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When White Men Can't Do Math: Necessary and Sufficient Factors in Stereotype Threat
Abstract
Research on “stereotype threat” (Aronson, Quinn, & Spencer, 1998; Steele, 1997; Steele & Aronson, 1995) suggests that the social stigma of intellectual inferiority borne by certain cultural minorities can undermine the standardized test performance and school outcomes of members of these groups. This research tested two assumptions about the necessary conditions for stereotype threat to impair intellectual test performance. First, we tested the hypothesis that to interfere with performance, stereotype threat requires neither a history of stigmatization nor internalized feelings of intellectual inferiority, but can arise and become disruptive as a result of situational pressures alone. Two experiments tested this notion with participants for whom no stereotype of low ability exists in the domain we tested and who, in fact, were selected for high ability in that domain (math-proficient white males). In Study 1 we induced stereotype threat by invoking a comparison with a minority group stereotyped to excel at math (Asians). As predicted, these stereotype-threatened white males performed worse on a difficult math test than a nonstereotype-threatened control group. Study 2 replicated this effect and further tested the assumption that stereotype threat is in part mediated by domain identification and, therefore, most likely to undermine the performances of individuals who are highly identified with the domain being tested. The results are discussed in terms of their implications for the development of stereotype threat theory as well as for standardized testing.
... It is assumed that public servants' stigmatized identity, together with negative stereotype information, triggers stereotype threat. Study 2 examines these effects according to the situationist account (Aronson et al. 1999), assuming that stereotype threat effects arise regardless of a stigmatized identity, but as a result of situational pressures. In both studies, stereotype threat was manipulated by making respondents aware of the negative stereotypes of public employees (Alter et al. 2010;Good, Aronson, and Ann Harder 2008;Spencer, Steele, and Quinn 1999). ...
... Emerson and Murphy 2014;Inzlicht and Schmader 2012;Schmader, Johns, and Forbes 2008). Literature provides two perspectives on the underlying mechanisms at play when experiencing stereotype threat: the stigmatizedidentity account and the situationist account (Aronson et al. 1999;Steele and Aronson 1995). According to the stigmatized-identity account, negative stereotype information activates an individual's stigmatized identity, which then triggers the experience of stereotype threat (Steele and Aronson 1995). ...
... However, a stigmatized identity is not necessarily a predicament for stereotype threat to arise (Aronson et al. 1999). Instead, stereotype threat has also been defined as a situational threat, which arises as a result of situational cues that signal diagnosticity (i.e. ...
Public employees are stereotyped as lazy, inefficient, and slow. When made aware of such stereotypes, they may experience stereotype threat that impairs their task-performance. Across two pre-registered, large-scale between-subjects experiments (n1 = 1,543; n2 = 1,147), we found that performance in terms of task correctness, processing time, and effort was unaffected by information of negative public employee stereotypes. Our results do not indicate stereotype threat effects for public employees in terms of task-performance. This finding offers valuable theoretical and practical implications for the understanding of public sector stereotypes and public sector reputation.
... Or, la menace du stéréotype constitue précisément une situation menaçante pour l'identité dans le sens où elle découle d'une dévalorisation du groupe d'appartenance (Steele et al., 2002). Étant donné que tous les groupes sociaux sont la cible de stéréotypes négatifs, tout un chacun est susceptible d'expérimenter le phénomène de menace du stéréotype au cours de sa vie (voir Aronson et al., 1999 ;Koenig & Eagly, 2005 ;Leyens, Désert, Croizet, & Darcis, 2000). La menace du stéréotype peut par exemple affecter les femmes lors d'épreuves mathématiques (Spencer, Steele, & Quinn, 1999) ou lors de l'examen du permis de conduire (Yeung & Von Hippel, 2008). ...
... Certaines recherches ont effectivement mis en évidence que les participants déclaraient davantage d'anxiété lorsqu'ils avaient fait face à une situation de menace du stéréotype (e.g., Inzlicht & Ben-Zeev, 2003 ;Mrazek et al., 2011 ;Osborne, 2001 ;Stone et al., 1999 ;Spencer et al., 1999). En revanche, d'autres études n'ont pas retrouvé cet effet (e.g., Aronson et al., 1999 ;Keller & Dauenheimer, 2003 ;Leyens et al., 2000 ;Oswald & Harvey, 2000Schmader & Johns, 2003 ;Stangor, Carr, & Kiang, 1998 ;Steele & Aronson, 1995). Les divergences dans ces résultats ont été expliquées en partie par les difficultés posées par l'utilisation d'échelles autorapportées (e.g., Smith, 2004 ;Steele et al., 2002). ...
... Dans leur papier, Aronson et al. (1999) posent la question suivante : la menace du stéréotype est-elle menaçante parce qu'elle provoque une peur de nuire à la réputation de son groupe ou parce qu'elle provoque une peur de paraître incompétent et de nuire à sa propre réputation ? Selon la définition utilisée, l'accent est davantage mis sur le soi ou le groupe comme cible de la menace du stéréotype (voir Shapiro & Neuberg, 2007 ;Wout et al., 2008). ...
Tous les groupes sociaux font face à des stéréotypes négatifs à leur encontre. Ces stéréotypes peuvent parfois représenter un poids pour les individus qui en sont la cible tel que proposé par la théorie de la menace du stéréotype. La menace du stéréotype correspond à la crainte d’être jugé en accord avec un stéréotype négatif associé à son groupe ou encore de le confirmer par son comportement. De nombreuses recherches se sont portées sur les conséquences de la menace du stéréotype. Toutefois, ces dernières portent majoritairement sur les conséquences en termes de performances cognitives. Dans cette thèse, nous faisons l’hypothèse selon laquelle l’agression constitue également une conséquence de la menace du stéréotype. À travers une série d’études, nous avons étudié l’agression comme conséquence de la menace du stéréotype. Ces études ont été menées sur différentes populations afin de déterminer si l’agression était observable chez l’ensemble des individus ou chez les individus appartenant à des groupes stéréotypés comme agressifs. Au cours de ce travail, nous avons aussi exploré le rôle potentiel de mécanismes cognitifs (i.e., accessibilité des pensées hostiles, contrôle de soi) et émotionnels (i.e., colère) dans le lien entre menace du stéréotype et agression. Dans leur ensemble, les résultats ne nous permettent pas de valider de manière consistante notre hypothèse de départ. Toutefois, la prise en compte de la multiplicité des menaces du stéréotype (i.e., la menace est-elle dirigée vers soi ou vers le groupe ?) semble être une piste prometteuse à explorer. Plus largement, nous discutons la nécessité de prendre en compte non seulement la multiplicité des menaces du stéréotype mais également celle des groupes stigmatisés et le contexte sociétal dans lequel ils s’inscrivent.
... A second mechanism relating marginalized student identities to underperformance is stereotype threat. Stereotype threat is a risk of confirming negative stereotypes about one's racial, ethnic, gender, or cultural group, which can create a high cognitive load and reduce academic focus and performance [58]. In order for stereotype threat to manifest, a student must believe (correctly or incorrectly) that others in their social environment hold a stereotype about their group (e.g., Black students are worse at engineering than White students [58]). ...
... Stereotype threat is a risk of confirming negative stereotypes about one's racial, ethnic, gender, or cultural group, which can create a high cognitive load and reduce academic focus and performance [58]. In order for stereotype threat to manifest, a student must believe (correctly or incorrectly) that others in their social environment hold a stereotype about their group (e.g., Black students are worse at engineering than White students [58]). When students are uncertain about their belonging in a context, like engineering, they are hypervigilant to cues from their environment that signal if they belong. ...
italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">Contribution:
This study demonstrates the efficacy of an ecological belonging intervention in a first-year engineering programming course to increase belonging for Black, Latinx, and Indigenous (BLI) students and close academic equity gaps.
Background: Introductory programming courses are often challenging for students and can shape belonging in engineering. BLI students may be particularly susceptible to interpreting struggle as confirmation that they do not belong in predominantly white spaces, which can negatively influence academic outcomes.
Research Questions: “What are the effects of an ecological belonging intervention on BLI students’ feelings of belonging within their first-year engineering course?” and “What are the effects of an ecological belonging intervention on BLI students’ performance on a weekly computer programming assignment?”
Methodology: The intervention was implemented with 691 students in Spring 2022 and was designed to normalize the struggle to address threats to belonging and close equity gaps in BLI students’ academic performance. A pre-/post-semester survey measuring belonging was analyzed using repeated-measures ANOVA, and pass/fail academic records were analyzed using logistic regression.
Findings: The targeted belonging intervention for BLI engineering students can help to address issues of isolation and academic confidence that negatively impact individuals’ sense of belonging and academic performance.</p
... This measure was the same as the one used frequently in previous research examining the effect of stereotype threat on gender differences in quantitative performance (Cadinu et al., 2005;Martens et al., 2006;Shapiro et al., 2013). In order to simulate the stereotype threat women presumably feel in quantitative courses, all participants read the following paragraph, which was based on stimulus materials used in previous research (Aronson et al., 1999): ...
... More specifically, recall that the stereotype threat to which all participants were exposed in Study 2 was more of a "group-as-target" induction than a self-as-target induction (Shapiro et al., 2013). Indeed, we selected the stereotype threat induction for all participants in Study 2 from the one used by Aronson et al. (1999), which Shapiro et al. also employed in their "group as target" condition. If the way in which women experienced stereotype threat was on the basis of group as target, then according to the self-affirmation congruence hypothesis they would benefit from a collective form of self-affirmation. ...
There is a gender performance gap in the MBA classroom, in which men perform better than women, particularly in quantitative courses. We examined whether greater congruence between participants' self-construal levels and the self-affirmation in which they engaged would mitigate the gender performance gap. In Study 1, participants varying in their self-construal levels were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: 1) an individual self-affirmation condition in which they wrote about a value that is important to them, 2) a collective self-affirmation condition in which they wrote about a value that is important to them and their ingroup, and 3) a control condition in which they wrote about a value important to someone else. We found that: 1) the gender performance gap was mitigated among those who individually self-affirmed and 2) the gender performance gap was particularly likely to be diminished under conditions of congruent self-affirmation (when those who were relatively high in independent self-construal engaged in individual self-affirmation and when those who were relatively high in interdependent self-construal engaged in collective self-affirmation). Conceptually analogous results emerged in Study 2 conducted on a considerably larger on-line sample. The discussion centers on: (1) the implications of our findings for the emerging literature on wise interventions, and (2) the practical value of encouraging individuals to engage in self-affirmation to counteract the harmful effects of stereotype-threat.
... Individuals who care a great deal about performing well in a given domain are more likely to experience the effects of stereotype threat. 33,[49][50][51] For example, studies have found that when confronted with the stereotype that men perform better than women in math, women who felt that their math proficiency was an important part of their identity were more likely to underperform on math-related tasks then were women who identified less with being adept in that domain. 51,52 The effects of priming and of the importance to the individual of doing well on a task were shown in groundbreaking work on stereotype threat by Claude M. Steele and Joshua Aronson, 33 who demonstrated that merely making a racial stereotype salient could impair the performance of Black students relative to White students. ...
Values-affirmation (VA) exercises, which direct people’s attention to aspects of their lives that they value and broaden their sense of self, have been shown to improve performance in many populations, particularly those who worry that doing poorly will feed into negative stereotypes of the ethnic or other social groups they belong to. Most studies of VA have examined its benefits in highly literate, economically stable, Englis-speaking populations and have used written exercises. We conducted a randomized controlled trial of a visual VA exercise in an understudied population: marginalized Arabic-speaking students (mostly Syrians) living in a context (Lebanon) affected by conflict. Before taking final exams for a program to improve basic Arabic and English literacy skills and math proficiency, the participants, ages 14–24 years, made a drawing that represented a value important to them. This visual VA exercise improved performance on the Arabic test, particularly among the Syrians, suggesting that, at least for the Arabic test, it reduced anxiety related to
stereotyping, allowing students to relax enough to demonstrate their true ability. If replicated, our findings would suggest that schools could use such exercises to improve the value of test scores for guiding decisions about next steps in the education of marginalized students in a context affected by conflict.
... Due to its importance as a precondition in the experience of stereotype threat (Aronson et al., 1999;Steele, 1997 ...
The present research examined whether the use of gendered language acts as a cue to reduce identity threat by enhancing women’s motivation, self-efficacy, and cognitive processing in academic contexts culturally stereotyped as masculine. Pooled data from two studies conducted in Spanish, a language in which masculine generics are the cultural default, was analyzed using an Integrative Data Analysis (IDA) process. We manipulated the use of masculine gender exclusive vs. gender inclusive language in describing a mathematics task. Moreover, we orthogonally manipulated the activation of gender stereotypes by varying task framing. Women’s cognitive performance, motivation, self-efficacy, and feelings of inclusion were measured. Results revealed three important findings. First, minimally signaling identity threat through a combination of gender inclusive language and the absence of stereotype activation elicited the highest motivation and self-efficacy compared to all other conditions. Second, regardless of stereotype activation, using gender exclusive language in a math testing context elicited significantly more anxiety-related cognitive interference compared to gender inclusive language. Third, using gender inclusive (as compared to gender exclusive) language elicited lower feelings of ostracism. No stereotype threat effect emerged on performance. In conclusion, we demonstrate that the use of gender inclusive language can be a simple and effective strategy to reduce identity threat for women in achievement contexts culturally stereotyped as masculine.
... The third possibility discussed in Sackett et al. (2004) is that the omission of the adjustment in the text or in a copy of the graph could be an accidental omission by authors who know the implications of adjustment. They note that even Aronson et al. (1999) omitted the reference to the SAT adjustment, despite the fact that most of Aronson's other publications do include reference to the adjustment. ...
Steele and Aronson (1995) showed that stereotype threat affects the test performance of stereotyped groups. A careful reading shows that threat affects test performance but does not eliminate Black–White mean score gaps. Sackett et al. (2004) reviewed characterization of this research in scholarly articles, textbooks, and popular press, and found that many mistakenly inferred that removing stereotype threats eliminated the Black– White performance gap. We examined whether the rate of mischaracterization of Steele and Aronson had decreased in the 15 years since Sackett et al. highlighted the common misinterpretation. We found that the misinterpretation rate dropped from 90.9% to 62.8% in journal articles and from 55.6% to 41.18% in textbooks, though this is only statistically significant in journal articles.
... The idea that natural aptitude is necessary to pursue STEM domains is further complicated by the perception that particular groups are assumed to be more brilliant than others (e.g., men compared to women; Bian et al., 2018a;Zhao et al., 2022), or innately exceptional in particular STEM domains (e.g., Asian Americans in mathematics; Aronson et al., 1999;Cvencek, et al., 2015;Trytten et al., 2012). This current research set out to evaluate whether first-year students' perceptions of innate aptitude (i.e., brilliance) differed across STEM disciplinary groupings and between gendered groupings. ...
Higher education institutions provide critical opportunities for students to acquire the skills necessary to enter the STEM workforce and serve as vital partners in the STEM educational-occupational pipeline. It is important that colleges and universities ensure that all undergraduates interested in STEM professions have the opportunity to see themselves as potential STEM candidates. However, a perception exists that STEM is not open to all students interested in STEM domains. In particular, undergraduates may be under the impression that entrance into STEM pathways is contingent on fixed intelligence or innate brilliance in order to succeed at the postsecondary level. Due to these perceptions, first-year students may prematurely exclude themselves from STEM participation due to a misalignment between their self-perceptions and the attributes they believe are required for STEM attainment. The purpose of this research was to investigate whether relationships existed among students’ concepts of innate intelligence and disciplinary brilliance and students’ self-perceptions of their ability and interest to major in STEM. First-year students’ perceptions from a predominately non-STEM sample were measured and compared across four STEM domains: Life Sciences (biology/chemistry), Physical Sciences (math/physics), Applied Physical Sciences (computer science/engineering), and Health Sciences (premed/medical sciences). Comparative single-group structural equation models are presented, in addition to findings of whether students’ gender identity influenced their overall perceptions of STEM undergraduate pathways.
... It is assumed that high identification with the stereotyped domain will increase the pressure not to confirm the stereotype in that domain (Wasserberg, 2017). The results of the second experiment by Aronson et al. (1999) revealed that high identifiers (Asian students from university) performed less well in the threat than in the non-threat condition. Keller (2007) investigated identification with the domain of mathematics among tenth-grade students in Germany. ...
Stereotype threat (ST) is a potential explanation for inequalities in language competencies observed between students from different language backgrounds. Language competencies are an important prerequisite for educational success, wherefore the significance for investigation arises. While ST effects on achievement are empirically well documented, little is known about whether ST also impairs learning. Thus, we investigated vocabulary learning in language minority elementary school students, also searching for potential moderators. In a pre-post design, 240 fourth-grade students in Germany who were on average 10 years old (MAge = 9.92, SD = 0.64; 49.8% female) were randomly assigned to one of four experimental conditions: implicit ST, explicit ST without threat removal before posttest, explicit ST with threat removal before posttest, and a control group. Results showed that learning difficult vocabulary from reading two narrative texts was unaffected by ST. Neither students’ identification with their culture of residence and culture of origin nor stereotyped domain of reading were moderators. The findings are discussed with regard to content and methodological aspects such that a motivation effect might have undermined a possible ST effect. Implications for future research include examining the question at what age children become susceptible to ST and whether students have internalized negative stereotypes about their own group, which could increase the likelihood of ST effects occurring.
... However, does this apply to all boys or only some? Previous research (e.g., Aronson et al., 1999;Nguyen & Ryan, 2008) has shown that identification with the domain moderates stereotype threat effects. Therefore, boys' susceptibility to benefit from a role model may be moderated by the extent to which they identify with, and value academic success. ...
From 2015 to 2018, the math gender gap decreased primarily due to a decline in boys' performances (OECD, 2015, 2016, 2018). However, there is ample evidence that girls continue to be negatively stereotyped in math. Using a longitudinal design, we examined whether prolonged exposure to a counter-stereotypical role model embodied by a female top math scorer may prevent other girls in the class from experiencing stereotype threat. Multilevel analyses were conducted among 1,043 6th graders nested in 46 math classes. There was a decline in math performance throughout the school year for all students, but being a girl had a buffering effect against this decline. The results failed to support the main effect hypothesis (H1) which anticipated that student gender and top math scorer gender would be associated with student math achievement when jointly considered. The results supported the cross-level interaction hypothesis (H2) which anticipated that the greatest benefits would emerge for girls exposed to a counter-stereotypical role model; that is, in a class whose top math scorer was a girl. These results offer new insights regarding the extent to which a counter-stereotypical role model embodied by the top math scorer may influence differences in math performances.
... While stereotype threat experiments typically induce threat in tasks where the stereotypes are already widely known, research has also demonstrated that the salience of stereotypes is more likely to impact performance when tasks are considered difficult (O'Brien & Crandall, 2003). In fact, chronic stereotyping is not necessary for performance to be impaired, while it is necessary for the individual to be sufficiently concerned about good performance to be bothered by the implication of a stereotype that they may not have the ability to do so (Aronson et al., 1999). ...
The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of gender stereotypes on the performance and learning of a balance task in men. Before practice, forty-eight participants received instructions involving the comparison of balance between males and females: males normally perform worse than females (stereotype threat condition - ST), females usually perform worse than males (stereotype lift condition - SL), or no instructions regarding gender stereotypes (control condition). One day later, they performed a retention test. The results show that the SL group outperformed the other groups during practice, but not retention. ST participants reported lower perceived competence. The findings show that gender stereotypes can affect perceptions of competence and balance performance, but not balance learning, in men.
... The construct of stereotype confirmation concerns is similar to stereotype threat, defined as a reduction in task performance when a stereotype about an individual's social group is made salient (Steele, 1997), but stereotype confirmation concerns are considered to be more enduring whereas stereotype threat is acute. Notably, working memory capacity has been shown to mediate the effect of stereotype threat on performance (Aronson et al., 1999;Schmader & Johns, 2003;Steele, 1997;Steele & Aronson, 1995). In addition, results from a survey of 353 adults who identified as lesbian, bisexual, or gay indicated experiences of discrimination, concealment, and internalized homophobia were positively associated with psychological distress, which, in turn, was significantly related to self-reported impairments in working memory capacity (P. ...
Working memory capacity is an important psychological construct, and many real-world phenomena are strongly associated with individual differences in working memory functioning. Although working memory and attention are intertwined, several studies have recently shown that individual differences in the general ability to control attention is more strongly predictive of human behavior than working memory capacity. In this review, we argue that researchers would therefore generally be better suited to studying the role of attention control rather than memory-based abilities in explaining real-world behavior and performance in humans. The review begins with a discussion of relevant literature on the nature and measurement of both working memory capacity and attention control, including recent developments in the study of individual differences of attention control. We then selectively review existing literature on the role of both working memory and attention in various applied settings and explain, in each case, why a switch in emphasis to attention control is warranted. Topics covered include psychological testing, cognitive training, education, sports, police decision-making, human factors, and disorders within clinical psychology. The review concludes with general recommendations and best practices for researchers interested in conducting studies of individual differences in attention control.
... They may influence the behaviors and actions of those who belong to the stereotyped group if they feel "threatened" and make strenuous efforts to avoid confirming the stereotype. Such efforts can be emotionally stressful and challenging (Milner & Hoy, 2003;Steele, 2010) and have an adverse effect on an individual's performance (Aronson, 2004;Aronson et al., 1999;Stone et al., 1999). ...
Purpose: To construct the life history of an exemplary veteran African American physical education teacher education faculty member. Method: The participant was Dr. Andrew Lewis, a retired professor from the College of Charleston. Data were collected through formal semistructured interviews, informal interviews, and documents and artifacts. They were analyzed using analytic induction and constant comparison. Findings: Key findings were that Lewis experienced a significant amount of marginalization throughout his life and career. In addition, he was subjected to different forms of microaggression and stereotype threat. Lewis dealt with these forms of racism by emulating several of his teachers and professors, working hard, and performing to a high level. In addition, he altered the pedagogy he employed. Conclusion: Lewis’s counter-story has the potential to influence other African American physical education teacher education faculty members, administrators, and those who perpetuate stereotypes of African Americans or deal in microaggressions.
... Cowell and Stanney (2003) in their paper described the social biases and stereotypes of ethnicity among people; hence, they argued that the role of the ethnicity of conversational agents in affecting user responses should be acknowledged when designing artificial agents. Research in this direction may have implications for uncovering and mitigating stereotype threats associated with ethnicity within human-agent interactions (Aronson et al., 1999;Hamilton et al., 1990;Plant et al., 2009;Rosenberg-Kima et al., 2008;2010). ...
Artificial agents such as embodied virtual agents, chatbots, voice user interface agents, and robots simulate human roles for dispensing information to people. According to the computers-are-social-actors paradigm, people respond to these technological artifacts with the same social rules originated from human-to-human social routines despite recognizing the artificiality of the entities’ intents, motivations, or emotions. Among the various applications of social rules in human-agent interactions, this study focuses on the social cues signaling expertise or competence (i.e., expertise cues) that can evoke social, affective, behavioral, and cognitive responses toward the artificial agents through activation of social stereotypes or heuristics. Based on a systematic review of experimental studies featuring artificial agents with expertise cues published between 2005 and July 2021 (n=63), this study proposed a classification model categorizing expertise cues into Demographics, Appearance, Social prestige, Specialization, Communication style, and Information quality (DASSCI). The DASSCI model can guide designers to logically devise and infuse relevant expertise cues into the designs of artificial agents. As per the computers-are-social-actors paradigm, this study also outlined the social and communication theories underpinning the implementations and effects of artificial agents’ expertise cues. The implications and recommendations for future directions regarding artificial agents with expertise cues across diverse application domains are discussed in this paper.
... When stereotypes are salient in academic domains, persons of stereotyped groups may fear that their academic performance, if poor, could confirm the competence-deficit stereotypes that exist about the people of their group (Steele & Aronson, 1995;Steele, 1997). Such stereotype threat has deleterious effects on students' motivation and performance particularly for those whose identities and self-worth are closely tied to success in a particular academic domain (Aronson et al., 1999;Major & Schmader, 1998;Steele, 1997;Steele et al., 2002). For these students, the damage caused by potential academic failure is so overwhelming that to protect their self-esteem, students may gradually disidentify from the academic domain (e.g., Spencer et al., 2016;Steele, 1997). ...
Grounded in expectancy-value and stereotype threat theories, this four-year longitudinal study examined associations between changes in stereotype threat and motivation (self-efficacy, task values, and perceived costs) among 425 undergraduates from racial/ethnic groups typically underrepresented in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). Growth analyses indicated that students’ stereotype threat and perceived cost of studying science increased during college, whereas science self-efficacy, intrinsic value, and attainment value declined. Parallel growth analyses suggested that higher initial stereotype threat related to a faster decline in attainment value and faster increase in perceived costs throughout college. Higher initial levels and a steeper increase in stereotype threat related to lower STEM GPA. Higher initial levels and a slower decline in motivation variables related to higher STEM GPA and more completed STEM courses. These findings provide empirical evidence for the relations between stereotype threat and motivation among underrepresented minority students during a key developmental period.
Purpose
This study considered the use of video conferencing virtual backgrounds with employees located in a large multinational corporate organisation in Ireland and the USA to discern if background images evoking gendered stereotypes of leadership can cue stereotype threat in female technology workers undertaking a leadership activity, thus negatively effecting performance. This study aims to contribute to the body of research on stereotype threat by establishing whether virtual backgrounds used in video conferencing software are inherently identity safe or whether their use could have a negative performance impact on marginalised groups.
Design/methodology/approach
Using a mixed methods research design with 22 participants in two countries working in the one large organisation, using two quantitative methods (an experiment and a survey) and one qualitative method (semi-structured interviews), the study examined the relationship between performance on the leadership activity and exposure to gendered backgrounds on a video conference call.
Findings
It found that female leaders undertaking a leadership test experienced more anxiety and achieved lower scores on average when exposed to a male-gendered virtual background compared to male colleagues or female leaders exposed to a female gendered background. It was also found that these leaders were aware of the stereotype of leadership being White and male, and showed symptoms of prolonged exposure to stereotype threat in the workplace. While the authors still are working through a post-pandemic environment, it may be judicious for organisations to restrict the use of virtual backgrounds to identity-safe ones, specifically chosen by the company.
Research limitations/implications
The study makes several practical recommendations, indicating actions which can be taken at the individual, team and corporate levels. Re-running this experiment in a more controlled environment with a larger sample set could yield more definitive, statistically significant results and contribute more to the literature.
Practical implications
Some individual impacts were found via the interviews. Male leaders in the organisation need to do more to mentor and endorse their female colleagues. By doing this, they can counter the negative effects of solo status and the subsequent performance degradations of their female counterparts, while also setting an example for other leaders. Participation in the mentoring programme and initiatives such as Dare and value, inclusion, belonging, and equity should be encouraged and supported. Reverse mentoring should also be encouraged among the population of male leaders to aid in allyship and bias-awareness.
Social implications
Teams should note that a democratic vote is not always the best way to decide on the names of teams, projects or meeting rooms. These may skew towards niche interests that can serve to alienate members of the team who do not associate themselves with that interest. Rather, the teams should strive to be fully inclusive and educated on the need for identity-safety. Team events may also serve to alienate members if teams are not mindful of the need to be inclusive. Activities, such as “go-kart” racing and physical or competitive team events have been highlighted as unsuitable for some team members, and should be avoided in favour of inclusivity.
Originality/value
A significant body of research has documented the effect to which stereotype threat can be triggered by both the physical environment and by the use of various technology media. However, there is a dearth of research exploring the relationship between stereotype threat, defined as “the concrete, real-time threat of being judged and treated poorly in settings where a negative stereotype about one’s group applies” (Steele et al. , 2002, p. 385), and video conferencing software features, such as virtual backgrounds.
Mass destruction of almost all types of infrastructure, the death of thousands of Ukrainian militaries and civilians, migration of millions of refugees abroad have already become the consequences of a full-scale war in Ukraine. The destruction of the infrastructure eliminated the assets of enterprises and complicated or disrupted the supply chains of both raw materials and finished products. A severe situation emerged in the agricultural sector, where the essential abundance of the country, namely fertile agricultural land, is being polluted and destroyed. It is difficult to predict the further development of the economic situation in the Ukrainian economy, specifically due to the fact that the war continues and the economic system suffers new losses every day. The consequences of hostilities in territories that must be liberated remain uncertain, as well as the terms of the end of hostilities. However, it is obvious already that the main challenges for offer and demand, which the Ukrainian economy will face in the near future, will be destroyed infrastructure, damaged or mined agricultural lands, a significant drop in the personal sector, and the scale of population movement outside the country. All this will negatively affect the consumer demand of the domestic market in general and the service sector in particular, and the offer of Ukrainian producers of several consumer goods will remain insufficient to satisfy even the narrowed demand of the domestic market. Under the conditions of the cessation of hostilities on the territory of Ukraine by the end of the current year, the dynamics of Ukraine's GDP will emerge from last year's deep recession but be unfavorable according to the results of the year 2023.
Introduction
Activating people’s sense of attachment security can buffer against psychological threats. Here we tested whether security priming can also buffer the adverse effects of stereotype threat among women.
Method
Three studies (a pilot study ( N = 79 women, 72 men), a laboratory study; N = 474 women, and an online study; N = 827 women) compared security priming to neutral and positive affect priming.
Results
The pilot study revealed that women exposed to attachment security primes (e.g., the word “love”) had better math performance than women exposed to neutral primes (e.g., “boat”). Men’s math performance did not differ across priming conditions. Study 1 revealed that women showed better math performance in the attachment security priming condition than in the neutral or positive (e.g., “luck”) priming conditions. The effect was observed among women high on math identification. In Study 2, despite an effect of security priming on the manipulation check [higher State Adult Attachment Measure (SAAM) security score], security did not buffer stereotype threat effects.
Discussion
Our findings provide partial support to the idea that security priming (an interpersonal process) can buffer stereotype threat (an intergroup process). Theoretical and practical implications related to attachment security priming and stereotype threat are discussed.
Based on Social Cognitive Career Theory principles, the present study sought to investigate whether stereotype threat experiences could act as a barrier and reduce the persistence of women in math-intensive activities. More specifically, we assessed whether the experimental activation of stereotypes about women’s lower math capabilities affected the performance, persistence, and self-selected difficulty of engineering students in a math task which required sustained effort. We also evaluated the relationships between these effects and the participants’ pre-testing gender-science stereotypes and math self-concept. A sample of 340 engineering students (175 and 165 self-identified as males and females, respectively) were recruited and randomly assigned to a control (Con) or stereotype threat (StA) condition to form four similarly sized groups. All participants rated their self-concept in four academic domains (math, chemistry, physics, and coding), completed the gender-science Implicit Association Test, and a “reading comprehension task” that served to promote the stereotype threat manipulation immediately before facing a modified version of the Math Effort Task (M-MET). We observed that, in the control condition, M-MET performance, self-selected difficulty, and persistence were similar in female and male participants, independent of their gender-science implicit stereotypes but correlated to their math self-concept scores. In contrast, the StA condition triggered opposite effects in female and male students, so they showed decreased/enhanced M-MET performance and self-selected difficulty, respectively. This experimental condition also resulted in enhanced persistence of the male students without affecting the number of trials completed by female students. These effects were correlated with the strength of the participants’ gender-science implicit stereotypes but not with their math self-concept scores. In fact, as revealed by finer-grain analyses, stereotype threat only had a significant impact on individuals harboring stereotypical gender-science implicit associations. Therefore, it is concluded that: (1) stereotypes can promote differences between male and female engineering students in their performance, self-confidence, and persistence in math-related activities; (2) These effects seem to be more prominent in individuals implicitly perceiving science as a masculine domain. The relevance of these findings to explain women’s enhanced abandonment rates of math-intensive studies is discussed.
Many problems faced by mathematics learners both at the school and college levels have occurred so far. Mathematics education students involved in mathematics daily also face various problems, be it problems related to cognitive and affective abilities. Problems such as the emergence of mathematical anxiety, negative self-perception of mathematics, lack of mathematical competence, and many other problems have become the recent focus in mathematics education research. So, how do mathematics education students, especially prospective mathematics teachers, view themselves as related to mathematics? What is their mathematical identity? This study aims to determine the mathematics identity possessed by prospective mathematics teachers. To find out the mathematics identity of prospective mathematics teachers, a descriptive design utilizing a survey with five open-ended questions was asked. Demographic data were analyzed using descriptive frequencies, while the five open-ended questions were analyzed using summative content analysis to analyze free-text responses from 225 prospective mathematics teachers. Free-text responses contain answers to five questions in each component of the mathematical identity obtained from disseminating questions through google forms. We obtained the results that prospective mathematics teachers generally have a positive mathematical identity, but some components need improvement. However, it was also found that the results were quite surprising concerning the mathematical identity of the prospective mathematics teacher. A complete explanation will be discussed in this article.
We studied how gendered beliefs about intellectual abilities transmit through peers and differentially impact girls' academic performance relative to boys'. Study 1 (N = 8,029; 208 classrooms) exploited randomly assigned variation in the proportion of a child's middle school classmates who believe that boys are innately better than girls at learning math. An increase in exposure to peers who report this belief generated losses for girls and gains for boys in math performance. This peer exposure also increased children's likelihood of believing the gender-math stereotype, increased the perceived difficulty of math, and reduced aspirations among girls. Study 2 (N = 547) provided proof of concept that activating a gender-math performance gap among college students reduces women's math performance but not verbal performance. Men's task performance was not affected. Our findings highlight how the prevalence of stereotypical beliefs in one's ambient and peer environment, even when readily contradictable, can shape children's beliefs and academic ability.
Organizations are becoming increasingly diverse with more women and people of color moving into managerial positions previously only held by White males. The experiences of stereotype threat and perceptions of organizational diversity may lead to voluntary turnover. Some individuals may have a salient role model of the same gender or race who has previously occupied their position, which may buffer this threat. We examine the impact of stereotype threat on organizational and workers’ well-being and the negative ramifications, including employee efficacy, voluntary turnover, and disengagement for women and ethnic minorities. We examine possible differences in susceptibility to the effects of stereotype threat for those who are the first of their ethnicity or gender to hold a position of visible leadership (pioneers) and those who have had a successor or have tenure within their organization (settlers). We examine potential protective factors the organization may instate to reduce impact of stereotype threat on employees from marginalized backgrounds. Finally, we explore the importance of assessing organizational diversity climate consistently to gauge the effects of these factors as well as other best practices employers may use to demonstrate their commitment to diversity and foster more inclusive workplace environments.KeywordsStereotype threatEthnic identityDiversityClimatePioneersTurnover intentions
There has been undoubted progress in the number of women involved in outdoor adventure and those qualifying as leaders of mountaineering-based activities. However, there remains considerable evidence from across the world to suggest that women developing careers leading in the outdoor industry continue to face challenges in their progression, resulting from gender inequality that stifles their ability to flourish. Only 18% of Summer Mountain Leaders in the UK are female and the gender gap in qualified leadership continues to decline as one progresses further up the qualification levels. To address this inequality, particularly those associated with a perceived skills gap, women-only outdoor courses have been developed. Several studies have shown that women or girls who participate in such courses gain a sense of empowerment and physicality and find them a supportive environment for learning. However, women-only courses have been controversial as some suggest they reinforce gender stereotypes and divisions. Moreover, single-sex courses, such as those by UK national organisations, have typically focused on outdoor skills development, rather than leadership or qualification.Yet, little is known about aspirant women mountain leaders’ experiences and the impact of women’s outdoor leadership courses on their development towards becoming qualified Mountain Leaders. As such, this chapter explores the experiences of eight women taking part in the first Women’s Outdoor Leadership Course within the Outward Bound Trust, UK. It starts by considering the women’s stories as they arrive at the course, and the types of challenges they experience on their journey to Mountain Leadership. Drawing upon Mezirow’s Transformational Learning Theory, the key insights resulting from women’s participation in a single-gender mountain leadership course are explored. The research concludes by sharing insights for practice in the development of women mountain leaders and, thus, approaches to address the gender imbalance are offered.
Consumers feel envious of others more frequently than ever as they are constantly exposed to the purchases of others through social media. The extant literature is divided on whether consumers are more likely to envy the experiential purchases or material purchases of others. The current research identifies a moderator delineating when experiential vs. material purchases elicit greater feelings of envy. Specifically, we show that in a natural state when people compare the well-being of the purchaser to their own well-being, experiential purchases elicit greater envy than material purchases. In contrast, when people are prompted to compare the purchase to their own comparable purchase, material purchases elicit greater envy than experiential purchases. We further demonstrate the implications of understanding the psychology of consumption-related envy for marketers who seek to increase consumer engagement and purchase intention.
Have you ever watched one of those typical American teen movies featuring cheerleaders, football players, math nerds, musicians, etc.? You probably already have a picture in your mind of what members of these groups look like, how they behave, what ideals they pursue, and who they associate with.
This paper offers a synthesis on computing identity and the experiences of women and minoritized populations in computing and computer science in higher education. Examining computing identity and its role in the computing experiences of minoritized undergraduates can help us better understand ways to engage and support women and minoritized individuals in the computing field thus increasing participation and persistence of these groups in computing. In this article, we present a review of research literature on computing identity within the experiences of women and minoritized undergraduate students in computing. The research questions guiding this work are: (1) What research literature exists about computing identity?, (2) According to existing literature, what are the experiences of women and racially minoritized undergraduates in computing (e.g., persons who identify as Black, Hispanic/Latinx, Indigenous people)?, and (3) What theoretical frameworks are used to guide existing computing identity literature? Emergent themes include the need to focus on exposure to computing, persistence, career expectations, and engagement. While there is no consensus on a computer identity framework, there is research guided by social cognitive career theory, social identity theory, and practice theory. We conclude that computing identity, including its multiple conceptualizations, offers multiple opportunities for informing and broadening participation of minoritized populations in computing. Future research should include further conceptual exploration of computing identity.
Purpose
This paper aims to examine how a stereotype threat, which entails being aware of a negative stereotype about one’s social group (e.g. gender), affects consumers’ price perceptions.
Design/methodology/approach
The authors conducted four studies to examine the effect of a stereotype threat on consumers’ perceptions of a product’s price–quality relationship.
Findings
This study found that being aware of a negative stereotype about one’s social group (i.e. gender here) led consumers to use price more as a quality indicator. This study also determined that reappraisal – an alternative way of coping with stereotype threats – reduced the impact of a stereotype threat and, subsequently, decreased reliance on price to infer quality.
Research limitations/implications
This research contributes to the consumer decision-making literature by examining stereotype threat effect in in-store product purchasing contexts; provides theoretical contributions to the processing of price information by exploring the role of a stereotype threat in price perceptions and revealing that impairment of consumers’ working memory resources affects price perceptions; adds to the existing stereotype threat literature by investigating the effect of a stereotype threat on systematic versus heuristic information processing; and advances the stress and coping literature by suggesting that consumers adopting a reappraisal strategy cope better with a stereotype threat than when opting for a suppression strategy.
Practical implications
This research provides important implications for consumers. For example, the findings suggest that consumers who would like to avoid paying more for stereotype-associated products may adopt reappraisal to cope with a stereotype threat. Reappraisal may allow consumers to use fewer cognitive resources when coping with stereotype threats, thus minimizing the possibility that they might overpay for high-priced products.
Originality/value
This research uniquely examines the effect of a stereotype threat on consumers’ price perceptions and the role of reappraisal in this effect.
In this chapter, we argue that to understand intelligence one must understand motivation. In the past, intelligence was often cast as an entity unto itself, relatively unaffected by motivation. In our chapter, we spell out how motivational factors determine (1) whether individuals initiate goals relating to the acquisition and display of intellectual skills, (2) how persistently they pursue those goals, and (3) how effectively they pursue those goals, that is, how effectively they learn and perform in the intellectual arena. As will be seen, motivational factors can have systematic and meaningful effects on intellectual ability, performance, and accomplishment over time. Our discussion emphasizes that heritability is not incompatible with the malleability of intelligence and that motivation is the vehicle through which intellectual skills are successfully acquired, expressed, and built upon.
Mental rotation in depth is a facile interpretation of the Shepard-Metzler effect for perspective pictures. Evidence
for that interpretation is given by the linear trends of mean response times over depicted angular disparity, as is
found for pairs of pictures of complex solids. Numeric simulation has shown how angular disparity in depth
correlates with difference in the profiles of figures in picture pairs. (The profile of a figure is the area contained in
its outline against the background, somewhat like its solid angle from a normal view.) Depicted angular dis�parities in three dimensions are tightly linked to differences in profile across picture pairs, which can be
quantified as the autocorrelation coefficient of their difference image. This simple statistic predicts differences in
response times for judgments of ‘same’ and ‘different’, and numeric averages over the same statistic mimic the
linearity of trend which is characteristic of the Shepard-Metzler effect. The difference in picture profiles is an
intervening variable between angular disparity and mean response times which accounts for ‘mental rotation in
depth’. An extended demonstration is given of this experimental artifact.
To advance understanding of doctoral student experiences and the high attrition rates among Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) doctoral students, we developed and examined the psychological profiles of different types of doctoral students. We used latent class analysis on self-reported psychological data relevant to psychological threat from 1,081 incoming doctoral students across three universities and found that the best-fitting model delineated four threat classes: Lowest Threat, Nonchalant, Engaged/Worried, and Highest Threat. These classes were associated with characteristics measured at the beginning of students' first semester of graduate school that may influence attrition risk, including differences in academic preparation (e.g., amount of research experience), self-evaluations and perceived fit (e.g., sense of belonging), attitudes towards graduate school and academia (e.g., strength of motivation), and interpersonal relations (e.g., perceived social support). Lowest Threat students tended to report the most positive characteristics and Highest Threat students the most negative characteristics, whereas the results for Nonchalant and Engaged/Worried students were more mixed. Ultimately, we suggest that Engaged/Worried and Highest Threat students are at relatively high risk of attrition. Moreover, the demographic distributions of profiles differed, with members of groups more likely to face social identity threat (e.g., women) being overrepresented in a higher threat profile (i.e., Engaged/Worried students) and underrepresented in lower threat profiles (i.e., Lowest Threat and Nonchalant students). We conclude that doctoral students meaningfully vary in their psychological threat at the beginning of graduate study and suggest that these differences may portend divergent outcomes.
Objectives
Inducing a negative stereotype toward women usually leads to a decrease in women's motor performance. Given that most studies have focused on explicit stereotype induction among adults, the main aim of this study was to investigate the effects of explicit and implicit gender stereotypes on standing long jump performance in children. The second aim was to investigate the effects of these same manipulations on children’s state anxiety.
Design
A mixed model design with within-between-subject was used with standing long jump performance and state anxiety as dependent variables.
Method
Two hundred and four children (Mage = 10.95 years, SDage = 0.85) participated in this study and were randomly assigned, after baseline measurement, into four different groups (i.e., explicit/implicit vs. explicit vs. implicit vs. control). Specifically, participants performed 8 trials of standing long jump (4 trials during the baseline phase and 4 trials during the experimental phase). Children also completed the competitive state Anxiety Inventory at baseline as well as immediately after the trials.
Results
For motor performance, children in the explicit/implicit group and in the implicit group were negatively affected by the stereotype manipulation during all trials whereas participants in the explicit group were only negatively impacted during the last two trials. However, regarding state anxiety, children were negatively affected after both explicit only and implicit only manipulations and more significantly after explicit/implicit manipulation.
Conclusions
The present research showed that the explicit and implicit manipulations influenced motor performance differently, but that these two manipulations increased state anxiety in the same way. Moreover, the combination of the explicit and implicit inductions leads to a greater significant negative influence on state anxiety but not motor performance.
Psychology is a discipline with global influence, but continues to neglect disadvantaged minorities and continues to adopt an incorrect model of science. This volume explains what has gone wrong, and what steps should be taken for psychology to become a constructive international force. Historically, psychologists have focused only on causal explanations of behavior, neglecting normatively regulated behavior and intentionality. By giving greater importance to context and collective processes, moving from 'societies to cells,' psychologists can better understand and explain individual behavior. Poverty is an extremely powerful context that shapes cognitions and actions, with destructive consequences for disadvantaged individuals. The advocation of 'be happy psychology' and 'resilience' as solutions to problems faced by the disadvantaged leads to entrenched group-based inequalities, with the poor stuck at the bottom. Moving forwards, this volume proposes that psychologists should focus on normative systems to ultimately foster a more balanced field of study for the future.
Stereotype sind in Lern- und Leistungskontexten wie Schule und Studium immer noch omnipräsent. Ob dabei unbewusst bestimmte Fähigkeiten an das Geschlecht oder allgemeiner akademischer Erfolg an die Ethnie beziehungsweise Herkunft geknüpft werden, beeinflusst nicht nur Erwartungen der Lehrkräfte, sondern auch die Leistung der Lernenden selbst. Durch negative Stereotype bedingte Leistungsveränderungen werden auch als Stereotype Threat bezeichnet und als eine Ursache für Disparitäten und Chancenungleichheit in Bildungskontexten diskutiert. Aus dem Stereotype-Threat-Ansatz wurden in den letzten 30 Jahren zunehmend auch Ideen abgeleitet, wie man Lernende vor dem Einfluss negativer Stereotype über ihr Leistungspotenzial schützen könnte. Im folgenden Kapitel sollen daher zunächst die Grundzüge der Stereotype-Threat-Forschung skizziert werden, um daraus abgeleitete Interventionen gegen stereotype Bedrohung vorzustellen, zu diskutieren und abschließend zu bewerten.
Mental illness screening instruments are increasingly being administered through online patient portals, making it vital to understand how the design of digital screening technologies could alter screening scores. Given the strong cross-cultural belief in the gender depression disparity, digital screening technologies are at particular risk of triggering stereotype threat, the phenomenon where a reminder of a stereotype impacts task performance. To assess this risk, we investigate if a reminder about the gender depression disparity influences the scores of digitally administered mental screening instruments. In a comprehensive study, we collect data from 440 participants with a mobile application that reminds half of the participants of the gender depression disparity prior to administering depression and anxiety screening instruments. Our statistical analysis evaluates differences in screening scores with t-tests, and determines credible values for difference of means, of standard deviations, and effect size using Bayesian estimation. While the gender depression disparity reminder had no statistically significant impact on men, it did alter the depression screening scores of women and nonbinary participants. Further, prior depression treatment increased the impact of stereotype threat on women. Our research demonstrates that digital screening technologies are subject to stereotype threat and should thus be designed to avoid biasing mental illness screening scores.
The implications of the persistent gender gap in political knowledge are a puzzle that the literature is still disentangling; and research has evidenced important differences in the way women and men respond to survey questions. We argue in this article that political knowledge survey items not only inform about differences in cognition but also about other latent traits related to gender stereotyping. Gender stereotypes around political knowledge push men to be knowledgeable but not so much women, which we expect to affect men and women’s survey responses differently. To test this expectation, we explore response times of do not know answers to political knowledge items. Our results show that men, particularly those who declare being interested in politics, take longer than women to admit that they do not know the answer to political knowledge items.
Haben Sie sich schon einmal so einen typischen amerikanischen Teenagerfilm angeschaut in dem Cheerleader*innen, Footballspieler, Mathefreaks, Musiker*innen usw. vorkamen? Sie haben wahrscheinlich bereits jetzt bei all diesen Personengruppen ein Bild vor Augen, wie die Mitglieder dieser Gruppe aussehen, wie sie sich verhalten, welche Ideale sie verfolgen und mit welchen Leuten sie sich abgeben.
A avaliação do contexto da instituição educacional pode ser vista de vários ângulos, desde o ponto de vista estritamente didático e das estratégias de avaliação da aprendizagem escolar até questões epistemológicas, sociais e políticas que estão implicadas na instituição educacional e em outras instituições que envolvem relações de saber-poder. Esse livro expressa um explícito compromisso com a qualidade e democratização da educação e praticando um diálogo que envolve muitas vozes. Esse compromisso será compartilhado com o leitor, especialista ou não.
Purpose – Language plays an important role in a successful service exchange, but it can become a source of discrimination if one party is a non-native speaker in the host country. This study examines the linguistic racism that non-native customers experience in Inter Culture Service Encounters (ICSEs) and delve into factors that contribute to the underlying psychological responses and the behavioral outcomes.
Design/methodology/approach – A phenomenological approach was used where 16 individuals were interviewed to discover themes through non-native customers' lens using an inductive process. Next, the emerged categories were classified based on extant literature, using a deductive approach.
Findings – The findings highlight the role of language varieties as a strong social identity cue for non-native customers where the associated stigma makes them see ICSE as a stereotype threat. Most importantly, these experiences shape their future behavior by avoiding direct interactions with the servers and adopting other service channels. Several ‘social others’ influence this process.
Originality/value – This study explores the notion of linguistic racism in an ICSE from a non-native consumers’ lens and thus adds to this under-researched literature. Using a phenomenological approach, we propose a framework focusing on the perception of language-related stigma and discrimination experienced by non-native consumers along with possible behavioral responses.
The current study investigated the effects of age-based stereotype threat on neuropsychological assessment outcomes in an older adult population. Community volunteers (n = 49) age 65 and older were screened for cognitive impairment, depression, and anticholinergic medication use. Screened individuals were randomly stratified into either an ABST or a Control group. All participants were administered a broad range of neuropsychological measures of cognition as well as a self-rating measure assessing subjective concern about cognitive ability. A main effect of ABST on subjective concern about cognitive ability was supported. Specifically, individuals in the ABST group were significantly more likely to attribute their memory errors to the onset of dementia (F(1,41) = 5.334, p = .026). However, results showed no significant difference between groups on objective neuropsychological performance measures. The current study discusses the importance of considering ABST effects in the context of neuropsychological assessment in older adult populations.
Intergenerational contact for technology learning frequently transpires in various daily settings of older adults’ lives. However, older adults often hold negative age-based self-stereotype that they are less capable in technology use. Thus, they may experience age-based stereotype threats in such situations, which further induce technophobia. Previous research indicated that positive intergenerational contact can reduce age-based stereotype threat and technophobia among older adults. This research focuses on intergenerational physical proximity, a vital role in structuring intergenerational contact, to investigate how it impacts technophobia via age-based stereotype threat among older adults. In addition, the moderating effect of key attributes of technology—newness and ease of use were explored. A vignette experiment was conducted with a sample of 243 older adults. Results show that more distant intergenerational physical proximity led to lower technophobia-personal failure dimension via more positive self-perception of aging (a manifestation of less age-based stereotype threat) when the technology is of high newness and low ease of use. However, the effect of physical proximity on technophobia was insignificant when the technology is of low newness, or of high newness but high ease of use. The findings of this research can provide detailed and practical suggestions on how to reduce technophobia among older adults through effective intergenerational contact.
This longitudinal study examined the role of teacher and student mindset and stereotype threat in the achievement gap between Chinese and Latinx English Learners. Our analytic sample consisted of 858 students ranging from 4th through 8th grade and their teachers (N = 66). This study made use of psychological survey data from students and teachers, as well as state-mandated standardized assessment outcomes for Math and English Language Arts (2017–18 and 2018–19). With hierarchical linear modeling analysis, results showed that student growth mindset was significantly associated with higher school performance and stereotype threat was significantly associated with lower school performance. Teacher growth mindset was also significantly associated with school performance, but differentially by ethnicity and grade. Practical and research implications are discussed.
En France, l’hésitation vaccinale est croissante. Aussi, les recommandations de seuil de vaccination de la Haute Autorité de Santé ne sont pas atteintes. Augmenter les taux de vaccination pour certains vaccins est un objectif de santé publique. Ce présent travail propose de contribuer à l’apport de pistes via l’analyse de facteurs impactant le comportement vaccinal ainsi que via l’évaluation de l’efficacité d’interventions.Dans ce cadre, deux vaccins ont été étudiés, à savoir le vaccin contre les papillomavirus humains (HPV) et le vaccin contre la grippe. Trois essais randomisés contrôlés avant-après, testaient l’impact de la planification sur le comportement et l’intention. Les deux groupes, expérimental et contrôle, recevaient un questionnaire à compléter, mais seul le groupe expérimental recevaient la partie planification. Le comportement et l’intention étaient questionnés avant et après l’intervention (trois mois après). Pour les deux études portant sur le vaccin antigrippal, les résultats n’ont pas indiqué d’effet significatif de l’intervention sur le comportement. Seule l’intention a augmenté significativement avant-après intervention et ce, dans les deux études. L’objectif et la méthode de l’étude portant sur le vaccin contre les HPV, étaient similaires aux deux études précédentes. L’échantillon était constitué de parents d’adolescentes. Les résultats n’ont montré d’effet ni sur le comportement, ni sur l’intention.Afin de comprendre le rôle du statut socio-économique dans la vaccination, une quatrième étude testait l’impact de la menace perçue chez les soignants catégorisés comme ayant un statut socio-économique faible, sur le sentiment de compassion et sur l’intention vaccinale. Selon les résultats, la menace n’impacterait pas le sentiment de compassion. De plus, un sentiment de compassion élevé semblait les protéger de la menace.Enfin, une dernière étude testait, par le biais d’une méta-analyse, l’efficacité de recommandations issues de la science du changement de comportement via des interventions sur la vaccination. Les recommandations étudiées portaient sur le type de modèle choisi, la qualité de l’implémentation théorique et l’efficacité des techniques de changement de comportement (BCTs). Cette méta-analyse incluait seulement des essais randomisés contrôlés. La Taxonomie des BCTs version 1 a permis de coder les BCTs présentes au sein des interventions. Les résultats de cette revue permettent une meilleure compréhension de l'apport des recommandations de la science du changement de comportement dans le cadre de la vaccination.Pour conclure, nous estimons et discutons de l’impact de la planification dans le cadre de la vaccination. Nous proposons une nouvelle explication des différences du taux vaccinal entre les catégories de soignants via d’autres aspects théoriques à savoir, le statut socio-économique, la compassion et la menace perçue. Nos résultats sur les recommandations de la science du changement de comportement apportent, aux interventionnistes travaillant dans la vaccination, des réponses quant à leur efficacité ainsi qu’une meilleure compréhension de ceux-ci. Enfin, nous apportons des perspectives de recherche concernant la COVID-19.
Frühere Forschung hat gezeigt, dass die Aktivierung negativer Stereotype leistungseinschränkende Effekte für betroffene Gruppenmitglieder haben kann (sogenannter Stereotype Threat-Effekt). Im vorliegenden Beitrag wird zunächst ein Überblick über diese Forschung gegeben, bei dem immer wieder Bezug auf die besondere Situation ethnischer Minderheiten in Deutschland genommen wird. Da negative Emotionen im Kontext von Stereotype Threat eine bedeutsame Rolle spielen können, werden in einem nächsten Schritt Ansätze zur Emotionsregulation in die Forschung zu Stereotype Threat integriert. Abschließend werden verschiedene Arten der Emotionsregulation dargestellt, die von Menschen mit Migrationshintergrund in Stereotype Threat-Situationen eingesetzt werden können.
Racial disparities are a major social issue that affects not only Brazil but also the world. Racial inequalities in Brazil are highlighted in several social indicators, such as living conditions, years of education, mortality rates, and unemployment rates, among others. The current article aims to highlight the Brazilian contribution to research exploring the relationship between racial issues and behavior analysis to bring visibility to the work of Brazilian researchers and professors. Four contributions of Brazilian researchers are highlighted: (a) behavior-analytic accounts of racial prejudice, (b) stereotype threat (a phenomenon that shows that the performance of an able individual can be impaired when a negative stereotype about this person’s group is highlighted), (c) institutional racism in the Brazilian Military Police Force, and (d) the use of latency-based measures to assess racial biases. We finish with suggestions for future research and for increasing collaboration between Brazilian researchers and researchers in English-speaking (and other) countries, making our contributions more accessible to foreign researchers and students.
Purpose
One of the goals of various European Union (EU) organizations (i.e. Roma and non-Roma nonprofits) is the integration of Roma into the educational system. A challenge for the educational systems of EU countries, therefore, is to determine how to support the academic performance of Roma. Understanding the positive and negative factors related to Roma’s academic performance and achievement is an important first step in increasing academic success among this minority group.
Design/methodology/approach
A quantitative experimental design was used both online and face-to-face to examine whether stereotype threat had an influence on the academic performance of Roma in Slovakia and second, whether such threat was moderated by social identification and academic self-efficacy.
Findings
The results showed that stereotype threat does influence Roma in Slovakia and there were direct effects of social identity and academic self-efficacy on academic performance of the face-to-face participants.
Originality/value
Consistent with stereotype threat theory, to the best of authors’ knowledge, this research is the first to show that a stereotype threat did harm the academic performance of the face-to-face Roma sampled. Further, although many studies have examined stereotype threat effects on academic performance, little is known regarding whether social identification and academic self-efficacy have an influence on such threats. The results of the study show that social identification and academic self-efficacy had a significant direct influence on academic performance.
The hypothesis that explanations for differences between prototypical and nonprototypical members of categories would focus more on attributes of the latter than on those of the former was examined. Explanations for alleged gender differences in the behavior of voters, elementary school teachers, and college professors were elicited. As predicted, explanations for gender differences within the 3 categories emphasized the qualities of the “deviant” member. Ss' explanations of alleged gender gaps in the behavior of voters and college professors focused more on qualities of women than on qualities of men. In contrast, Ss' explanations of an alleged gender gap in the behavior of elementary school teachers focused more on qualities of men than on qualities of women. The results are interpreted in terms of Kahneman and Miller's (1986) norm theory.
Students from poorer families perform worse on intellectual tasks than do other students. The authors tested the stereotype threat hypothesis as a possible explanation for this difference. Students from relatively poor backgrounds, such as members of other stereotyped groups, risk confirming a negative reputation of low intellectual ability. The authors predicted that, on a stereotype-relevant test, members of this group would experience apprehension about confirming their negative reputation and that this susceptibility to the stereotype would impair their performance. The study varied stereotype threat by manipulating the instructions accompanying the test that each participant completed. When described as a measure of intellectual ability, low socioeconomic status (SES) participants performed worse than high SES participants. However, when the test was presented as nondiagnostic of intellectual ability, low SES participants' performances did not suffer, contesting claims of SES differences in intellectual ability.
Theorists have argued that global self-esteem should be related to performance in academics. However, studies have reported lower academic achievement among African American students than among White students but have failed to find lower global self-esteem among African American students. Steele has attempted to explain this paradox by proposing that African American children detach their self-esteem from academic outcomes, thus protecting them from failure. The present study tested empirical hypotheses derived from Steele's theoretical framework. Data were taken from a nationally representative longitudinal study of American students. Analyses revealed a pattern of weakening correlations between self-esteem and academic outcomes from 8th to 10th grade for African American students particularly African American male students, whereas the correlations for White students remained stable or increased. These results show general support for Steele's model in the context of a nationally representative sample.
Using meta-analysis techniques, almost 200 studies that considered the relation between socioeconomic status (SES) and academic achievement (AA) were examined. Results indicate that as SES is typically defined and used, it is only weakly correlated with AA. With aggregated units of analysis, typically obtained correlations between SES and AA jump to .73. Family characteristics, sometimes incorrectly referred to as SES, are substantially correlated with AA when individuals are the unit of analysis. Factors such as grade level at which the measurement was taken, type of AA measure, type of SES measure, and the year in which the data were collected were significantly correlated with the magnitude of the correlation between AA and SES. Variables considered in the meta-analysis accounted for 75% of the variance in observed correlation coefficients in the studies examined. (6 p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Discusses the social science statement supporting the 1954
Brown vs
Board of Education US Supreme Court decision. It is contended that the statement was based on well-meaning rhetoric rather than solid research. All that the statement said, in effect, was that because the minority child was now in a classroom with Whites, he or she would no longer have the status of an outcast or a pariah. The "lateral transmission of values" hypothesis contained in a desegregation report by J. S. Coleman et al (1966) predicted that through classroom contact with their White peers, minority pupils would experience a personality change by absorbing the achievement-related values of the Whites. Social science thinking 10 yrs later, when desegregation began to be implemented, was more sophisticated but still unsupported by necessary research. It is concluded that no real evidence has been found for the lateral transmission hypotheses and that research and development as well as systems engineering in the social sciences are needed if some of the social problems in the US, including successful implementation of school desegregation, are to be eventually solved. (49 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Two experiments tested the hypothesis that members of negatively stereotyped groups psychologically disengage their self-esteem from feedback received in stereotype-relevant domains. In both experiments, a total of 62 African American and 82 European American college students received performance feedback on a bogus intelligence test and completed measures of self-esteem. In Exp 1, European American Ss had higher self-esteem after success than after failure, whereas African American Ss had similar levels of self-esteem regardless of feedback. Exp 2 examined the extent to which lesser responsivity among African Americans is the result of chronic disengagement from intelligence tests or situational disengagement initiated by priming racial stereotypes. Results indicate that both chronic disengagement and racial priming engender less responsivity to negative performance feedback among African American, but not European American, Ss. Performance expectancies, self-evaluations, and beliefs about test bias are discussed as possible mediators of this relationship. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)
Although several psychological theories predict that members of stigmatized groups should have low global self-esteem, empirical research typically does not support this prediction. It is proposed here that this discrepancy may be explained by considering the ways in which membership in a stigmatized group may protect the self-concept. It is proposed that members of stigmatized groups may (a) attribute negative feedback to prejudice against their group, (b) compare their outcomes with those of the ingroup, rather than with the relatively advantaged outgroup, and (c) selectively devalue those dimensions on which their group fares poorly and value those dimensions on which their group excels. Evidence for each of these processes and their consequences for self-esteem and motivation is reviewed. Factors that moderate the use of these strategies and implications of this analysis for treatment of stigmas are also discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Stereotype threat is being at risk of confirming, as self-characteristic, a negative stereotype about one's group. Studies 1 and 2 varied the stereotype vulnerability of Black participants taking a difficult verbal test by varying whether or not their performance was ostensibly diagnostic of ability, and thus, whether or not they were at risk of fulfilling the racial stereotype about their intellectual ability. Reflecting the pressure of this vulnerability, Blacks underperformed in relation to Whites in the ability-diagnostic condition but not in the nondiagnostic condition (with Scholastic Aptitude Tests controlled). Study 3 validated that ability-diagnosticity cognitively activated the racial stereotype in these participants and motivated them not to conform to it, or to be judged by it. Study 4 showed that mere salience of the stereotype could impair Blacks' performance even when the test was not ability diagnostic. The role of stereotype vulnerability in the standardized test performance of ability-stigmatized groups is discussed.
Extending R.A. Wicklund and P.M. Gollwitzer's (1982) self-completion theory, 2 experiments examined the role of self-defining goals in predicting performance effects of failure among students committed to professional goals such as becoming a physician (Experiment 1) or a computer scientist (Experiment 2). Results of Experiment 1 revealed that failure on a task characterized as being relevant to students' professional self-definition led to (a) enhanced performance on a subsequent task relevant to the same self-definition and (b) impaired performance on a subsequent task unrelated to the self-definition challenged through prior failure. Experiment 2 replicated these findings. In addition, performance effects due to self-definitional failure were annulled when participants experience intermittent social recognition for the aspired-to-self-definition.
This research demonstrates that subliminally activated stereotypes can alter judgments about oneself and can change cognitive performance. In the first study, an intervention that activated positive stereotypes of aging without the participants' awareness tended to improve memory performance, memory self-efficacy, and views of aging in old individuals; in contrast, an intervention that activated negative stereotypes of aging tended to worsen memory performance, memory self-efficacy, and views of aging in old participants. A second study demonstrated that for the strong effects to emerge from the shifting stereotypes, the stereotypes must be important to one's self-image: Young individuals randomly assigned to the same conditions as the old participants in the first study did not exhibit any of the significant interactions that emerged among the old participants. This research highlights the potential for memory improvement in old individuals when the negative stereotypes of aging that dominate the American culture are shifted to more positive stereotypes.
The authors consider the empirical validity of the Graduate Record Examination (GRE) as a predictor of various kinds of performance in a graduate psychology program, including 1st- and 2nd-year grades; professors' ratings of students' dissertations; and professors' ratings of students' analytical, creative, practical, research, and teaching abilities. On the basis of the triarchic theory of intelligence, the GRE was predicted to be of some use in predicting graduate grades but of limited or no use in predicting other aspects of performance. In fact, the test was found to be useful in predicting 1st-year grades but not other kinds of performance, with one exception--performance on the GRE Analytical test was predictive, but only for men. The authors conclude that there is a need to develop better theory-based tests.
A general theory of domain identification is used to describe achievement barriers still faced by women in advanced quantitative areas and by African Americans in school. The theory assumes that sustained school success requires identification with school and its subdomains; that societal pressures on these groups (e.g., economic disadvantage, gender roles) can frustrate this identification; and that in school domains where these groups are negatively stereotyped, those who have become domain identified face the further barrier of stereotype threat, the threat that others' judgments or their own actions will negatively stereotype them in the domain. Research shows that this threat dramatically depresses the standardized test performance of women and African Americans who are in the academic vanguard of their groups (offering a new interpretation of group differences in standardized test performance), that it causes disidentification with school, and that practices that reduce this threat can reduce these negative effects.
Self-affirmation processes are being activated by information that threatens the perceived adequacy or integrity of the self and as running their course until this perception is restored through explanation, rationalization, and/or action. The purpose of these constant explanations (and rationalizations) is to maintain a phenomenal experience of the self-self-conceptions and images as adaptively and morally adequate—that is, as competent, good, coherent, unitary, stable, capable of free choice, capable of controlling important outcomes, and so on. The research reported in this chapter focuses on the way people cope with the implications of threat to their self-regard rather than on the way they cope with the threat itself. This chapter analyzes the way coping processes restore self-regard rather than the way they address the provoking threat itself.
The challenge of how to appear competent (to oneself and others) is closely tied to the attributional relationship between ability (can) and effort (try). Data are presented to support the layperson's understanding of the discounting principle that describes this relationship: Holding performance constant, the lower the apparent effort and the more difficult the task, the greater the attributed ability. It is proposed that people in our culture attach great value to the appearance of basic, or "natural," ability. Depending on available opportunities, people will withdraw effort, emphasize task difficulty, and even handicap themselves to protect their competence image. Experimental results also make clear that self-promoters must avoid claims that are refutable, excessive, or seen as out of context.
During the deliberations prior to its school desegregation decision in 1954 the Supreme Court had before it a Social Science Statement on the effects of segregation and desegregation. This article reassesses the quality of that Statement 25 years later. Key points in the Statement are compared to the results of subsequent research. Some points, e.g., no negative effect on the school achievement of white students, have been supported. Others, e.g., improvement in black self-esteem, are difficult to evaluate due to inconsistent and uninterpretable research findings. Still others, e.g., more favorable racial attitudes, cannot be compared to the research findings because desegregation was not carried out in accord with conditions that were specified as conducive to the outcomes predicted in the Statement. Much research effort has been wasted in the study of school desegregation conducted under conditions unknown to the investigator. In order to avoid such waste in the future it is suggested that investigators concentrate on innovative methods of facilitating constructive classroom desegregation. Illustrations are provided from recent research developments.
The authors consider the empirical validity of the Graduate Record Examination (GRE) as a predictor of various kinds of performance in a graduate psychology program, including 1st- and 2nd-year grades; professors' ratings of students' dissertations; and professors' ratings of students' analytical, creative, practical, research, and teaching abilities. On the basis of the triarchic theory of intelligence, the GRE was predicted to be of some use in predicting graduate grades but of limited or no use in predicting other aspects of performance. In fact, the test was found to be useful in predicting 1st-year grades but not other kinds of performance, with one exception—performance on the GRE Analytical test was predictive, but only for men. The authors conclude that there is a need to develop better theory-based tests. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
When women perform math, unlike men, they risk being judged by the negative stereotype that women have weaker math ability. We call this predicamentstereotype threatand hypothesize that the apprehension it causes may disrupt women's math performance. In Study 1 we demonstrated that the pattern observed in the literature that women underperform on difficult (but not easy) math tests was observed among a highly selected sample of men and women. In Study 2 we demonstrated that this difference in performance could be eliminated when we lowered stereotype threat by describing the test as not producing gender differences. However, when the test was described as producing gender differences and stereotype threat was high, women performed substantially worse than equally qualified men did. A third experiment replicated this finding with a less highly selected population and explored the mediation of the effect. The implication that stereotype threat may underlie gender differences in advanced math performance, even those that have been attributed to genetically rooted sex differences, is discussed.
Mfost of social psychology's theories of the self fail to take into account the significance of social identification in the definition of self. Social identities are self-definitions that are more inclusive than the individuated self-concept of most American psychology. A model of optimal distinctiveness is proposed in which social identity is viewed as a reconciliation of opposing needs for assimilation and differentiation from others. According to this model, individuals avoid self-construals that are either too personalized or too inclusive and instead define themselves in terms of distinctive category memberships. Social identity and group loyalty are hypothesized to be strongest for those self-categorizations that simultaneously provide for a sense of belonging and a sense of distinctiveness. Results from an initial laboratory experiment support the prediction that depersonalization and group size interact as determinants of the strength of social identification.
This chapter presents a theoretical model for understanding the negative impact of prejudice and perceptions of prejudice on academic performance and school persistence among women and minorities. The aim of the chapter is to describe research conducted under the rubric of a theory called "stereotype threat," focusing on the consequences for targets contending with negative stereotypes about their intellectual abilities. The authors suggest that taking the perspective of the target can help to explain and to ameliorate the problem of low academic achievement among certain minorities and women. They argue that stereotype threat undermines academic achievement both by interfering with performance on mental tasks, and over time, by prompting students to protect their self-esteem by disengaging from the threatened domain.
The following topics are addressed: the situational inducement of stereotype threat, mediation of stereotype threat (measuring stereotype activation, stereotype avoidance, anxiety and evaluation apprehension), and reducing stereotype threat and disidentification. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
describes [the author's] despair at watching talented African-American college students fall by the wayside as the full weight of racial stigma becomes evident to them / more than half of African-American college students fail to complete their college degrees for reasons having little to do with ability / draws on empirical findings and examples to show how the stigma of race leads Black students to disidentify with their college and to see intellectual achievement as increasingly irrelevant to their self-esteem / shows that when school atmospheres reduce racial stigma, achievement among African Americans is enhanced (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Examines how negative stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination can lead members of stigmatized groups to psychologically disengage from a self-evaluative domain as a way of maintaining their personal and collective self-esteem. Three studies are described that examine whether African American college students are more likely than European American students to disengage their self-esteem from self-evaluative feedback received in the context of performance on academic and intellectual tests. Taken together, the results of the studies provide support for the idea that under certain circumstances, African American students are more likely than European American students to disengage their self-esteem from performance feedback. This disengagement is especially likely to to occur in situations in which either negative stereotypes, expectations of racial bias, or expectations of poor performance are primed, but may take on more chronic features as African Americans continually confront prejudice and discrimination in their environment. European American students, in contrast, who are not affected by the same negative stereotypes and social devaluation, are relatively unaffected by primes of racial bias and are more likely to remain engaged in intellectual tasks. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Paradoxical performance effects (‘choking under pressure’) are defined as the occurrence of inferior performance despite striving and incentives for superior performance. Experimental demonstrations of these effects on tasks analogous to athletic performance and the theories that may explain them are reviewed. At present, attentional theories seem to offer the most complete explanation of the processes underlying paradoxical performance effects. In particular, choking may result from distraction or from the interference of self-focused attention with the execution of automatic responses. Experimental findings of paradoxical performance decrements are associated with four pressure variables: audience presence, competition, performance-contingent rewards and punishments, and ego relevance of the task. The mediating factors of task complexity, expectancies, and individual differences are discussed.
The hypothesis that explanations for differences between prototypical and nonprototypical members of categories would focus more on attributes of the latter than on those of the former was examined. Explanations for alleged gender differences in the behavior of voters, elementary school teachers, and college professors were elicited. As predicted, explanations for gender differences within the 3 categories emphasized the qualities of the "deviant" member. Ss' explanations of alleged gender gaps in the behavior of voters and college professors focused more on qualities of women than on qualities of men. In contrast, Ss' explanations of an alleged gender gap in the behavior of elementary school teachers focused more on qualities of men than on qualities of women. The results are interpreted in terms of Kahneman and Miller's (1986) norm theory.
A substantial sex difference in mathematical reasoning ability (score on the mathematics test of the Scholastic Aptitude Test)
in favor of boys was found in a study of 9927 intellectually gifted junior high school students. Our data contradict the hypothesis
that differential course-taking accounts for observed sex differences in mathematical ability, but support the hypothesis
that these differences are somewhat increased by environmental influences.
Whereas past researchers have treated targets of stereotypes as though they have uniform reactions to their stereotyped status (e.g., J. Crocker & B. Major, 1989; C. M. Steele & J. Aronson, 1995), it is proposed here that targets differ in the extent to which they expect to be stereotyped by others (i.e., stigma consciousness). Six studies, 5 of which validate the stigma-consciousness questionnaire (SCQ), are presented. The results suggest that the SCQ is a reliable and valid instrument for detecting differences in stigma consciousness. In addition, scores on the SCQ predict perceptions of discrimination and the ability to generate convincing examples of such discrimination. The final study highlights a behavioral consequence of stigma consciousness: the tendency for people high in stigma consciousness to forgo opportunities to invalidate stereotypes about their group. The relation of stigma consciousness to past research on targets of stereotypes is considered as is the issue of how stigma consciousness may encourage continued stereotyping.
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