along with nanoencapsulation could enhance the concentration and bioaccessibility of these bioactive ingredients.
In the present study, the dual effects of slightly acidic electrolyzed water (SAEW) treatment on γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and rutin accumulation of germinated buckwheat were evaluated during germination. The results showed that SAEW treatment (pH 5.83, ACC of 20.3 mg/L) could promote the accumulation of GABA and rutin in germinated buckwheat. The GABA and rutin contents of SAEW-germinated buckwheat reached 143.20 and 739.9mg/100g respectively, which is significantly higher than those of control (P < 0.05). Moreover, SAEW treatment could increase the activity of glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD) and phenylalnine ammonialyase (PAL) and thus result in the GABA and rutin accumulation of germinated buckwheat. The results suggested that SAEW treatment could promote the rutin accumulation of germinated buckwheat by influencing phenylpropanoid secondary metabolic pathway instead of the inhibition of rutin degrading enzyme (RDE) activity. In addition, SAEW treatment had no adverse impact on the sprouts growth and could reduce the microbial populations of germinated buckwheat during germination.
The effects of ultrasound and microwave applications on color, phytic acid, protein and mineral content of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.), soybean (Glycine Max. L.), wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and corn (Zea mays L.) seeds were investigated. The loss of carotenoid pigments with ultrasound application is lower than with microwave application. This study showed that ultrasound application at 25°C gave significantly(p< 0.01) lower values in redness, yellowness,chroma and hue angle values of legume seeds and cereal grains compared to other application. The phytic acid loss was found to be higher in microwave application compared to ultrasound applications in all seeds. There was significant reduction in amount of protein and calcium, magnesium, photassium, phosphorus, iron and zinc in all seeds during all the applications to various extents. Ultrasound application at 25°C showed significant retention of minerals compared to other applications in all the seeds studied.
Driven by increased health awareness among consumers, the production of foods and beverages enriched with functional bioactive components is gaining more attention. Malting and lactic acid fermentation are biotechnological processes having potential for producing functional foods and beverages. Due to various biochemical and enzymatic induced changes in raw materials, malting of cereal grains and probiotic lactic acid fermentation of plant-based media increases the nutritional quality of treated raw materials. The improved nutritional quality is attributed to the accumulation of functional bioactive components along with the degradation of anti-nutritional components. The selection of raw materials and process parameters are important factors to be considered for increasing the functional bioactive components such as dietary fibres, antioxidants and probiotics. This review article reports the current knowledge on the changes of bioactive components during malting and lactic acid fermentation using probiotic bacterial strains. Process parameters which affect the concentration of bioactive components in raw materials will also be described.
A definition of whole grain is a critical first step in investigating health claims for whole grain and its products. Today, there is no internationally accepted definition of whole grain. Some existing definitions are broad and commodity-based, including grains with similar end uses, while others are more restricted. Scientific knowledge must be the basis for inclusion of certain grains. It is better to start with a restricted list of grains (a precautionary principle) and extend this as more knowledge becomes available. An exact definition of the raw materials (milled, cracked, crushed, rolled, or flaked) and knowledge of the components providing health effects would appear to be crucial issues for the European authorities when approving health claims. It is important that health claims are evidence-based, sustainable, and officially validated.
The effect of reducing the phytate in soy-protein isolates on nonheme-iron absorption was examined in 32 human subjects. Iron absorption was measured by using an extrinsic radioiron label in liquid-formula meals containing hydrolyzed corn starch, corn oil, and either egg white or one of a series of soy-protein isolates with different phytate contents. Iron absorption increased four- to fivefold when phytic acid was reduced from its native amount of 4.9-8.4 to less than 0.01 mg/g of isolate. Even relatively small quantities of residual phytate were strongly inhibitory and phytic acid had to be reduced to less than 0.3 mg/g of isolate (corresponding to less than 10 mg phytic acid/meal) before a meaningful increase in iron absorption was observed. However, even after removal of virtually all the phytic acid, iron absorption from the soy-protein meal was still only half that of the egg white control. It is concluded that phytic acid is a major inhibitory factor of iron absorption in soy-protein isolates but that other factors contribute to the poor bioavailability of iron from these products.
Despite mention in the Dietary Guidelines for Healthy Americans and in Healthy People 2010, the lack of a coordinated campaign promoting whole grain foods and their health benefits may be contributing to low consumption. Fiber consumption in the U.S. likewise falls below recommended levels, in part, as a result of suboptimal intake of whole grain foods. Research findings suggest that whole grain is related to reduced disease risk, and that whole grain foods have relevant biological activity in humans. This necessitates a call to action to help Americans increase whole grain consumption as a strategy for health. The establishment of a whole grain coalition could promote increased consumption by developing consumer messages: partnering with health professionals: advocating whole grains to government agencies; seeking funding for scientific research and market research; and educating consumers, as well as health professionals, food manufacturers and millers, about the value and benefit of whole grains.
Whole-grain foods have always been considered a healthy part of the diet. Only recently have epidemiologic and other data shown that whole grains have a role in preventing cardiovascular disease, diabetes, some types of cancer, and even obesity. What nearly all consumers and most health professionals fail to realize is that whole grains deliver as many if not more phytochemicals and antioxidants than do fruits and vegetables. Healthy People 2010 (DHHS) recommends 3 servings of whole grains per day. Because the average intake in the United States is less than 1 serving per day, health professionals must mount an active campaign to help consumers better understand the important health benefits of whole grains and work to increase their intake in the diet.
Iron, zinc, and calcium dialyzability from preterm and term starting infant formulas were determined after in vitro digestion, using special gastric conditions prevailing in preterm and newborn infants. Mineral dialyzability was studied using pH 2.0,3.5, and 4.5 for gastric digestion. The effect of gastric pH was more important on iron dialyzability (FeD) and zinc dialyzability (ZnD) than on calcium dialyzability (CaD). The effect on iron dialyzability was remarkable in fluid formulations with high digestibility: FeD was 18% to 20% when gastric digestion was made at pH 2, decreasing to 3% when made at pH 4.5. In most powder infant formulas with the lowest digestibility, FeD remained close to 10% despite variations in gastric digestion pH. Percent zinc dialyzability (ZnD%) steadily decreased when gastric digestion pH increased. At each pH, percent iron dialyzability (FeD%) and ZnD% from human milk were higher than those from infant formulas. Evaluation of mineral dialyzability from these infant formulas, using a gastric digestion pH prevailing in preterm and newborn infants, can provide valuable information on mineral availability.
The phytases (EC 3.1.3.26) and acid phosphatases (EC 3.1.3.2) of rice bran were purified. Four acid phosphatases were purified from rice bran: F1 and F2 had phytase activity, but F3 and F4 did not. The optimum pH of F1 and F2 for phytic acid were 4.4 and 4.6, respectively, and those of F1, F2, F3, and F4 for p-nitrophenyl phosphate were 5.1, 5.2, 5.4, and 6.0, respectively. Their molecular weights were estimated to be about 59-70K by SDS polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, velocity density gradient centrifugation, and gel filtration on Ultrogel. The isoelectric points of F1, F2, F3, and F4 were 5.1, 5.1, 5.6, and 5.9, respectively. F1, F2, F3, and F4 had a violet color and F2 showed an absorption maximum peak at 560 nm. They had broad substrate specificities.
The influence of phytic acid and ascorbic acid content of soy formula on iron (Fe) bioavailability was investigated in infants by analysis of the incorporation of stable isotopes of Fe into red blood cells 14 d after administration using a double stable isotope technique. Paired comparisons were made with each infant acting as his or her own control. The geometric mean fractional Fe incorporation into red blood cells increased from 5.5 to 6.8% (p<0.05) when soy formula with the native content of phytic acid was compared with a 83% dephytinized formula. A more pronounced effect was shown with soy formula containing no phytic acid; the mean fractional Fe incorporation increased from 3.9 (native phytic acid) to 8.7% (zero phytic acid; p < 0.001). A significant (p < 0.01) effect was also demonstrated when the Fe:ascorbic acid molar ratio in the native phytate-containing formula was increased from 1:2.1 to 1:4.2; mean fractional Fe incorporation increased from 5.9 to 9.6%. These results demonstrate that the Fe bioavailability from soy-based infant formulas can be similarly increased by either removing phytic acid or increasing the ascorbic acid content.
The extent of phytate-protein interaction in aqueous extracts of a high lysine and a commercial hybrid corn germ, soybean flakes, and sesame meal was investigated. The phytate in corn germ is relatively more water soluble than is the protein; in soybean flakes it is proportionally soluble and in sesame phytate is markedly less soluble than total protein. As shown by gel electrophoresis at pH 9 or greater, several proteins in an aqueous extract of soybean flakes complex with phytate whereas those of corn germ do not. Gel filtration on Sephadex G-50 at pH 4.4 also clearly separates phytate from corn germ proteins. The amino acid compositions of the crude extracts do not explain the difference in phytate binding inasmuch as there was no correlation with the concentrations of the basic amino acids. Dilute HCl (0.3 M) extracted phytate and counterions from a sesame meal residue and these precipitated when neutralized with NaOH. The insoluble phytate had a composition (Na2Mg5 phytate) which suggests that phytate exists in sesame seed, and perhaps most seeds, as a magnesium phytate, probably K2Mg5 phytate, and not as phytin (Ca5Mg phytate).
Phytin accounts for about 70% of the phosphorus in soybean meal. In extracting proteins from the meal, the phytin reacts with the proteins to form complex products of varying composition. In the water extract of the meal, which has pH of about 6.6, the reaction is limited but increases as the pH is lowered for precipitation of the protein. It has been demonstrated that phytin can be eliminated from water extract of soybean meal by a combination of dialysis and treatment with the anionic-exchange resin Dowex-1-X10. Electrophoretic studies have shown that one minor component of the acid-precipitated protein is a protein-phytin reaction product, and two other minor components are affected by the presence of phytin. Removing the phytin raises the isoelectric point of the acid-precipitated protein by 0.8 unit, and increases the pH range of complete dispersibility on the acid side of its isoelectric point.
Iron, zinc, and calcium dialyzability from preterm and term starting infant formulas were determined after in vitro digestion, using special gastric conditions prevailing in preterm and newborn infants. Mineral dialyzability was studied using pH 2.0,3.5, and 4.5 for gastric digestion. The effect of gastric pH was more important on iron dialyzability (FeD) and zinc dialyzability (ZnD) than on calcium dialyzability (CaD). The effect on iron dialyzability was remarkable in fluid formulations with high digestibility: FeD was 18% to 20% when gastric digestion was made at pH 2, decreasing to 3% when made at pH 4.5. In most powder infant formulas with the lowest digestibility, FeD remained close to 10% despite variations in gastric digestion pH. Percent zinc dialyzability (ZnD%) steadily decreased when gastric digestion pH increased. At each pH, percent iron dialyzability (FeD%) and ZnD% from human milk were higher than those from infant formulas. Evaluation of mineral dialyzability from these infant formulas, using a gastric digestion pH prevailing in preterm and newborn infants, can provide valuable information on mineral availability.
The effect of extrusion cooking of a high fibre cereal product on zinc absorption was studied using radioisotopic labelling of single meals and measurement of whole-body retention. Thirty-three subjects participated in the study. Three extruded products were tested containing 10 % gluten, 20 or 30 % wheat bran and 60 or 70 % starch and compared to the corresponding non-extruded ingredients. One additional product was extruded after reduction of the phytate content. The test products were served with a cooked meal or with milk as the main ingredient of a breakfast. When served with a cooked high protein meal there was no difference in Zn absorption from an extruded product or corresponding raw materials, 36·6±2·0% and 31·8±3·1% respectively. Zn absorption from a breakfast including 150 g of an extruded product was only 6·2±0·6%. However, Zn absorption was greatly improved when the extrusion was performed after reduction of the phytate content.
Complementary foods based on cereals and legumes often contain high amounts of phytic acid, a potent inhibitor of mineral and trace element absorption. The possibility to degrade phytic acid during the production of complementary foods by using whole grain cereals as the phytase source was investigated. Whole grain rye, wheat, or buckwheat (10%) were added to cereal-legume-based complementary food mixtures, and phytic acid was shown to be completely degraded in a relatively short time (1.5 to 3 h) when incubated at optimal conditions for cereal phytase. The potential usefulness of the method for industrial production was demonstrated with a complementary food based on wheat and soybean.
With the aim to maximise phytic acid removal and minimise losses of dry matter and minerals (Ca, Fe, Zn) in rice, three products (whole kernels and flour milled from white and brown rice; and bran, all from the same batch of variety Kenjian 90-31) were soaked in demineralized water at 10 °C (SDW), NaAc buffer of pH 3.5 at 10 °C (SAB), and 500 U L−1 phytase of pH 5.5 at 50 °C (SPS). In whole kernels and flour of white rice, phytic acid removal was 100% by all treatments; losses of dry matter, Ca, Fe, and Zn were 2–5%, 12–63%, 9–10%, and apparent gain of 63–72%, respectively. In whole brown rice, SAB removed 75% phytic acid, and SPS 100% from flour; dry matter, Ca, Fe, and Zn losses were 1–16%, 26–56%, 39–45%, and 23–24%. In rice bran, SPS removed 92% phytic acid, and SAB 50%; dry matter, Ca, Zn, and Fe losses were 20%, 48%, 63%, and apparent gain of 5%, respectively.
Bioavailability is key to the effectiveness of functional foods. Among functional food components minerals have a key function in their essential role for a healthy life. Deficiencies in essential minerals are seen as a major nutritional problem in the world today. This review investigates the impact of food processing on the bioavailability of minerals. The findings of the last decade clearly show that there is no simple relation between food processing and bioavailability. Processing can have a positive impact through separation or partitioning of minerals (enrichment), or through the destruction of inhibitors or, the beneficial complex formation between food components and metal ions, thereby enhancing their availability. However, the impact can also be negative by deactivating enzymes that degrade inhibitors or by generating insoluble metal compounds (e.g. oxidation, precipitation). Potential for the modulation of bioavailability will arise when the speciation of metal ions and their fate in processing and in the body are better understood.
The effects of soaking whole cereal (maize, millet, rice, sorghum) and legume seeds (mung bean, cowpea, soybean) on iron (Fe), zinc (Zn) and phytate (Phy) contents were investigated. In all the above cereals, except millet, the molar ratios of Phy/Fe were above than 14, and ratios of Phy/Zn were above 20 while, in legumes, ratios were lower. Soaking whole seeds for 24 h led to leaching of iron and, to a lesser extent, of zinc ions into the soaking medium. Soaking led to a significant (P⩽0.05) reduction in the phytate content of millet, maize, rice and soybean, but did not improve the Phy/Fe molar ratio, while decreasing the Phy/Zn molar ratio only slightly. Soaking on its own was not found to be a good method for improving mineral bioavailability but the results showed that, in combination with other treatments, or with optimized soaking conditions, it could nevertheless prove useful.
There are presently several fundamentally different technologies to produce infant formulas (IF), such as sterilization, spray-drying, and treatment at ultrahigh temperature (UHT). The effects of heat treatment on milk proteins in IF were analyzed by column chromatography, gel electrophoresis, and Kjeldahl analysis, revealing strong protein-protein and protein-lipid interactions in processed milk. These interactions were more pronounced in conventionally (in-can) sterilized than in spray-dried (powdered) and UHT products confirming their temperature dependency. Analysis of raw materials, intermediate and end products of IF processing revealed that after homogenization the first indications of protein denaturation occurred, but that in-can sterilization as the final heat treatment caused irreversible denaturation of proteins and strong protein-lipid interactions. Lowering of the pH to 4-5, which is physiological for the stomach of young infants, enhanced the interactions. Support for an impairment of protein digestibility was given by in vitro analysis of protein digestibility, demonstrating significantly lower digestibility of in-can sterilized IF compared to their spray-dried and UHT counterparts. To investigate the effect of heat treatment on chemical reactions, i.e., occurrence of Maillard products, we showed by a fluorimetric assay that the amount of "available" lysine is lower in sterilized than in powdered IF. Our findings suggest that a more differentiated view regarding the protein quality of IF is needed.
An in vitro method for estimating food iron availability is described. The method involves simulated gastrointestinal digestion followed by measurement of soluble, low molecular weight iron. Mixtures of foods (meals) were homogenized and exposed to pepsin at pH 2. Dialysis was used to adjust the pH to intestinal levels and digestion was continued after the addition of pancreatin and bile salts. Iron from the digestion mixture which diffused across a 6 to 8000 molecular weight cutoff semipermeable membrane was used as an indicator of available iron. Results were similar when intrinsic food iron or added extrinsic radioiron was measured. Availability estimates were made on meals formulated to contain known iron availability enhancing and inhibiting factors. Relative availabilities determined for a series of meals containing ascorbic acid, eggs, orange juice, tea, coffee, cola, or whole wheat bread show that the method accurately reflects actual food iron availability.
The effect of acetic acid on the dissolution of proteins in rice was studied to elucidate the mechanism for the textural change induced by the acid by chemical and SDS-PAGE analyses of the rice proteins in the soaking solution. More proteins were extracted with 0.2 M acetic acid (pH 2.7) than with water (pH 6.8). The effect of acetic acid on the protein dissolution increased with increasing temperature. Immunoblotting confirmed that, when rice was soaked in acetic acid, glutelin was dissolved into the soaking solution and degraded by aspartic proteinase. Aspartic proteinase degraded glutelin much more than it did albumin and globulin. It was found that the combined amount of albumin and globulin dissolved into the acetic acid solution was much larger than that of glutelin, despite the smaller amounts present of albumin and globulin than of glutelin. Metal ions were extracted more with acetic acid than with water. In addition, carboxypeptidase was activated under the acidic condition and resulted in an increase in the amount of free amino acids. The main effect of acetic acid on the dissolution of rice proteins was enhancement of the solubility of albumin, globulin, and glutelin, the effect of proteases being minor.
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Solubility and digestibility of milk protein in infant formulas exposed at different heat treatments Phytin elimination in soybean protein isolation Impact of processing on bioavailability examples of minerals in foods Phytase activity associated with isolated aleurone particles of rice grains
- S Rudloff
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Whole grain for whom and why? Food & Nutrition Research
- W Frolich
- P Aman
Frolich, W., & Aman, P. (2010). Whole grain for whom and why? Food & Nutrition
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Phytic acid degradation in complementary foods using phytases naturally occurring in whole grain cereals
- I Egli
- L Davidsson
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- D Barclay
- R Hurrell
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degradation in complementary foods using phytases naturally occurring in
whole grain cereals. Journal of Food Science, 68(5), 1855e1859.
Frolich, W., & Aman, P. (2010). Whole grain for whom and why? Food & Nutrition
Research, 54, 5056.
Effect of meal composition and phytate content on zinc absorption in humans from an extruded bran product
- Kivistö
Phytic acid degradation in complementary foods using phytases naturally occurring in whole grain cereals
- Egli