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Gated communities: From “Self-Sufficient Towns” to “Active Urban Agents”
Abstract
The growing research on gated communities has largely regarded them as isolated and isolating places, rather than considering residents’ relations with other spaces and communities. This paper seeks to examine these external contacts through exploring the ways in which gated communities establish relations with local political actors. This is done through an examination of two gated communities in Gokturk and Omerli, Istanbul, and an analysis of the differences between them. On the basis of semi-structured in-depth interviews with residents and locals, the paper demonstrates how gated communities engage with the outside world in contrasting ways. By focusing on the conflict between Islamist and secular people, the paper also argues that gated communities are active urban agents, establishing interdependent relations with local political actors which can change urban space and politics.
... Italy -Cipriani Nuova Architettura). At the communal level, each condominium was conceived to be a self-sufficient entertaining and leisure space (Tanulku 2012), featuring a broad range of common amenities, such as outdoor and thermal pools, gourmet areas, party saloons, kid's space, fitness center, and tennis courts, among others. Moreover, every condominium is equipped with a full security system that involves a visible architecture of fences and electric fences, security cabins (sometimes sealed), cameras, double door garage entrance, double door entrance, among others. ...
... Spatial governance JEN's spatial governance instantiates at the communal and public levels. At the communal level, JEN's spatial governance resembles those of documented gated communities and condos throughout the world (Rosen and Razin 2008;Gillad Rosen and Walks 2013;Tanulku 2012). In JEN's case, each condominium has its own administration that usually adopts a similar model, having a professional manager as the main responsible for its daily operation. ...
... Physical boundaries refer to the natural and built, but also political and cognitive divides between two areas, assuming various levels of restriction to access. In gated communities and condominiums, for instance, such divides are explicit and enforced, separating (or segregating) residents from nonresidents (Caldeira 1996;Low 2001;Rosen and Razin 2008;Tanulku 2012). Neighborhood boundaries tend to be more subtle (Billig and Churchman 2003), involving a dialectical relation between urban development patterns, material cues, and the subjective experience of dwellers (Crockett and Wallendorf 2004;Sabatini and Brain 2008). ...
This article analyses the development of a branded place in a Brazilian city. Drawing on Lefebvre’s spatial triad, I show how the intertwined practices of hegemonic market actors in alliance concur to produce a city space that caters to the aspirations and ways of life of local elites while actively excluding lower-class groups from it. I distinguish three main elements of branded places –architecture and urbanism, brand narrative, and spatial governance– and demonstrate how they produce physical, symbolic, and social boundaries between middle- and lower-classes in the city. These findings contribute to understanding the ways market-mediated spatial dynamics perform exclusion of most vulnerable groups in post-industrial cities and extend place brand literature by accounting for the less documented practices of invested stakeholders in the production of branded places.
... In addition, Istanbul's proximity to the North Anatolian Fault Line and low quality housing make it vulnerable to strong earthquakes, seen in the 1999 Marmara Earthquake. This was a turning point for many changes, including the acceptance of new construction regulations to provide better housing quality and the rise of a desire to live far from the city centre (Tanulku, 2012a). These intact areas became full of gated communities and related facilities, including shopping malls, café and restaurant chains and private schools and universities. ...
... In this respect, they also lead to the dispossession of the locals who sell their lands off to developer companies expecting high rent value. The locals either became impoverished and started working in those communities in lowskilled jobs or left their homes because of losing their lands (Tanulku, 2012a). This creates the irony that the residents in gated communities who abandoned city centres due to concerns of urban pollution, degradation and density, complain about the same problems in the once-beautiful areas now facing dramatic growth because of them. ...
... The irony is that while people move into gated communities in order to eliminate the stigma of large cities, symbolizing mixed immigrant culture as well as environmental degradation, once by closing themselves off from the rest into " hated communities " , they take the stigma on their shoulders due to their individualised lifestyles excluding the rest of the society. They try to eliminate this stigma either by helping the local populations, found poorer, through aid campaigns and free courses given through volunteer work, and finding jobs for them (Tanulku, 2012a) and/or accusing their richer neighbours to rely on illegal sources of income and have non-friendly attitude to outsiders (Tanulku, 2012b). In addition, despite being regarded as ideal and problem free-zones, gated communities lead to disputes between residents emerging from common resource sharing, as well as visitors coming from the outside (Tanulku, 2013a). ...
... However, South Africa's current land and housing market in towns and cities currently function in a class-based segregated set-up thereby limiting the poor from accessing most amenities, services and infrastructure (K'Akumu & Olima, 2007;Ramoroka, 2013a). The popularly known settlement planning model dominant in South Africa's towns and cities which uses class as a decisive factor is the gated-community (Mabin & Smit, 1997;Firman, 2000;Landman, 2002;Leisch, 2002, Borsdorf & Hidalgo, 2008Tanulku, 2012;Pacione, 2013;Ramoroka, 2013a). Apparently, this model formerly uses privatized space to separate the rich from the poor in towns and cities and the planning of these settlements is further integrated in and supported by some urban land-use planning policies (Borsdorf & Hidalgo, 2008;Tanulku, 2012;Pacione, 2013;Ramoroka, 2013b). ...
... The popularly known settlement planning model dominant in South Africa's towns and cities which uses class as a decisive factor is the gated-community (Mabin & Smit, 1997;Firman, 2000;Landman, 2002;Leisch, 2002, Borsdorf & Hidalgo, 2008Tanulku, 2012;Pacione, 2013;Ramoroka, 2013a). Apparently, this model formerly uses privatized space to separate the rich from the poor in towns and cities and the planning of these settlements is further integrated in and supported by some urban land-use planning policies (Borsdorf & Hidalgo, 2008;Tanulku, 2012;Pacione, 2013;Ramoroka, 2013b). The same gated-communities offer security as a private market commodity rather than a public good or right thereby perpetuating the socio-economic inequalities between the rich and poor who are residing in towns and cities. ...
... The gated-community settlement planning model is a phenomenon which originally emerged with a special function to differentiate amongst different lifestyles, prestige and security zone communities (Mabin & Smit, 1997;Firman, 2000;Landman, 2002;Leisch, 2002;Borsdorf & Hidalgo, 2008;Tanulku, 2012;Almatarneh, 2013;Hapsariniaty, Sidi, & Nurdini, 2013;Pacione, 2013;Ramoroka, 2013aRamoroka, , 2013bKovács & Heged s, 2014). Throughout history, towns and cities were built with walls to protect their citizens against intruders, aggressive parties, neighbouring states and criminals (Landman, 2004;Bénit-Gbaffou, 2008;Kovács & Heged s, 2014;Güzey, 2014). ...
This paper theoretically argues that urban settlement planning vested in gated-communities for “security reasons” in a democratic South Africa’s towns and cities, still perpetuates the past spatial legacies of apartheid urban settlement planning model. Of late, the gated-community settlement planning model has been adopted in most urban areas in South Africa. These gated-community urban settlements offer security as a private market commodity instead of a public good or right. In this way, the neoliberal urban security governance appears to provide justification for the renewed urban displacement, fragmentation, distortion, incoherence, inequality and inefficiency during South Africa’s 20 years of democratic dispensation. Seemingly, this settlement planning to some extent, indirectly maintain the past spatial fragmentations and inequalities promoted by the apartheid government. The footprints are interspersed with gated-communities such as security villages and enclosed neighbourhoods, all sailing freely under the same old flag of "security", now formalized into official urban residential planning. The paper concludes that the gated-community settlement planning model perpetuates spatial, social and economic exclusions of the poorest sections of the urban population especially those who are residing in townships and the congested urban centres. Thus, this accepted urban settlement planning model which is considered as “new” is basically an old strategy which uses class instead of race as a decisive factor to separate people.
DOI: 10.5901/mjss.2014.v5n15p106
... Dentre esses lugares urbanos, destacam-se os condomínios residenciais fechados. Os condomínios fechados (gated communities) são considerados um fenômeno global (Tanulku, 2012). No Brasil os condomínios fechados não se limitam aos horizontais de casas, sendo mais comuns os condomínios de apartamentos, fortemente cercados por barreiras físicas de segurança, muitos dos quais localizados em centralidades, novas ou antigas, de cidades como São Paulo (Caldeira, 1996), Rio de Janeiro (Pereira, 2002) e Porto Alegre (Sanfelici, 2009). ...
... No Brasil os condomínios fechados não se limitam aos horizontais de casas, sendo mais comuns os condomínios de apartamentos, fortemente cercados por barreiras físicas de segurança, muitos dos quais localizados em centralidades, novas ou antigas, de cidades como São Paulo (Caldeira, 1996), Rio de Janeiro (Pereira, 2002) e Porto Alegre (Sanfelici, 2009). A vasta literatura sobre esses "enclaves" os caracteriza como áreas residenciais de acesso restrito, onde o espaço público é privatizado, e no interior dos quais moradores com origens sociais similares vivem em isolamento do restante da cidade (Caldeira, 1996;Le Goix, 2005;Low, 2001;Tanulku, 2012). ...
... A crescente procura por condomínios fechados reflete o desenvolvimento de uma "cultura do medo" no seio das camadas médias (Caldeira, 2000;Low, 2001), o qual tem relação tanto com o aumento real da criminalidade nos centros urbanos como o aumento da diversidade étnica e de classe nesses lugares (Low, 2001), de maneira em que todo o tipo de encontro com o "outro" não familiar é potencialmente perigoso e o "enclave" passa a ser o contraponto ordenado da cidade caótica (Tanulku, 2012). A demanda por esses espaços residenciais também reflete a busca por semelhança (ciclo de vida da família, idade, renda) e pelo desenvolvimento de um sentido de comunidade ou de um estilo de vida em torno de esportes e lazeres específicos promovidos pelos produtos imobiliários (Low, 2001;Tanulku, 2012). ...
A cidade contemporânea está inextricavelmente inserida em dinâmicas de mercado. Essa lógica dá origem a uma rede de lugares gerenciados e governados como produtos. Com base em uma tipologia de lugares urbanos, elaborada a partir das dimensões diversidade e propriedade do espaço, analiso a produção acadêmica existente e mapeio as principais oportunidades de contribuição teórica que a análise do espaço urbano oferece para a Consumer Culture Theory (CCT). Discuto, ainda, como a análise sistemática das dinâmicas de mercado no espaço urbano pode constituir uma agenda de pesquisa capaz de promover uma contribuição genuinamente brasileira para os debates na CCT. Palavras-chave: Espaço Urbano; Sistemas de Mercado; Cidade Pós-Industrial. MARKET DYNAMICS IN URBAN SPACE: LOGIC THEORY AND RESEARCH AGENDA ABSTRACT The contemporary city is inextricably embedded in market dynamics. This logic give rise to a network of places managed and governed as products. Based on a typology of urban places, elaborated from the dimensions of diversity and property, I analyze the existing literature and map the main opportunities for theoretical contribution that the analysis of the urban space offers to Consumer Culture Theory (CCT). Also discuss how the systematic analysis of market dynamics in the urban space could provide a research agenda that promotes an original Brazilian contribution to the conversations on CCT.
... The gated-community model is overtly socially fragmentary and easily practicable; and, it is now dominating the securitization and marketization discourse about urban public spaces through nuance emphasis on urban settlement planning. The fashionable gated-community principle emerged originally as a special form of urban spatial planning to differentiate amongst communities in terms of lifestyle, prestige and security zones (Low, 2001;Landman, 2002Landman, , 2004Leisch, 2002;Bénit-Gbaffou, 2008;Borsdorf and Hidalgo, 2008;Tanulku, 2012;Pacione, 2013). The vogue of urban neighbourhoods responding to crime and the fear thereof through the gatedcommunity settlements, including security villages and neighbourhood enclosures (Low, 2001;Landman, 2002Landman, , 2004Leisch, 2002;Bénit-Gbaffou, 2008;Borsdorf and Hidalgo, 2008;Tanulku, 2012;Pacione, 2013), has taken hold of the modern process of urban settlement planning. ...
... The fashionable gated-community principle emerged originally as a special form of urban spatial planning to differentiate amongst communities in terms of lifestyle, prestige and security zones (Low, 2001;Landman, 2002Landman, , 2004Leisch, 2002;Bénit-Gbaffou, 2008;Borsdorf and Hidalgo, 2008;Tanulku, 2012;Pacione, 2013). The vogue of urban neighbourhoods responding to crime and the fear thereof through the gatedcommunity settlements, including security villages and neighbourhood enclosures (Low, 2001;Landman, 2002Landman, , 2004Leisch, 2002;Bénit-Gbaffou, 2008;Borsdorf and Hidalgo, 2008;Tanulku, 2012;Pacione, 2013), has taken hold of the modern process of urban settlement planning. Given that such security villages are defined as "walled private developments where the entire area is developed by a private developer" (Landman, 2002, pp.5), then it is tenable to argue that the modern process of urban settlement planning is goaded to privatization interests. ...
... Enclosed neighbourhoods involve suburbs that are walled-off with a limited number of entrances or exits points (Landman, 2004;Rogers and Sukolratanametee, 2009), in the name of security and fear of crime. Hence, the gated-community model is commonly known for its securitization and policing of crime with designated parameters such as walls and fences as well as controlled entrance and exit points for the management of movement (Low, 2001;Hook & Vrdoljak, 2002;Leisch, 2002;Lemanski, 2006;Bénit-Gbaffou, 2008;Borsdorf and Hidalgo, 2008;Tanulku, 2012;Pacione, 2013).The stated purpose of the modern urban settlement planning models which is to curb urban sprawl, avoid decay and ensure sustainability through the development of towns and cities (Nechyba and Walsh, 2004;Jabareen, 2006;Vigdor, 2010;Habibi and Asadi, 2011;Bevan and Wilson, 2013) is doomed to failure. Guided through this securitization and policing of crime principle, modern urban settlement planning is less concerned about urban sprawl because most of the security villages are located at the periphery of towns and cities, encouraging further outward horizontal growth. ...
Emulation of the West’s privatization of urban spaces, and securitization and policing, through city settlement planning has uniformly reinvented spatial social segregation in most democratizing developing countries. Reverence of the gated-community model in democratic urban settlement planning has paradoxical sustained social segregation. Understandably, democratization of South Africa entailed the application of urban settlement planning as a democratic instrument of social integration. This article argues that gated-community urban settlement planning creates physical enclosures that transfer public spaces to private ownership, thereby perpetuating apartheid social exclusion legacies. South Africa’s modern urban settlement planning epitomizes gated-communities, security villages and enclosed neighbourhoods phenomena, which sustain spatial differentiation of lifestyle, prestige, socio-economic status and security. Given apartheid city legacies, securitization of urban settlement planning reflexively maintains social exclusions through a democratic strategy. The article posits that the adoption of the gated-community model in urban settlement planning in a democratic South Africa has privatized public spaces and created secluded settlements with fragmented delivery of public services such as security, policing, emergency services (fire trucks and ambulances) and a host of other municipal services (waste removal, water and electricity meter readings). In practice, this privatization creates controlled, restricted and prohibitive access to public spaces and amenities. The article concludes that the nuance application of gated-community principles in urban settlement planning perpetuates social exclusion through the same old market ethos and economics of space. To this extent, the spatially and socially fragmentary modern urban spatial planning is inappropriate for South Africa’s former apartheid cities.
... At least one study of a prominent gated community in Istanbul, Turkey suggests that discrimination by gatekeepers in that community could be associated with educational segregation (Genis, 2007). Historically, gated communities in Turkey have been of a secular, Westernised character and only recently have Islamist gated communities emerged (Cavdar, 2016;Genis, 2007;Tanulku, 2012Tanulku, , 2016. In research on one of the original gated communities in Istanbul, Kemer Country, Genis (2007: 783) finds that respondents identify themselves as "urban, modern, Western and secular, clearly referring to the socio-cultural binaries and conflicts that have marked Turkish society in recent years." ...
... Genis (2007: 784) highlights the discriminatory mechanism that maintains the residential homogeneity in this community-"prospective residents have to undergo a strict application process that scrutinizes their occupational and educational background and their social and cultural capital in addition to their income level … in one instance, a family's application was turned down on the basis of their Islamist orientation and because their lifestyle would not be compatible with that of the community." This selective process is common in secular-based, Western-oriented gated communities (Tanulku, 2012(Tanulku, , 2016. ...
No research has examined the association between political preferences and residential segregation by educational status. In Turkey, affective polarisation is very high and warrants an examination of whether political preferences are associated with educational residential segregation. This study uses data on Turkey from the 2013 Address-Population Based Registry, the 2011 Census of Population and Housing and voting archives maintained by the Supreme Election Council to examine residential segregation by educational status across the nation's 81 provinces. We find that the segregation between groups at the ends of the educational distribution is the highest. Those with college education are segregated at a moderate level from those with no schooling and a primary-school education. High-school graduates are moderately segregated from those with no schooling. Multivariate analyses reveal that political preferences are significantly associated with educational segregation. The implications of this spatial distancing are discussed for Turkey and other politically polarised societies.
... Our study may also have implications for future research on place attachment and residential satisfaction. The neoliberal structure in Turkey since the 1980s created a decrease in welfare, polarization in social structure and an increase in cultural and social degeneration (Tanulku, 2012). As a result of this process, gated communities have emerged with the need of retirement from the urban life, enclosed personalized lifestyle, exclusiveness and security (Alkan-Gökler, 2017;Güzey, 2014;Tanulku, 2012). ...
... The neoliberal structure in Turkey since the 1980s created a decrease in welfare, polarization in social structure and an increase in cultural and social degeneration (Tanulku, 2012). As a result of this process, gated communities have emerged with the need of retirement from the urban life, enclosed personalized lifestyle, exclusiveness and security (Alkan-Gökler, 2017;Güzey, 2014;Tanulku, 2012). There are several studies analyzing place attachment in this context (Akçal, 2004;Bekleyen and Yilmaz-Ay, 2016;Edgü and Cims it, 2011;Ergun and Kulkul, 2019;Kaba, 2018). ...
Purpose-This paper aims to investigate the association of neighborhood location with place attachment and residential satisfaction.
Design/methodology/approach-First, the authors reviewed the literature on place attachment and residential satisfaction, and then generated a questionnaire based on the scales from the literature. The authors surveyed 135 respondents in two neighborhoods of Ankara, a metropolitan city in Turkey: one in the city center, the other in a suburb. To analyze the data, first, factor analysis, and later, multivariate analysis of variance and correlation tests were conducted.
Findings-The results indicated that place attachment and residential satisfaction were positively correlated, in congruence with the related literature; however, neighborhood location appeared to be associated only with residential satisfaction. The theoretical and practical implications of the results are discussed with respect to the recent issues on housing.
Originality/value-The effects of neighborhood location on place attachment and residential satisfaction (by comparing two different residential areas of the city) have not been adequately examined in earlier studies. The study results provide an understanding of the effectiveness of residential location on improving place attachment and residential satisfaction and contribute to the existing literature. Although the study findings may not be generalized to other locations in Turkey, this study contributed to the previous studies on place attachment and residential satisfaction by providing data from Turkish residents, which is less often examined.
... Our study may also have implications for future research on place attachment and residential satisfaction. The neoliberal structure in Turkey since the 1980s created a decrease in welfare, polarization in social structure and an increase in cultural and social degeneration (Tanulku, 2012). As a result of this process, gated communities have emerged with the need of retirement from the urban life, enclosed personalized lifestyle, exclusiveness and security (Alkan-Gökler, 2017;Güzey, 2014;Tanulku, 2012). ...
... The neoliberal structure in Turkey since the 1980s created a decrease in welfare, polarization in social structure and an increase in cultural and social degeneration (Tanulku, 2012). As a result of this process, gated communities have emerged with the need of retirement from the urban life, enclosed personalized lifestyle, exclusiveness and security (Alkan-Gökler, 2017;Güzey, 2014;Tanulku, 2012). There are several studies analyzing place attachment in this context (Akçal, 2004;Bekleyen and Yilmaz-Ay, 2016;Edgü and Cims it, 2011;Ergun and Kulkul, 2019;Kaba, 2018). ...
... Angesichts der zunehmenden Mobilität der Mittel-und Oberschichten kam auch schon die Frage auf, ob ihnen aufgrund ihrer Lebensweise Gemeinschaft überhaupt noch wichtig sein könne: Mit dem Rückzug aus dem öffentlichen Leben habe auch ihr Engagement für die Gemeinschaft abgenommen. Anscheinend ist das die Art und Weise, wie man in Städten in Lateinamerika, Asien oder Afrika der Angst vor den Armen begegnet (Caldeira 1996;Tanulku 2012;Galonnier 2015;Tedong, Grant und Wan Abd Aziz 2015). ...
Was macht Gemeinschaft im Stadtleben aus? Gemeinschaft ist ein zentrales Konzept der Stadtforschung, aber begrifflich vage und empirisch schwer zu fassen. Zudem liegt der Fokus der wissenschaftlichen Erschließung zu oft einseitig auf stabilen Beziehungen zu Verwandten, Freunden oder Nachbarn. Talja Blokland leistet einen innovativen Beitrag zu Definition und Verständnis von Gemeinschaft und fasst diese gegen gängige Lehrmeinungen als gemeinsame urbane Praxis in einer globalisierten Welt auf. Damit bietet sie alternative Denkansätze für urbane Konfigurationen, die es uns ermöglichen, Gemeinschaft auf unterschiedliche Weise sowie als dynamischen Prozess zu begreifen.
... The middle-classed spaces of the contemporary neoliberal city are thus arenas of social flux and cross-class encounters, where spatial domination unfurls in unprecedented ways. These spaces contrast with traditional forms of spatial domination-found, for example, in suburban neighborhoods (Sibley 1995) and gated communities (Tanulku 2012)-where dominant groups produce clearcut territories through physical barriers, controlled access, and geographical distance. Consumers experience those territories as "purified spaces" (Sibley 1995): the orderly, clean, aesthetically pleasing, exclusive, and protected spaces where middle-class lifestyles and status ideals come to full fruition. ...
This paper analyzes spatial domination in middle-classed spaces––the spaces that cater to the dispositions, status, and lifestyle ideals of middle-class groups––of the neoliberal city. Grounded in interdisciplinary scholarship on the neoliberal city, the paper introduces a typology of middle-classed spaces that maps out different combinations of cross-class hostility and cordiality in dynamics of spatial domination. Through an extended case study of a new upscale neighborhood bordering a slum area in a southern Brazilian city, the paper unveils the socio-historic conditions that inform the localized cross-class relations and situate it in the spatial typology. With the support of a semiotic square, the paper then identifies, relates, and analyzes the hostile (‘takeover’ and ‘repression’) and cordial (‘makeover’ and ‘concession’) spatial practices by which dominant agents produce one specific type of middle-classed space. Through these practices, dominant agents improve the status, experience, and market value of the neighborhood for target upper-middle-class consumers, while further disenfranchising the poor from its spaces—effectively reproducing deep-rooted historical patterns of social exclusion. This study extends research on status consumption and spatiality while also adding insights into the role of the state in consumption and market dynamics.
... In the past decade, the social interaction effects of the real estate market in response to the need for safety and security and enhanced quality of life. This situation forced the shift from conventional mixed housing to single detached units and gated communities [15,16]. ...
Social interaction is a crucial aspect of social sustainability, aiming to improve quality of life. However, the emergence of gated communities in Egypt has shifted priorities, prioritizing isolation over social interaction. This paper examines the impact of social interaction in gated communities in the West of the Greater Cairo Region from a social sustainability perspective. This study conducted a literature review on definitions and concepts of social sustainability and social interaction. We launched an online survey to measure social interaction in our case studies. We analyzed data retrieved from the survey to assess the correlation between social interaction and sustainability indicators. The results demonstrate that social interaction neutrally affects social sustainability indicators and users' satisfaction. The survey findings indicate that users of gated communities rarely consider social interaction, which reflects their satisfaction with the isolation in the gated communities. As such, residents of gated communities should reconsider the shared spaces within these communities to improve social interaction and enhance social sustainability. This could lead to improved quality of life for people living in gated communities. Furthermore, improved social interaction within gated communities could also help to reduce social isolation and loneliness, which are associated with a range of physical and mental health issues.
... This flight of the upper classes started in the 1990s but was until then of sporadic and limited nature. The growing tendency on the part of high-income groups to settle at the urban fringe, particularly in areas known as 'gated communities' (Geniş 2007;Tanülkü 2012Tanülkü , 2013 is still invisible in the 2000 map because neighbourhoods on the fringe are too large for the impact of such scattered communities to be observable. Such flight of high-income groups is only visible if it is large enough to make up a significant portion of a neighbourhood. ...
Contrary to trends in many European countries, income inequality in Turkey, measured by the Gini coefficient, has declined between 1994 and 2014, with a small but consistent increase since then. Turkish income inequality is among the highest in OECD countries, with levels not lower than 0.4. This chapter will examine residential socio-economic segregation in Istanbul against the backdrop of this relatively stable and high-income inequality. The chapter shows signs that residential segregation is on the rise. Istanbul has undergone a radical change in the 2000s thanks to active intervention by the state in the real estate market by opening up large pieces of land in the outskirts and gentrifying inner-city areas once occupied by unauthorized settlements that once were home to the poor. Dynamics of urban development, fueled by rapid urban sprawl in peri-urban areas and ceaseless gentrification of inner-city areas, gave way to diverse patterns of segregation depending on the already existing divisions and physical geography of cities. Given the lack of neighbourhood level data on either occupations or income, this chapter analyses segregation through indices based on fertility and educational level, which we know from detailed household microdata are closely correlated with income. On the basis of 2000 and 2017 neighbourhood data, we show that in Istanbul, there is a clearly visible pattern where the poor are progressively pushed further to the city limits, while some parts of built-up areas once home to middle classes, were recaptured by the poor. The result in some parts of the city is a juxtaposition of seemingly conflicting patterns: parts of the inner city were reclaimed by the poor while some parts were gentrified led by the nascent urban elite. The urban periphery was partly occupied by the bourgeoning middle classes and was also home to the urban poor who were displaced by urban transformation projects.
... The Busy Isolating City identity is constructed through consumption in public spaces, where consumer residents find refuge from the crowd. The Clustering City identity is constructed in specific market spaces and segregating spaces that are sociocultural enclaves (Tanulku 2012). The Small City identity relates to a sense of hominess (McCracken 1988) that exists in market and segregating spaces, where consumer residents feel that they know everybody. ...
This study complements current knowledge on city identity and city attachment through a phenomenological inquiry among 22 Casablanca consumer residents. Five Casablanca identities emerge: City of Escape, Busy Isolating City, Clustering City, Small City, and Dark City. The findings illuminate (1) how consumers build specific types of city identities; (2) demonstrate city identity as the outcome of interplays between various consumption experiences, perceived characteristics of spaces and places, and ambivalent emotions; and (3) update current knowledge on city attachment. This work further provides valuable recommendations to public authorities who are willing to leverage specific identities.
... Dışa kapalı konut yerleşmeleri hakkında yapılan birçok araştırma bulunmaktadır. Bunlar genelde bu yerleşmelerin tanımı, çeşitleri, özellikleri, üretim nedenleri, yere özgü bağlamları ve toplumsal ayrışma sağladıkları ile ilgilidir (Blakely & Snyder, 1997;Le Goix, 2006;Le Goix & Webster, 2008;Tanülkü, 2012). Bu alanların tercih edilmelerinin nedenleri de benzer araştırmalarda sorgulanmaktadır. ...
Sınırlı giriş özelliklerine sahip yaşam alanları olan kapalı topluluklar ya da dışa kapalı konut yerleşmeleri, dünyadaki örneklerinde olduğu gibi Türkiye'de de büyük şehirlerin vazgeçilmez parçaları olmaktadır. Türkiye'nin güneydoğusundaki büyük şehirlerden biri olan Diyarbakır'da da 2000 yılından itibaren üretilmeye başlayan bu yerleşmelerin sayıları artmaktadır. Ancak bu şehirde kullanıcıların kapalı konut yerleşmelerine karşı tutumlarını inceleyen çalışmaların sayısı oldukça sınırlıdır. Bu yerleşmelerin kullanıcı merkezli incelenmesi, gelecekteki tasarımlarda kullanıcı beklentilerinin karşılanması bakımından oldukça önemlidir. Bu amaçla, Diyarbakır'da yatayda gelişen üç dışa kapalı konut yerleşmesi kullanıcıların memnuniyet seviyeleri bakımın-dan incelenmiştir. Veriler, 105 katılımcıya uygulanan bir anket ve yarı yapılandırılmış görüşme tekniği ile toplanmıştır. Bulgular, kullanıcıların memnuniyet seviyelerinin yerleşmelere bağlı olarak değiştiğini göstermektedir. Yatayda gelişen dışa kapalı konut yerleşmelerinde yaşayan bireylerin yere bağlanma ve mülk değeri algılarının yüksek olduğu ve güvenli ya da saygın bir muhitte yaşama tercihini ön planda tuttukları belirlenmiştir. Ayrıca bu tür yerleşmelerin dışın-daki bir yaşamın kullanıcıları korkuttuğu da belirlenmiştir. Bu sonuç, kullanıcı tercihleri bakı-mından güvenliğin ne kadar önemli olduğunu ortaya koymaktadır. Anahtar Kelimeler: Yaşam alanı memnuniyeti, kullanıcı tercihi, kullanıcı memnuniyet seviye-si, güvenlik, prestijli yaşam alanı * Bu araştırma, Dicle Üniversitesi Bilimsel Araştırma Projeleri Koordinasyon Birimi Koordi-natörlüğü'nce desteklenmiştir (Proje Numarası: MİMARLIK.17.001, 2017).
... cities have important place in terms of size and density of GCs in Turkey. The literature mainly based on various examples of GCs in İstanbul(Akgün & Baycan, 2012;Bartu Candan & Kolluoğlu, 2008;Baycan-Levent & Gülümser, 2007;Çekiç & Gezici, 2009;Geniş, 2007;Kurtuluş, 2011;Özkan & Kozaman, 2006;Tanülkü 2012Tanülkü , 2013Tanülkü , 2018 and Ankara(Barkul & Ayten, 2011;Güzey, 2014;Güzey & Özcan, 2010;Şanlı & Özdemir-Sönmez, 2016). The discussion of gated community in Turkey has similarities with the global context. ...
The aim of this thesis is to understand if there is spatial segregation between Dikmen 5th stage gecekondu neighborhood and Park Oran gated community. If so, it will be examined how spatial segregation is observed following the use/ experience and perception of space of the inhabitants. This thesis will also trace if there are differences according to gender, ethnicity and socio-economic status in the use/ experience of two groups. Dikmen 5th stage gecekondu neighborhood and Park Oran gated community residents’ perception and use of space will be analyzed in the light of theory of space of Lefebvre, specifically around his spatial triad and his conceptualization of abstract space.
... In this respect, they also lead to the dispossession of the locals who sell their lands off to developer companies expecting high rent value. The locals either became impoverished and started working in those communities in lowskilled jobs or left their homes because of losing their lands (Tanulku, 2012a). This creates the irony that the residents in gated communities who abandoned city centres due to concerns of urban pollution, degradation and density, complain about the same problems in the once-beautiful areas now facing dramatic growth because of them. ...
The majority of the world’s population live in cities (54 % according to UN data: 2014); and the global-south is the main territory of this population explosion. The largest urban growth has been located in medium-sized cities with less than 1 million inhabitants, particularly in Asia and Africa.
Facing the current scenario and trend-line, it is necessary to re-think the way we plan and live in our cities. The challenge is twofold: to review the structures of current cities; and to plan how and where we will build the future ones.
... Dışa kapalı konut yerleşmeleri hakkında yapılan birçok araştırma bulunmaktadır. Bunlar genelde bu yerleşmelerin tanımı, çeşitleri, özellikleri, üretim nedenleri, yere özgü bağlamları ve toplumsal ayrışma sağladıkları ile ilgilidir (Blakely & Snyder, 1997;Le Goix, 2006;Le Goix & Webster, 2008;Tanülkü, 2012). Bu alanların tercih edilmelerinin nedenleri de benzer araştırmalarda sorgulanmaktadır. ...
Gated communities or gated housing settlements, which are living spaces with strictly controlled entrances, have become indispensable parts of the big cities in Turkey, like most other countries in the world. The number of these settlements, first built in 2000s, has also been increasing in Diyarbakir, one of the largest cities in the southeastern part of Turkey. However, the number of studies examining the users’ attitude towards gated housing settlements in the city is quite limited. To provide a user-centered examination of these settlements is quite valuable in terms of satisfying user expectations in prospective designs. For the purposes of the present study, three gated housing settlements in Diyarbakır were examined in terms of the satisfaction
levels of the residents. Data were collected through the administration of a questionnaire and a semi-structured interview to 105 participants. The findings indicate that the satisfaction levels of the users vary depending on the settlements. The results also show that individuals living in horizontal gated housing settlements have a higher perception of place attachment and property value and that living in a secure or reputable neighborhood is their main priority. It has also
been determined that the users are intimidated by the idea of living in a non-gated settlement, which reveals the importance of the preference of security for the residents of the gated housing settlements in the city.
Keywords: Residential satisfaction, user preference, user satisfaction level, security, prestigious residential area
... Hence, these places are organized around a socially defined consensus and offer the possibility, for example, to inquire about how the management of space by consumption communities (such as High Cultural Capital [HCC] consumers favoring a Western lifestyle) structure consumption and dynamics of subjectification. In the same vein, the study of such places might also shed light on their very role as actors that facilitate class differences, which produces a variety of effects on the urban tissue (Roitman and Phelps, 2011;Tanulku, 2012). Researchers in marketing could extend existing research in this area by focusing on the role of consumption in such processes. ...
In this essay, we develop a typology of spaces. We highlight the broader dynamics at play in the structuring of space and its role in marketing and propose that spaces can be characterized as either public, market, emancipating, or segregating. These four types of space are structured along two main dynamics: a contradiction between contestation and consensus and a contrariety opposing participation to privatization. For each type, we map out existing literature and research opportunities in the study of consumption, markets, and space. We also analyze the possible transitions between the spatial types following the transformations in the arrangement of forces in society. We offer a template of how to devise novel research opportunities by providing a detailed account of the dynamics at the center of the transition from public to market spaces.
... The increasing popularity of gated communities in Istanbul's housing market is also due to the city's geographical disposition located close to the North Anatolian Fault Zone, which produces strong earthquakes along East-West axis. The 1999 Marmara Earthquake was a turning point for many changes, including the acceptance of new construction regulations to provide better housing quality, the desire to live far from the city centre and the proliferation of gated communities in outside city centre (Danis 2001;Tanulku 2012). ...
This paper will explore safety and danger in gated communities in Turkey, an important subject of study in recent research in urban studies, conducted nationally and internationally. Safety has become a major concern in the last years, especially in large metropolises, leading people to move to gated communities which are thought to protect residents from urban problems. The paper uses the data collected during a fieldwork conducted in two gated communities in Istanbul. The main data is based on semi-structured in-depth interviews with their residents and other participants providing first-hand information on two case studies. The paper also uses visual and statistical data provided by relevant administrative officers. The paper indicates that gated communities are not totally isolated and ready-made sites. Rather, it argues that they create a mixture of “traditional” and “ready-made” safety while they also lead to new forms of danger, all of which emerging from their different socio-spatial configurations.
... They have emerged in different parts of the world. At first, these communities rapidly increased in California and in the following years they emerged in the rest of the U.S. and in the countries of Europe, Latin America, Asia, Middle East, Russia, South Africa, the Arab world and also Turkey that have different levels of economic development and have emerged not only in the metropolitan areas of existing capitalist countries but also in the certain cities of post-socialist countries that have become recently acquainted with the capitalist urbanization processes [Low 2001;Kurtuluş 2011;Tanulku 2012;Almatarneh 2013]. Therefore, there can be said that gated housing estates are a global phenomenon, most extensively documented in the U.S. [Blakely, Snyder 1997] and are now developing and becoming a major trend in the housing market in many countries [Caldeira 1996;Giroir 2003;Şenyapılı 2003;Grant, Mittelsteadt 2004;Akgün, Baycan 2012]. ...
The aim of the article is to present smart specialisation (potential, regions' domains which ensure competitiveness and contribute to innovativeness and regions' competitiveness) and cluster in achieving economic growth. The paper presents new trends in regional policy undertaken by the EU. This policy focuses on identification of intelligent spe-cialisations by Member States' regions and on preparation of new development strategies – 3S smart specialisation strategies based on smart specialisations. The element connecting smart specialisation with clusters is the view that clusters are perceived as favourable and facilitating identification of smart specialisations in regions.
... Den första är att inhägnade bostadsområden, i likhet med gentrifiering, har kommit att bli en inneboende egenskap i trädgårdsstaden och att denna utveckling inte ska ses som en effekt av nyliberal avreglering utan ett resultat av en juridiskt reglerad, komplex och intrikat relation mellan offentligt och privat (Rosen & Razin 2009, Levi 2009). Bilden av inhägnade områden som samhällen som vill dra sig undan från staden, för att markera prestige, möjliggöra en viss livsstil eller av säkerhetsskäl (Atkinson & Blandy 2009) behöver därför kompletteras med en bild av dessa inhägnade områden som aktörer i staden med intressen och en ambition att verka som aktörer som är med och formar stadsutvecklingen i stort (Tanulku 2012). ...
... They have emerged in different parts of the world. At first, these communities rapidly increased in California and in the following years they emerged in the rest of the U.S. and in the countries of Europe, Latin America, Asia, Middle East, Russia, South Africa, the Arab world and also Turkey that have different levels of economic development and have emerged not only in the metropolitan areas of existing capitalist countries but also in the certain cities of post-socialist countries that have become recently acquainted with the capitalist urbanization processes [Low 2001;Kurtuluş 2011;Tanulku 2012;Almatarneh 2013]. Therefore, there can be said that gated housing estates are a global phenomenon, most extensively documented in the U.S. [Blakely, Snyder 1997] and are now developing and becoming a major trend in the housing market in many countries [Caldeira 1996;Giroir 2003;Şenyapılı 2003;Grant, Mittelsteadt 2004;Akgün, Baycan 2012]. ...
The aim of this study is to investigate the structural, environmental and accessibility
parameters of gated housing estates which are increasing rapidly in Konya city and
have a great impact on the housing values. It was found that the structural features of a housing
unit are more important than the environmental features and accessibility parameters in
Konya city, even if they are in the gated housing units. And security is also substantially important
for the people like in the other cities of Turkey and the world.
... Scholars have argued that the search for a lifestyle goes together with the search for a community, which is achieved through the homogeneity of residents in terms of class and cultural background. The close link between culture and urban development in the form of Gated Communities has led many scholars like Tanulku [10] to describe gated communities as "cultural enclaves". ...
This paper aims to gain an understanding of the processes of urbanization and the transformations taking place within cities. It looks at city restructuring through the study of Gated Communities. Gated Communities have been mushrooming all over the world, significantly impacting the lives of the people and the cities at large. In this paper, the author attempts to engage with the urban practice of the gating of communities, both at the theoretical and the empirical level. The empirical study was carried out in the DLF Phase V area of Gurgaon, India. This area has seen the development of numerous Gated Compounds over the past decade and it is this sudden urban transformation that the author wishes to engage and understand.
... In this sense, urban regions and rural areas are integrated into a homogenous platform, where small cities are stimulated instead of large urban regions (Van Leeuwen, Nijkamp, & de Noronha Vaz, 2010). The landscape is thus strictly functional and depends on the local and regional resources and is self-sufficient (Tanulku, 2012). The coherent landscape is further explored by the creative class (Caragliu, Del Bo, & Nijkamp, 2011), taking advantage of innovation within small clusters of expertise, that contributes to creating a territorial identity where values are shared, but remained continuous over time. ...
Recent decades have witnessed unprecedented landscape change. Most of these changes have been brought by human impact on the environment, and excessive exploitation of resources. While economic growth has brought prosperity and better living conditions, much of the human impact has had irreversible consequences on environmental systems and destroyed fragile ecosystems and biodiversity. One of the dimensions that most suffered from excessive pressure, and is albeit all very little assessed, is the regional spatial change in line with historical and archaeological heritage. Monitoring of these transitions is of utmost importance to guide best the directions of regional planning in future. I advance with explaining the crucial role that Geographic Information Systems can play for regional science in line with heritage, and define techniques for sounder interactions of urban areas and regions in line with complex representation of space. I conclude further, that we are witnessing different types of dynamics in the landscape settings, that can be defined as (i) the coherent landscape, (ii) the dominant landscape and (iii) the vertical landscape lagging under a concept defined as spatial memory of rapid changing regions. All together, a new paradigm where geodesign, spatial analysis and geocomputational advances are linked, regional science must consider a new paradigm which I designate as regional intelligence for a more sustainable future.
... Owners share the use of common elements, their maintenance and management. They may decide on rules and restrictions which tighten control over common property and can regulate, to some degree, community life (McKenzie, 1994;Low, 2012;Low et al., 2012;Tanulku, 2012). ...
Many of North America's cities have begun to shift from a dynamic pattern of development driven by changes at the edge, to one driven by dynamism at the center. One aspect of this that has not received sufficient attention is the role of the condominium, a form of private urban governance that overlaps with, but is distinct from, gated communities. Using quantitative data from Canada and the United States, and qualitative survey data for respondents in key cities in Canada, we demonstrate that condominiums have been key to the growth of new housing in the central cities of large metropolitan areas. "Condo-ism" refers simultaneously to the self-reinforcing processes re-producing intensification, downtown living and gentrification via condominium-tenure, as well as to the financial-construction nexus at the heart of condominium development, and the social, cultural and political transformations that they are begetting. While condo-ism is a force that is countering decades-long trends toward dispersion, it is also associated with changing social attitudes and values of city residents, and cultural meanings of urbanism. Condo-ism resettles the city on behalf of the middle class, and imposes the logic of exchange value into the fabric of urban governance and social life. Condo-ism is thus an important factor in the private production and reproduction of the contemporary city.
Purpose
LGBTQ+ spaces are often considered as safe havens for the LGBTQ+ community, as they can gather free from prejudice and fear. This research explores the effect that heterosexual people attending LGBTQ+ venues have on this community. This paper considers the impacts on the community, the importance of their safe spaces and identifies practical implications to be considered in protecting these spaces.
Design/methodology/approach
The study implemented a multi-method qualitative data collection approach with LGBTQ+ community venue attendees in the UK. Stage 1 utilised an online qualitative survey and collected data from 558 respondents. Stage 2 saw critical incident techniques (CITs) used with 12 participants. The data collected were analysed using a thematic system.
Findings
The LGBTQ+ community has experienced an increase in frustration and fear as a result of more heterosexual attendees infiltrating their safe spaces. Both participants and respondents discussed the importance that security personnel play in ensuring safe spaces. Finally, the findings demystified that not all attendees in LGBTQ+ venues are allies, and that there is a need for those outside the community to better understand the importance of these spaces for the LGBTQ+ community, as many heterosexuals do not consider how they should act.
Research limitations/implications
Limitations associated with the implementation of the CIT were identified. Further training is advised for researchers employing this method to prepare them for dealing with the emotional impact of participants’ experiences.
Practical implications
This study highlighted the need for security and staff working at LGBTQ+ venues to undergo extensive inclusivity training, and for stricter door policies. Participants also argued for LGBTQ+ venues to educate heterosexual attendees about the community and their historical and present-day struggles and culture.
Originality/value
This paper is of practical value to those who organise and manage LGBTQ+ events, bars and nightclubs. An enhancement to the four types of space framework originated by Castilhos and Dolbec (2018) has been identified.
Good neighbourly relations can be considered as the friendly connection between individuals, communities, and cities in the urban context. This chapter delves into the critical positive peace pillar of 'good relations with neighbours', and explores the role of ICT in achieving it. In the modernisation of building a harmonious neighbourhood relationship between cities, the update of ICT is significantly important. The chapter first looks at the pillar in the context of cities and communities and then explores various ICT applications relevant to the pillar. Afterward, a SWOT analysis is conducted before introducing two case studies related to ICT use and integration for achieving good relations with neighbours. Then lessons learnt and progress to date are highlighted before we close the chapter with further debates on future opportunities and directions for ICT applications and reaching good neighbourly relations in cities and between cities of the same region.
Keywords: Good relations with neighbours; Productivity; Knowledge application; Community building; Digital; Positive peace.
Gated communities are one of the patterns that emerged with the beginning of the sixties, to achieve security, safety and uniqueness of some elite classes, and then later moved to become a kind of communities that achieves distinction for some individuals with the highest income class in society. And those communities emerged in the nineties in Egypt with the economic transformations of the pattern of free economy. The research conducted a study of the reasons for the selection of users of these communities, the reasons for their transition to and the requirements for satisfaction with them. The aim is to develop a model for assessing the success of the gated community and analyzing the weaknesses within it. To this end, the research used Fuzzy Delphi method (FDM), to deal with problems of verbal assessments, criteria overlaps and complexities, and confirm model building information. The main criteria for the model consisted of urban characteristics, economic characteristics, social characteristics, environmental characteristics, and administrative characteristics.The Fuzzy Delphi Evaluation Model (FDEM) was applied to the Al-Rehab neighborhood in Cairo as a case study, and the results showed an average success for the neighborhood in meeting the requirements of residents, achieving a sense of security and safety at a low rate, achieving a distinctive lifestyle, and population satisfaction, at an average rate.
Gated communities are one of the patterns that emerged with the beginning of the sixties, to achieve security, safety, and uniqueness of some elite classes, and then later moved to become a kind of community that achieves distinction for some individuals with the highest income class in society. And those communities emerged in the nineties in Egypt with the economic transformations of the pattern of a free economy. The research conducted a study of the reasons for the selection of users of these communities, the reasons for their transition to and the requirements for satisfaction with them. The aim is to develop a model for assessing the success of the gated community and analyzing the weaknesses within it. To this end, the research used Fuzzy Delphi method (FDM), to deal with problems of verbal assessments, criteria overlaps and complexities, and confirm model building information. The main criteria for the model consisted of urban characteristics, economic characteristics, social characteristics, environmental characteristics, and administrative characteristics. The Fuzzy Delphi Evaluation Model (FDEM) was applied to the Al-Rehab neighborhood in Cairo as a case study, and the results showed an average success for the neighborhood in meeting the requirements of residents, achieving a sense of security and safety at a low rate, achieving a distinctive lifestyle, and population satisfaction, at an average rate.
as a new style of residential development, gated communities appear to be a reflection of territorial and social segregation in the suburbs of post-socialist cities. Even though the phenomenon of gating is not prevalent in Lithuania, it still inheres spatial segregation as a precondition. Researches in Lithuania have shown that, despite strong segregating effect, in some cases gated communities may have an ambiguous impact on the population outside such settlements. A complex evaluation of this integration process, conducted via a three-dimensional integration model, as well as an examination of the psychological, social, economic and barrier factors of gated communities' impacts, may ascertain the directions and perspectives of possible integration thereof. It is likely that the promotion of those prominent effects and the search for new ones can lead gated communities to become more positive for society as a whole and achieve stronger integration in suburban areas.
Alternative urban spaces across civic, private, and public spheres emerge in response to the great challenges that urban actors are currently confronted with. Labour markets are changing rapidly, the availability of affordable housing is under intensifying pressure, and public spaces have become battlegrounds of urban politics. This edited collection brings together contributors in order to spark an international dialogue about the production of alternative urban spaces through a threefold exploration of alternative spaces of work, dwelling, and public life. Seeking out and examining existing alternative urban spaces, the authors identify the elements that provide opportunities to create radically different futures for the world's urban spaces. This volume is the culmination of an international search for alternative practices to dominant modes of capitalist urbanisation, bringing together interdisciplinary, empirically grounded chapters from hot spots in disparate cities around the world. Offering a multidisciplinary perspective, The Production of Alternative Urban Spaces will be of great interest to academics working across the fields of urban sociology, human geography, anthropology, political science, and urban planning. It will also be indispensable to any postgraduate students engaged in urban and regional studies. Jens Kaae Fisker is a postdoctoral researcher in the Danish Centre for Rural Research at the University of Southern Denmark. Working at the intersection of rural and urban studies, his research is rooted in political geography with a particular emphasis on the spatial dimensions of contentious politics and the material and political pursuit of post-capitalist futures. Letizia Chiappini is a PhD candidate in urban studies at the University of Milano-Bicocca and in the Geographies of Globalization group at the University of Amsterdam. Her research interests revolve around urban transformations and the generation of societal change under late capitalism. In particular, she attends to the relations between urban policy making and hyped phenomena such as the sharing economy and the maker movement. Lee Pugalis is chair of urban studies at the Institute for Public Policy and Governance, University of Technology Sydney, and a visiting professor at Leeds Beckett University. He is an international urban scholar, whose research traverses local and regional economic development, urban regeneration, and strategic planning. He has a particular interest in metropolitan governance and urban entrepreneurship. Antonella Bruzzese is associate professor at the Politecnico di Milano in the Department of Architecture and Urban Studies. She teaches urban planning and her research interests cover urban design and transformation strategies. She is particularly interested in the relationships between urban policies and practices 'on the other side', including participa-tory processes, communication strategies, and temporary artistic interventions.
Purpose
Gated communities, surrounded by walls or fences, have emerged as a new trend in almost all cities in Turkey, and are homogenous in terms of the socioeconomic status of their occupants. Within these communities, several facilities and services are provided that are available only to the residents, with restrictions on access from the outside, and this has led to criticisms of social segregation. This study aims to analyze the impact of these communities on social segregation in Ankara, through two different surveys aimed at investigating the attitudes of the residents of local neighborhoods and gated communities toward each other.
Design/methodology/approach
This paper analyzes how the process of gating has affected social segregation in Ankara through two separate surveys: with the residents of gated communities and with the residents of local neighborhoods around these gated communities.
Findings
The study revealed that the residents of gated communities tended to have a positive view of the residents of local neighborhoods. In contrast, the responses of the local residents show evidence of feelings of social segregation, based on the presence of the high walls, fences and guards that are in place to keep them out of the community.
Originality/value
This study shows that, although segregation from the rest of the society is not the main reason for gating, the emergence of gated communities in Ankara leads inevitably to a socially and economically segregated city in which local residents feel excluded from these gated areas.
Like much of the global spread of gated communities and fortified enclaves, the emergence of Kathmandu's “housing” industry (housing colonies and apartment complexes) grew out of neoliberal reforms. The restructuring of Nepal's economy and government created the conditions for privatized housing infrastructure, management, and services to cater to elites dissatisfied with the post-1991 processes of democratization and declining conditions in the city. However, while the decentralization of local governance and deregulation of the finance industry created the conditions for elites to desert the public city for private housing complexes, the contractual relations of privatization also sowed the seeds of discontent. Through an ethnographic account of a conflict between the residents of a housing colony and the company that built and managed it (at that time), this article demonstrates how Kathmandu elites have adjusted to the rearrangement of their relationship with the state from the patron/client arrangements of the Panchayat era (1962–1990) to the “consumer citizenship” (Fernandes 2006) of the post-1991 era of liberalization and democratization. Expecting relations of dependence, the residents were ultimately alienated by the indifference of the company. They articulated critiques of the company through ethnically coded protests of its business practices and expressions of nostalgia for the paternalist patronage of the pre-1991 non-democratic state. Ultimately, the conflict exposed a contradictory wish of elites to benefit from the privatized benefits of neoliberalism alongside the social protections of an interventionist state. [fortified enclaves/gated communities, neoliberal urbanism, elites, Kathmandu, Nepal]
Gated communities have received significant attention in academic debates. Despite this, there is a lack of studies on differentiation and tensions between them. This paper analyses differentiation between gated communities by adopting the theory of “symbolic boundaries” [Lamont, M., 1992. Money, morals, and manners: the culture of the French and American upper-middle class. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press]. It uses the data collected from fieldwork in two gated communities in Istanbul, Turkey, comprising semi-structured in-depth interviews with residents. First, the paper contributes to Lamont's “symbolic boundaries” [Lamont, M., 1992. Money, morals, and manners: the culture of the French and American upper-middle class. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press] by showing that morality is not independent from socio-economic context, but indicates the legitimate values of a given social context. This is shown in residents’ use of moral boundaries such as a law-abiding lifestyle, legitimate sources of capital accumulation and the existence of warmer relations with each other. Second, the paper contributes to the study of gated communities by demonstrating that they can be regarded as spatial manifestations of the division within the upper classes which results from competition for deserved status.
Building on a long history of spatial control through walling in the region, walls and fences have been built in the Middle East in recent years to undertake a range of practices. Gated communities, residential and security compounds, anti-migrant walls, separation barriers and counter-insurgency fences can all be found in the Middle East. These walls address and govern problems that take the population as their subject. These walls all share a common frame of viewing the populations they work to govern as ‘problematic’ in multiple ways. This paper explores how walls have been and continue to be used in governing populations through mobility and incorporating a combination of disciplinary and biopolitical techniques through a range of spatial and territorial repertoires. As such it works to bridge the divide in border studies and critical security studies between geopolitical/topographical and biopolitical/topological approaches to borders and governance.
This paper argues that gated communities are processual spaces which create new conflicts and blur the boundaries between inside and outside, open and private, and safe and unsafe realms. For this purpose, it uses the data collected during the fieldwork from two gated communities in Istanbul based on the examination of everyday life in two case studies. According to the data, gated communities create tensions in the use of facilities and common spaces, indicating a conflict between ownership of and access to space; the use of housing units, indicating a conflict between openness and privacy; and the use of walls and borders which blur the boundaries between inside and outside realms leading to safety gaps. Finally, the paper argues a processual space leading to conflicts and seeds of change.
Using the example of Mauritius, this paper seeks to enhance our understanding of how elites reorganise their environs when their position and power are threatened. In 1968 Mauritius became independent and for Franco-Mauritians, the island's former white colonial elite, this meant that a regime favourable to their dominant position ended. This paper outlines ways in which Franco-Mauritians have transformed their everyday geographies in the face of this change. We suggest that feelings of anxiety and the consequent desire to regain some measure of control have influenced Franco-Mauritians' (re)shaping of exclusive cultural, educational, recreational, and residential enclaves to create new patterns of exclusion and segregation. We suggest, moreover, that such enclaves are simultaneously – and paradoxically – a root of both continuing anxiety and the foundation of continued exclusivity.
Development of gated communities in Turkey is associated with the neo-liberal restructuring of the economy towards urban-focused economic strategy-making, the rise of new urban consumer groups, and the diversion of capital to assist markets and property development with state taking an active role in securing markets and defining the elements of place-marketing via a socio-spatial and -economic reorganization of metropolitan space. The case study held in Beysukent, Ankara reveals this structure where the combination of the interests and actions of the state, local governments, real estate developers, the media, and consumers suggest that prevailing structural conditions assure the future proliferation of gated communities. Gated communities in Turkey provide one example in clubbing together for increased individual benefits with the aim of protecting an élite local lifestyle as a consumer practice with the main objective of revaluing prime urban land. This can be achieved through a planning environment in which planning follows demand and plan conditions are determined according to the area to be invested in, increased demand expectation being decisive. Thus this study demonstrates how patterns of neo-liberal urbanism have collaborated to transform a suburban area with elements of élite consumption patterns, gated communities being the primary factor in the transformation of the area.
The abstract for this document is available on CSA Illumina.To view the Abstract, click the Abstract button above the document title.
Gated communities are a forerunner in the new form of urbanization
emerging in Istanbul. Among the main factors affecting
this urbanization process are the new elites, new lifestyles and
the demand for physically-secured housing settlements. Triggered
by these factors, gated communities have become the
impulsive force of social and spatial segregation. This segregation
and its dimensions, which compose the research question
of this paper, are analyzed and discussed herein with the help
of spatial mapping and interviews. First, the locations of the
existing private housing projects in Istanbul are mapped and
the location criteria for these projects are determined. Second,
some factors affecting the segregation, i.e. the residents’ reasons
for preferring to live in a gated community, their usage
habits of the facilities within the community and their daily
commute to the city, are evaluated via interviews. Finally, the
main findings are discussed.
Anecdotal evidence suggests that â–˜gated communitiesâ–™ are growing in popularity. This paper uses empirical evidence to profile the location and characteristics of gated development in England and details the relative integration of residents. The paper also attempts to think through the wider theoretical and urban policy impacts of gating. In contrast to the view that gated communities provide an extreme example of residential segregation we go further and argue that the timeâ–space trajectories of residents suggest a dynamic pattern of separation that goes beyond the place of residence. Gated communities appear to provide an extreme example of more common attempts by other social groups to insulate against perceived risk and unwanted encounters. Patterns of what we term timeâ–space trajectories of segregation can thereby be seen as closed linkages between key fields, such as work and home, which enable social distance to be maintained and perceived risks to be managed by elite social groups. We conclude that gated communities further extend contemporary segregatory tendencies in the city and that policy responses are required which curtail the creation of such havens of social withdrawal.
Gated communities are fast becoming global commodities and cultural icons eagerly consumed by the urban elite world-wide. This article examines the rise of gated communities in Istanbul and presents a case study of one of the leading gated communities in the city. It shows how this global urban form has been transplanted and translated into the city's landscape with the help of urban and cultural politics and has transformed the dynamics through which elite localities and identities are produced. The case study documents discourses and practices of this new urbanism at work and discusses their socio-political ramifications.
Gated communities became an 'object of study' in the 1990s as social scientists observed their growth in several cities; they are now a feature of the urban landscape in most cities around the world. The expansion of gated communities has led to prolific research, examining different aspects of this type of residential development and providing evidence from case studies worldwide. This paper reviews how gated communities are conceptualised according to the literature and identifies the main factors influencing their development. It also considers spatial, economic, political and social consequences of the development of gated communities. These elements should be taken into account by planners and policymakers to minimise their negative impacts and maximise the positive consequences of a residential option that is likely to be part of the urban landscape for a long time.
The paper examines gated communities as an object of study that has received intense scholarly attention from diverse disciplines over the last 10 years. The many conference presentations and published papers on the subject have not, however, always contributed to a cohesive body of knowledge. We suggest in this paper that clearer frameworks for empirical investigations are needed; not only for specific disciplines, but also for providing an interdisciplinary perspective. The paper focuses on methodology: first highlighting three different approaches to the analysis of urban fragmentation (social, spatial and institutional); and second, outlining a framework for interdisciplinary analysis. In the latter part, we illustrate the connections that may be made between the analyses of the social, spatial and institutional fragmentation effects and causes of gated communities and suggest ways of handling phenomenological as well as linguistic complexity in this multi-disciplinary area of urban scholarship.
In Santiago, Chile, the number of gated communities has increased significantly during the past few years. Although these communities are aimed at the elite, they are often located on the fringes of low‐income neighborhoods and thus change traditional segregation patterns in the city.In many cases, gated housing communities for the upper classes are accompanied by nonresidential development, such as shopping centers and office complexes, which bring jobs into the neighborhood. We analyze case studies of lower‐class neighborhoods located near upper‐class gated communities to study the effect on the poor. We find that the spatial dispersion of real estate developments for the elite promotes some forms of social integration and provides advantages to poorer residents by bringing jobs into the neighborhood, triggering improved public services, and even sparking a renewed sense of pride among lower‐class residents.
Pilar is a city located in the third ring of the Buenos Aires metropolitan region (Argentina). Over the past 30 years, the widespread development of gated residential communities has seemingly gone hand-in-hand with an urbanisation of this outer suburb signalled by the arrival of new populations, enterprise, retail and other services. The growth of the 'private city' of these gated communities therefore has important implications for the 'public city' of the wider suburban municipality. Drawing upon original research based on the opinions of key informants, this paper considers how the growth of the 'private city' has contributed to the economy of, processes of community-building and social cohesion in Pilar. In conclusion, it is suggested that gated residential communities have been a major factor in the emergence of the dual suburb that is Pilar today.
The authors analyze the cultural, economic, and political background of new gated housing estates in the Arab world with the aid of case studies in Lebanon and Riyadh. Their question is to what extent these developments represent a reappearance of the fragmented settlement patterns in many of the old towns. On the one hand, new compounds of several villas and common facilities housing extended families in Riyadh may be interpreted as a revival of certain sociospatial settings in the old town, in which extended families often shared a common courtyard. The compounds for Western foreigners in Saudi Arabia follow the principle of spatial seclusion of social groups with different cultural and religious backgrounds -- a principle of the sociospatial organization of many old towns in the Arab world. The emergence of gated housing estates in Lebanon, on the other hand, has obvious and specific sociopolitical origins in the 20th century. The failure of public regimentation and provision created a gap, which was partially filled by the private sector. For their mostly wealthy clientele, gated housing estates offer private small-scale solutions to nationwideproblems.
First Published in 2003. Routledge is an imprint of Taylor & Francis, an informa company.
The enormous growth of land and building rents has sustained a pattern of city expansion based almost entirely on market forces. Today, in the 1980's, the "private' building boom of the past 30 years, supported by market forces alone, appears to have reached an impasse. New mechanisms, based on public intervention, are in the process of emerging amid sharp conflicts. The "housing problem' has become a major political issue on the national agenda, indicating that the miraculous market mechanism has stalled. The outcome as yet is uncertain. -from Author
Istanbul has undergone a neoliberal restructuring over the past two decades. In this paper, we focus on two urban spaces that we argue to have emerged as part of this process-namely Göktürk, a gated town, and Bezirganbahçe, a public housing project. We examine these spaces as showcases of new forms of urban wealth and poverty in Istanbul, demonstrating the workings of the neoliberalization process and the forms of urbanity that emerge within this context. These are the two margins of the city whose relationship with the center is becoming increasingly tenuous in qualitatively different yet parallel forms. In Göktürk's segregated compounds, where urban governance is increasingly privatized, non-relationality with the city, seclusion into the domestic sphere and the family, urban fear and the need for security, and social and spatial isolation become the markers of a new urbanity. In Bezirganbahçe, involuntary isolation and insulation, and non-relationality with the city imposed through the reproduction of poverty create a new form of urban marginality marked by social exclusion and ethnic tensions. The new forms of wealth and poverty displayed in these two urban spaces, accompanied by the social and spatial segregation of these social groups, compel us to think about future forms of urbanity and politics in Istanbul.
Defining gated communities is difficult. The two key features regularly observed are the existence of physical boundaries like gates and walls (sometimes with the addition of guards or surveillance systems) and a contractual, or sociolegal, neighborhood constitution which imposes, at the minimum, the payment of fees to a management organization which manages and services the community. Gated communities have become a significant feature of the landscape in countries like the US, Brazil, and South Africa but are emerging more strongly in recent years around Southeast Asia and in parts of Europe. Much of the growth in this form of protected neighborhood living is driven by concerns about personal safety and also a desire for privacy, as well as social prestige. Concerns have been expressed by some commentators that gated communities represent an increase in sociospatial segregation which reflects wider social divisions in prosperity and, thereby, access to security. Emerging scholarship in this area suggests that, counterintuitively, those living behind the gates are highly fearful of crime and social difference, rather than becoming secure in such enclaves. It is likely that gated communities will continue to grow in number and across a range of countries where new and emerging middle classes and fear of crime are colliding to produce the desirability and growth that this kind of community is witnessing.
Walled and gated residential neighborhoods have become a common feature within US metropolitan areas. As a standardized form of urban product, these neighborhoods represent a form of urbanism where public spaces are being privatized. In the most recently urbanized areas, they represent an increasing part of the new homes market and they have thus become a symbol of contemporary metropolitan fragmentation and social segregation. They not only enclose space but they also actively select residents through restrictive covenants as well as through life style marketing and price. Because they are managed as private corporations, there is perhaps an injevitable tendency to seek political and fiscal independence through a process of municipal incorporation. This has led to a project of partition - strengthened by and strengthening existing partitioning movements - and to the prospect of increased social segregation. The study reported in this chapter discusses the consequences of fading boundaries between public and private management when a gated community engages in municipal incorporation. The sprawl of gated communities is not to be understood as secession from public authority, but as a public-private partnership. It is a local game where the gated community provides benefits to the public authority, in return for which, the Property Owners Association is granted autonomous local governance. The spillover effects of this method of ordering new urban space is to increase segregation. This is particularly so when gated communities are incorporated since the municipal institution is instrumental in securing public funds and property for the privilege of a gated enclave.
Gated communities—enclaves of homes surrounded by walls, often with security guards—are becoming increasingly popular in America. This article introduces and analyzes findings of a Fannie Mae Foundation—sponsored panel on gated communities held at the 1997 Association of Collegiate Schools of Planning annual conference. A key finding is that many people choose to reside in gated communities because they believe that such places reduce risk, ranging from the mundane (e.g., unwanted social exchanges) to the high stakes (e.g., declining home values).In many ways, gated communities deliver what they promise, by providing an effective defense against daily intrusions. However, some of their benefits entail a high social cost. A sense of community within gated communities comes at the expense of a larger identity with the region outside. Gated communities manifest and reinforce an inward‐focused community culture, where the tension between the individual and society tilt toward self‐interest.
As a global phenomenon, the gated community has become a heated topic of research around which there are multidisciplinary studies and debates. However, voices from the field of urban design have been heard comparatively less frequently though the well-being of public spaces in the face of spatial privatisation has been one of the major concerns of urban design research. This paper therefore intends to present a theoretical discussion of previous researches of the gated community from the urban design perspective. It starts from a broad review of the political–economic and social impetus behind the sense of fear as the salient motive for gated communities. The analysis reveals that the market demand for gated communities will continue and even become stronger as long as the political–economical transformation steered by neoliberalism is sustained. Therefore, this paper argues that a response to the demand for considering the well-being of public space is a pressing issue for all practitioners involved in city planning including urban designers. It then analyses three key elements at the design and policy level to soften the negative impact of gated communities through physical manipulation, and concludes by appealing for empirical studies in different contexts of development to explore the applicability of the proposed approach to urban design.URBAN DESIGN International (2008) 13, 213–226. doi:10.1057/udi.2008.29
Surprisingly little work has examined the role of city marketing in the development and promotion of gated communities. Here, I examine how the municipal government of Guaynabo, Puerto Rico reshaped the town’s spaces, facilitating the emergence of gated communities beginning in the 1980s and continuing today. I argue that, during the last decades, city marketing has been used as a tool by the municipality to attract people who are of a higher socioeconomic class. Here, it is suggested that city marketing is an important factor to consider when analyzing the emergence and proliferation of gated communities. Moreover, the gated communities literature will benefit from examining the role of municipalities in seeking an explanation for this growing urban reality.
This article investigates the voluntary local organisations of the better-off classes in the Turkish urban context. Based on empirical research conducted with four neighbourhood associations (NAs), information is provided regarding their process of establishment, leadership, autonomy, goals and projects, resources and obstacles, which points to the significance of context. The research demonstrates that Turkish NAs differ from those in the West in terms of their commitment to ideological as much as pragmatic issues. In their response to the 'Islamist' versus 'secularist' polarisation in society, they seek to create their own localities as the places of secular and cosmopolitan people; and in their response to the increasingly unregulated and poorly serviced city, they struggle to create orderly localities protected from unlawful rent-seeking practices and equipped with adequate amenities. The NAs may be regarded as civic initiatives that empower the locality. Yet, by doing so, they may cause uneven development in urban space.
Chinese suburban residential developments have recently seen the emergence of ostentatious, decorative and ‘western’-style built forms. Many are built into gated communities. The existing perspectives on these developments from the Western context, such as the ‘club of consumption’ and the ‘discourse of fear’, are not adequate to explain the development of these residential forms in China. This paper emphasizes that the essential feature of these residential forms is their attempt to create an aesthetically appealing environment. Various packaging and branding practices are discussed, including creating magnificent gates, using foreign place names, borrowing western architectural motifs, and inventing a discourse of community. These practices are essentially a branding exercise to signify otherwise nameless suburban green fields. There are two reasons: branding is a status symbol for these residential areas in a competitive real estate market, while localized, imagined and hybrid ‘western’ forms are invented and adopted to exploit the common social mentality that treats the western style as equivalent to a modern and high-quality environment.
This article examines the notion of gated communities and, more generally, privately governed urban neighbourhoods. We do this by reviewing the idea that they are an innovative built-environment genre that has spread globally from a diverse set of roots and influences. These include the mass growth of private urban government in the USA over the past 30 years; rising income inequalities and fear in big cities; the French condominium law of 1804; and many other locally and culturally specific features of urban history. We contrast the popular notion that gated communities are simply an American export with the idea that they have emerged in various forms for different reasons in different places. We contrast supply-side and demand-side explanations, focusing on the idea that much of their appeal comes from the club-economy dynamics that underpin them. We examine the social and systemic costs – territorial outcomes – of cities made up of residential clubs, considering, in particular, the issue of segregation. We conclude with a reflection on the importance of local variations in the conditions that foster or inhibit the growth of a gated community market in particular countries.
From a Village to a CityFrom a City to a SatelliteTwo Kinds of PeopleTrial by SpaceReferences
This paper considers the impact of urban South Africa's new spatial order on its already fragile social dynamics. Analysis considers the relationships between residents of a gated community and their neighbouring (non-gated) area, addressing both the attitudes and perceptions that exist amongst residents of each area towards the 'other' neighbourhood, as well as the nature of any direct contact between residents. The case study for this paper is located in a master plan private development, constructed in 1999 in the heart of Cape Town's wealthy (and predominantly White) 'southern suburbs'. The development hosts two vastly different residential areas that despite spatial proximity are socially and functionally isolated.
El autor de esta obra sostiene que para comprender la era global, la sociología debe dejar de lado el estudio de la sociedad como un conjunto de instituciones encadenadas y enfocarse, mejor, al estudio de movimientos físicos, imaginarios y virtuales. Esta sociología de la movilidad trataría, entonces, de los viajes de gente, ideas, imágenes, objetos, mensajes, productos basura y dinero a través de las fronteras internacionales y sus implicaciones políticas y sociales.
Within recent years, the expansion of gated communities has become an increasingly important element in the changing Latin American megacities and their suburban areas. In this paper, the internal structure and differentiation as well as sociospatial consequences of gated communities will be discussed, based on case studies from Rio de Janeiro, Saìo Paulo, and Buenos Aires. The increasing fortification of the privileged is a visible consequence of the continuing intensification of social disparities and spatial fragmentation. Gated communities in Latin American cities which are generally planned as a whole by project developers and designed with sophisticated security measures, can be classified according to their location into innercity and suburban types. They represent an especially dynamic real estate product with a high return of capital. Public control has, by far, less relevance than private interests. Therefore, gated communities can be seen as 'new extraterritorial spaces'. Within recent years, particularly, large edge-city -like projects have emerged in suburban areas. The success of gated communities can mainly be accounted for by the fear of crime. In this sense, they respond to social conflict and violence in the everyday life of the cities. At the same time, they are an expression of the increasingly diverging lifestyles of urban society under the influence of globalisation. With gated communities, new islands of wealth emerge in the ocean of poverty, which characterise the increasingly fragmented structure of the Latin American city.
In the course of a broad liberalisation and globalisation of South African society, the transformation of the apartheid city to the postapartheid city has contributed to an increase in crime as well as a feeling of insecurity among the people. Urban blight has changed a lot of the inner cities into 'no-go areas' for blacks and whites. For personal protection, since the end of the 1980s (the phase of the abolition of apartheid laws) living areas have been created in the suburbs whose uniqueness and exclusiveness are defined by the amount of safety measures. These are called gated or walled communities, or security villages, and their population structure combines social and racial segregation. The authors made a complete survey of two housing areas in northern Johannesburg in 1999. The traditional wish of South African families for a big estate and a home of their own has been replaced by the wish to live in town houses, cluster housing, and sectional title flats with shared use of swimming pools or tennis courts.
In this paper, I examine the local expression of a global phenomenon: gated communities in Montevideo, Uruguay. Focusing on the residents’ perspective, I investigate microlevel processes of class segregation. I analyze residential and class trajectories, motivations for moving, and consequences of the move. I rely on interviews with residents, developers, architects, and real-estate agents; advertisements; and ethnographic field notes. A major finding is that gated communities do not always increase social and residential segregation. In Montevideo, families in these neighborhoods were already segregated from lower classes. Residents experienced changes in family and community life, but those changes rarely corresponded to changes in their class segregation. This challenges the central focus of the literature on gated communities: a presumed effect on increased class segregation regardless of the context. Another major finding is that residents moved to new neighborhoods to secure class reproduction and gain control over their immediate environment, something that they saw the open city was threatening. Surprisingly, these motivations are very similar to those reported in studies of gentrification. Rather than calling for yet another stretching of the meaning of gentrification, based on these similarities I argue that comparative urban research would profit from a more acute focus on underlying social processes rather than on manifest physical forms.
It is a widely held notion, disseminated in particular by the LA school of urban studies, that gated communities are enclaves, which not only maintain segregation but also help increase it. In Chile a more benevolent interpretation has arisen. Sabatini, Caceres and Cerda argue that gated communities help out the poor communities that surround them. If the spatial scale of segregation is reduced - from city to local or neighborhood level - social disintegration should slow, according to their analysis. This article seeks to empirically complement and expand on Sabatini, Caceres and Cerda's position, which seems to be a better interpretation of Chilean reality than the grim picture presented by the LA school. The article is an ethnographic work based on in-depth interviews in gated communities and a surrounding shantytown in the Huechuraba district, a lower socio-economic class area in north-west Santiago: The research concludes that, despite the existence of a wall that promotes community integration among so-called equals, in conditions of spatial proximity sociability between inside and outside groups is not diminished. Thus, in Huechuraba there is no impenetrable wall separating poor and rich; equally, the walls do not seem to promote community integration within. Spatial proximity has encouraged relations mainly in the realm of functional exchange, making the creation of gated communities in poor neighborhoods a socially desirable experience, at least in the case of Santiago.
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