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A Psychometric Investigation of the Black Racial Identity Attitude Scale-Form B
Abstract
This study involved an examination of the psychometric properties of the Black Racial Identity Attitude Scale-Form B through item, subscale, and factor analyses. Factor analytic support was found for the Preencounter, Immersion-Emersion, and Internalization subscales. No support was found for an Encounter subscale. However, the factor analysis accounted for a small amount of variance, which, coupled with a finding of marginal internal consistencies, suggests little common variance among the items for the RIAS. Version A and Version B scoring showed little correspondence for some subscales, suggesting the earlier and later scoring versions cannot be considered interchangeable. The Preencounter and Internalization subscales showed highly skewed distributions for a number of items and for subscale scores. The implications of these results for previous and future research using the scale are discussed.
... Internal consistency scores of the BRIAS subscales, compiled from previous reviews, reveal the following: .37 to .72 for Form A (Sabnani & Ponterotto, 1992 ); .41 to .79 for Form B (Fischer & Moradi, 2001 ;Sabnani & Ponterotto, 1992 ); and .27 to .86 for the Long Form (Fischer & Moradi, 2001 ;Sabnani & Ponterotto, 1992 ). Score reliability of the encounter subscale on any of the forms has been the most variable: .27 to .72. Factor analysis of the BRIAS forms has provided support for three of the four subscales, but not encounter (Form A; Ponterotto & Wise, 1987 ;Form B;Yanico, Swanson, & Tokar, 1994 ;Long Form;Stevenson, 1995 ;. Th e amount of total variance accounted for has been small, ranging from 20 % (Yanico et al., 1994 ) to 30.5 % (Ponterotto & Wise, 1987 ). Th e four-factor structure tested through confi rmatory factor analysis has not been supported (e.g., goodness of fi t index [GFI] = .65; ...
... Internal consistency scores of the BRIAS subscales, compiled from previous reviews, reveal the following: .37 to .72 for Form A (Sabnani & Ponterotto, 1992 ); .41 to .79 for Form B (Fischer & Moradi, 2001 ;Sabnani & Ponterotto, 1992 ); and .27 to .86 for the Long Form (Fischer & Moradi, 2001 ;Sabnani & Ponterotto, 1992 ). Score reliability of the encounter subscale on any of the forms has been the most variable: .27 to .72. Factor analysis of the BRIAS forms has provided support for three of the four subscales, but not encounter (Form A; Ponterotto & Wise, 1987 ;Form B;Yanico, Swanson, & Tokar, 1994 ;Long Form;Stevenson, 1995 ;. Th e amount of total variance accounted for has been small, ranging from 20 % (Yanico et al., 1994 ) to 30.5 % (Ponterotto & Wise, 1987 ). Th e four-factor structure tested through confi rmatory factor analysis has not been supported (e.g., goodness of fi t index [GFI] = .65; ...
... standardized root mean square residual [SRMR] = .012; . Two studies Yanico et al., 1994 ) also reported a restriction in range of scores on pre-encounter and internalization, with more respondents disagreeing with the pre-encounter items and more agreeing with the internationalization items. Also, a social desirability methods eff ect was found to structurally contaminate the pre-encounter construct in the Long form (Fischer, Tokar, & Serna, 1998 ) 1 mixed support for convergent and discriminant validity of the BRIAS (Fischer & Moradi, 2001 ;Fischer et al., 1998 ;Ponterotto, Fuertes, & Chen, 2000 ;Sabnani & Ponterotto, 1992 ) to an array of sociocultural variables (i.e., psychological health, racism, self-esteem, counselor preference, and vocational variables). ...
This chapter discusses the significance of racial and ethnic identity to the work of counseling psychologists and surveys historical and contemporary models of ethnic and racial identity. Many racial identity models, including white identity, minority identity, and people of color racial identity, were greatly influenced by the developmental thrust of early black identity models, in particular the Nigrescence model. Ethnic identity models were influenced by social identity theory as well as by developmental theories. The reliable and valid measurement of ethnic and racial identity remains an area of great interest and concern. Ethnic and racial identity are complex, multidimensional constructs whose influences are just starting to be understood. Nevertheless, there remains much to learn about the mechanisms through which ethnic and racial identity influence behavior and well-being.
... According to Helms and Parham (1984) and others (Knox et al., 1996;Lemon & Waehler, 1996), the Black Racial Identity Attitude Scale (more commonly known as the RIAS-B) was designed to measure racial identity alludes as manifested in the stages of racial identity development proposed by Cross (1971;. The original version of the RlAS-B was comprised of 30 five-point Likert scale items (Helms & Parham, 1984;Yanico, Swanson, & Tokar, 1994 (Helms & Parham, 1984). ...
... The latest version of the RIAS-B, consists of 50 self-report items on a fivepoint Likert scale ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree on the four subscales-pre-encounter, encounter, immersion/emersion, and internalizationof Cross's racial identity development model (Knox et al., 1996;Yanico et al., 1994). The additional 20 items were added in order to help improve reliability (Helms, 1990;Helms & Parham, 1984;Yanico et al., 1994). ...
... The latest version of the RIAS-B, consists of 50 self-report items on a fivepoint Likert scale ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree on the four subscales-pre-encounter, encounter, immersion/emersion, and internalizationof Cross's racial identity development model (Knox et al., 1996;Yanico et al., 1994). The additional 20 items were added in order to help improve reliability (Helms, 1990;Helms & Parham, 1984;Yanico et al., 1994). With the exception of encounter items, reliability increased for all measures of racial identity developed from the original version of the RIAS-B to the latest version of the RIAS-B (Helms & Parham, 1984). ...
... Third, Bruce-Morritt used the RIAS-B (Parham & Helms, 1981) to measure racial identity attitudes. The RIAS-B is based on the original model of Nigrescence and has been criticized for its poor psychometric properties (e.g., Yanico, Swanson, & Tokar, 1994;Tokar & Fischer, 1998 Browne, 1985Browne, , 1988 ...
... For example, Franklin did not find any significant relationships between IE attitudes, as measured by the RIAS-B, and psychological distress or psychological well-being, although the individuals in IE stage reported experiencing significant levels of racismrelated distress. Given that the RIAS-B is based on the 1971 version of Nigrescence theory and has been criticized for its psychometric properties (e.g., Tokar & Fischer, 1998;Yanico et al., 1994), and given that in the new measure of Nigrescence theory, the IEAW items loaded on pro-Black reference group orientation, it is reasonable to assume that the IEAW contributes positively to QOL. Therefore, the following general and specific hypotheses were proposed. ...
... Both the Stages Questionnaire and the RIAS-B are based on the original model of Nigrescence and do not reflect the revision of the theory based on current literature. In addition, the RIAS-B, which has been used in many studies, has been criticized for its psychometric properties (e.g., Tokar & Fischer, 1998;Yanico et al., 1994). Wong et al. (2003) which similar to the current study used the WHOQOL-BREF for quality of life, measured ethnic identity using MEIM. ...
... Evidence for reasonable construct validity of the preencounter, immersionemersion, and internalization subscales has also been accumulating, which is a good indication that the RIAS is a valid measure of racial identity. (See Fischer et al., 1998;Lemon & Waehler, 1996;Ponterotto & Wise, 1987;Yanico, Swanson, & Tokar, 1994, for more in-depth analyses of the psychometric properties of the RIAS.) ...
... Several limitations of the current study must be acknowledged. First, we do not know if mothers responded to the racial identity items in ways they thought were socially acceptable (Yanico et al., 1994). Also, several measures in this study-such as the CBCL, SSRS-P, CESD-SF, and RIAS-Bprovided data that were based on mothers' reports. ...
... Future research may reveal additional information about child adjustment if assessments include additional observational data and reports by others such as teachers. Moreover, although consistent with findings from past studies (Yanico et al., 1994), the low internal consistency found among encounter items in this sample may have made it difficult to detect significant relations. In addition, findings should be interpreted with caution because of the large number of analyses conducted in this study. ...
This study examined maternal racial identity and its relations to maternal depression, maternal age, maternal parenting behavior, and 5-year-old children's social and cognitive outcomes. Participants included 62 African American mother-child dyads enrolled in the Early Head Start Research and Evaluation Project. Mothers completed measures on their own racial identity and depression and on their children's social competence. Children were assessed on reading and mathematical readiness. Parent-child interactions were videotaped and coded for levels of maternal power assertion and warmth. After controlling for maternal education and program status, a series of multiple regressions were conducted. Results indicated that maternal preencounter attitudes were negatively related to maternal age and power assertion. Maternal immersion attitudes and children's cognitive achievement were negatively related. Maternal internalization attitudes were positively related to children's social competence. A trend suggested a positive relation between maternal preencounter attitudes and children's cognitive achievement. Maternal racial identity was not associated with maternal depression or maternal warmth.
... Concerns about the reliability and validity of scores generated from the three versions of the RIAS and the WRIAS have been expressed by numerous researchers (Behrens, 1997;Fischer, Tokar, & Serna, 1998;Harkley, McLellan, & Randall, 2002;Ponterotto & Wise, 1987;Swanson, Tokar, & Davis, 1994;Tokar & Swanson, 1991;Yanico, Swanson, & Tokar, 1994). Several psychometric examinations of the Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure (MEIM) have resulted in equivocal findings regarding its factor structure (Lee & Yoo, 2004;Pegg & Plybon, 2005;Phinney, 1992;Ponterotto, Gretchen, Utsey, Stracuzzi, & Saya, 2003;Reese, Vera, & Paikoff, 1998;Roberts et al., 1999;Spencer, Icard, Harachi, Catalano, & Oxford, 2000). ...
... In either case, concerns about current measures of ethnic identity should ideally result in improvements to existing measures or new ethnic identity measures being offered to the scientific community, which reflect the different ways ethnic identity can be conceptualized and operationalized. For example, this has occurred with racial identity, in which numerous psychometric studies and critiques of the three versions of the RIAS (e.g., Fischer et al., 1998;Ponterotto & Wise, 1987;Yanico et al., 1994) and the WRIAS (e.g., Pope- Davis, Vandiver, & Stone, 1999;Swanson et al., 1994) occurred. The sometimes contentious debates about measurement issues pertaining to racial identity development challenged the discipline and ultimately pushed scholars to refine the study of racial identity by creating psychometrically stronger racial identity measures. ...
... Independent psychometric studies of all the versions of the RIAS have yielded mixed results. The first published psychometric study on the RIAS was conducted by Ponterotto and Wise (1987), followed by several other studies Yanico et al., 1994). A three-factor solution (i.e., Preencounter, Immersion-Emersion, Internalization) has been found for the RIAS (Ponterotto & Wise, 1987), the RIAS-B (Yanico et al., 1994), and the RIAS-L . ...
Ethnic and racial identity are among the most researched topics in the multicultural counseling literature. The popularity of these constructs, combined with ongoing controversies surrounding their measurement, warrants a critical examination by scholars in the field. The author contends that a combination of science and ideology has influenced the field and warns that a rigid and uncritical adherence to old paradigms will stifle growth and the production of useful knowledge. The author provides a review of measurement issues pertaining to ethnic and racial identity research and recommendations for future research and better practices involving ethnic and racial identity instruments. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
... Another line of research on racial identity development has focused on evaluation of the psychometric properties of the various incarnations of the RIAS. Previous empirical research has suggested that the RIAS, the RIAS-B, and the RIAS-L suffer from psychometric limitations (Ponterotto & Wise, 1987;Tokar & Fischer, in press;Yanico, Swanson, & Tokar, 1994). Ponterotto and Wise conducted a factor analysis on the original RIAS and found a three-factor structure that roughly corresponded to Cross's (1971Cross's ( , 1978 stages of preencounter, immersion-emersion, and internalization (with no support for encounter). ...
... Using confirmatory factor analyses, Tokar and Fischer found that a four-factor model (corresponding to Helms & Parham's 1996 scheme) provided a poor fit to the data. Exploratory factor analytic results were consistent with research on earlier versions of the RIAS (i.e., Ponterotto & Wise, 1987;Yanico et al., 1994), again revealing a three-factor structure reflecting Cross's (1971Cross's ( , 1978 preencounter, immersion-emersion, and intemalization statuses. Also, the internal consistency reliability of the Encounter subscale was inadequate (a = .34); ...
... To investigate this latter possibility, more research on what the RIAS (specifically, the updated RIAS-L; Helms & Parham, 1996) is and is not measuring is needed. Both Yanico et al. (1994) and Tokar and Fischer (in press) pointed to the need for psychometric investigations of the RIAS instruments and the possible effects of socially desirable responding on the constructs ostensibly assessed. In general, more information on the RIAS-L's convergent and discriminant validity (Cronbach & Meehl, 1955) would be helpful to researchers and practitioners in evaluating its adequacy not only in terms of its internal structure (data already provided by other research) but also in terms of its relations to theoretically based external constructs (Helms, 1997). ...
The Racial Identity Attitude Scale—Long Form (RIAS–L; J.E. Helms & T.A., Parham, 1996) is likely to be the instrument of choice in future research on African American racial identity development, but little is known about its psychometric properties. RIAS–L data from 275 African American community members and students were collected, and a series of analyses (i.e., correlations, multiple regressions, and confirmatory modeling) was conducted to explore convergent and discriminant validity. Overall, results were mixed, generally revealing limited support for the RIAS–L's convergent and discriminant validity and highlighting concerns regarding the Preencounter and Encounter subscales.
... Attitude Scale-B has been questioned by researchers (Ponterotto & Wise, 1987;Yanico, et. al, 1994), who have suggested the need to move beyond the use of the RIAS-B as the primary (or only) tool for measuring racial identity theory. ...
... Stevenson reports that the encounter sub-scale may not have emerged empirically because it is a stage more reflective of an experience rather than a fixed developmental struggle. Similar findings in this regard have been reported(Ponterotto & Wise, 1987;Yanico et al., 1994). ...
... The 30-item version of this measure was developed by Parham and Helms (1981;see Helms, 1990) to assess four types of racial identity attitudes. The psychometric properties of the RIAS-B are addressed in a study by Yanico, Swanson, and Tokar (1994). Pre-Encounter attitudes are associated with an identity that is dependent on a Euro-American worldview (α = .66) ...
... The fourth attitude, Encounter, which is characterized by identity confusion, was dropped from the study because of poor internal consistency (α = .19); Yanico et al. (1994) also found the Encounter subscale to be inadequate. ...
A number of studies conducted in the United States have found that Black and African American are the preferred labels for ethnic/racial self-designation by Blacks. The purpose of this study was to assess which labels were preferred (and disliked) by a sample of Black Canadian students (N = 101), as well as to uncover the personal meanings of their preferred labels. In addition, the relationships between label preferences and measures of ethnic/racial identity developed in America (African Self-Consciousness Scale, Black Racial Identity Attitude Scale) and Canada (York Ethnic Identification Scale) were examined. Although Black was the most preferred label, the following four types of preferred labels were identified: Black, Africentric, Caribbean, and Canadian. Different label preferences were associated with different measures of social identity. Issues of social identity and ethnic/racial self-designation for Blacks in Canada are discussed.
... The model was then operationalized using the Racial Identity Attitudes Scale (RIAS; Parham & Helms, 1981). The RIAS currently has three different versions (RIAS, RIAS-B, and RIAS-L) and has been the subject of a number of psychometric investigations that have raised concerns about the validity of the instruments (Fisher, Tokar, & Serna, 1998;Ponterotto & Wise, 1987;Yanico, Swanson, & Tokar, 1994). ...
This study tested William Cross's (1991, 1995) revised racial identity model. The relationship between racial identity attitudes and internalized racialism was examined in 153 African American college students attending a historically Black university. Participants completed the Cross Racial Identity Scale (B. J. Vandiver et al., 2000) and the Nadanolitization Scale (J. Taylor & C. Grundy, 1996). Findings indicated that the pre-encounter racial identity attitudes of miseducation and self-hatred, and immersion-emersion anti-White attitudes, were positively related to beliefs in the mental and genetic deficiencies of Blacks as well as the sexual prowess of Blacks. Pre-encounter assimilation attitudes were negatively related to beliefs in the natural abilities of Blacks, whereas internalization Afrocentricity attitudes were positively related. These results provide support for Cross's revisions of his racial identity model.
... Helms (2005Helms ( , 2007 argues that reliability of the RIAS-B is influenced by the fact that the scales are multidimensional (i.e., they measure emotions, cognitions, and behaviors), and psychological processes such as social desirability may negatively influence reliability. Other scholars conclude that, in the case of Encounter, a status characterized by active identity confusion, relatively low reliability may reflect the complexities around the transitional phase this status captures (Boatswain & Lalonde, 2000;Ponterotto & Wise, 1987;Robinson, 2000;Yanico et al., 1994). ...
Differences in racial identity may be 1 explanation for differences in mental health and coping between West Indian Americans and African Americans and may have implications for culturally competent psychological practice with West Indians. This article examined differences in racial identity attitudes between African Americans and West Indian Americans using both group means analysis and strength of endorsement profiles. African Americans were significantly more likely to endorse encounter and immersion status attitudes, controlling for site, gender, age, and education. West Indians were twice as likely as African Americans to endorse high internalization profiles and were 8 times as likely to endorse high pre-encounter/internalization blended profiles. Subsequent analyses suggested that although ethnic differences in high internalization profiles may be explained by differences between the 2 samples in age, collection site, and education, differences in pre-encounter/internalization profiles are likely the result of ethnicity alone. Clinical implications are discussed.
... The three factors found in this research are consistent with finding in previous research. Ponterotto and Wise (1987) and Yanico, Swanson and Tokar (1994) both found three factors when they conducted exploratory factor analyses on the B-RIAS. They found support for preencounter, immersion-emersion, and internalization. ...
... Previously Cross's original (1971) and revised (1991) nigrescence theory had been measured by the Racial Identity Attitude Scale (RIAS-A; Helms, 1990; RIAS-B [short]; Helms & Parham, 1996;RIAS-B [long]; Helms & Parham, 1996). Several authors (Fischer & Moradi, 2001;Yanico, Swanson, & Tokar, 1994) have criticized the psychometric properties of the various versions of the RAIS, in part prompting the creation of the CRIS. Empirical findings from extensive validation studies of the CRIS (see Chapter Three for a thorough discussion of CRIS development and psychometrics) led to further revisions within nigrescense theory, resulting in expanded nigrescence theory, which is summarized next. ...
... The CRIS has consistently demonstrated adequate psychometric properties, especially in terms of internal consistency reliability (Vandiver et al., 2001). Most studies that have operationalized racial identity using Cross's nigrescence model have used measures that have not met adequate psychometric standards (Ponterotto & Wise, 1987;Tokar & Fischer, 1998;Yanico, Swanson, & Tokar, 1994). For example, internal consistency reliability coefficients in studies using the RIAS ranged from a low of .35 to a high of .79 ...
The purpose of the present study was to examine the extent to which racial identity, academic self-concept, and self-esteem predict two types of academic outcomes, grade point average (GPA), and verbal Graduate Record Examination scores. Although grades and standardized test performance are often collapsed under the category of academic performance, no studies have examined both of these variables' relations with racial identity, academic self-concept, and self-esteem together in the same study. A total of 313 African American students derived from two separate samples participated in the current study. The results indicated that academic self-concept significantly predicted students' GPA but not their test scores. Furthermore, racial identity did not predict either grades or test performance. The strongest predictor of test performance was the age of the student. Implications of the study findings are discussed.
... Though many researchers have developed measures of racial identity, including Helms' Black Racial Identity Attitude Scale and White Racial Identity Attitude Scale (Helms, 1990), these measures tend to (a) be based on stage models of identity development, (b) be specific to a particular racial group, (c) focus too heavily on attitudes toward other groups, and (d) possess inconsistent psychometric properties (Swanson, Tokar, & Davis, 1994;Yanico, Swanson, & Tokar, 1994). In response to these criticisms, Phinney (1992) developed the MEIM, which defined ethnic identity as developing along a continuum rather than in stages. ...
An increasing number of organizational researchers examine the effects of ethnic identity and other-group orientation. In doing so, many use Phinney's (1992) Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure (MEIM), which purportedly allows simultaneous assessment of various groups. Although several studies demonstrate adequate validity and reliability for scores on the MEIM, the only two studies that have assessed its measurement equivalence across racial and ethnic groups (a) focus exclusively on the ethnic identity component, (b) use entirely adolescent samples, and (c) obtain somewhat mixed results. Because ethnic identity is still developing during adolescence, it cannot be assumed that equivalence or lack thereof among adolescents will generalize to adults. The present study examines the measurement equivalence of both components of the MEIM across racial and ethnic groups using a sample of 1,349 White, Hispanic, African American, and Asian American adults. The results suggest that Roberts et al.'s revised version demonstrates evidence of measurement equivalence.
... 216). With the exception of the CRIS, there is weak or equivocal support for scores on the most frequently used Black racial identity instruments in the research literature ( Chappell, 1995;Cokley & Helm, 2001;Fischer et al., 1998;Lemon & Waehler, 1996;Myers & Thompson, 1994;Ponterotto & Wise, 1987;Sabnani & Ponterotto, 1992;Sellers et al., 1997Sellers et al., , 1998Simmons et al., 2006;Stokes, Murray, Peacock, & Kaiser, 1994;Yanico et al., 1994). To test the CRIS as an operationalization of NT-E, we examined both the internal consistency of CRIS scores and their structural validity using CFA procedures. ...
In this study, the authors tested the viability of the expanded nigrescence (NT-E) model as operationalized by Cross Racial Identity Scale (CRIS) scores using confirmatory factor analyses. Participants were 594 Black college students from the Southeastern United States. Results indicated a good fit for NT-E's proposed six-factor structure. One-factor and two-factor higher-order models also yielded good fit indices, although several coefficients in the one-factor higher-order model were not salient or statistically significant. In sum, the results provide strong support for the CRIS as an operationalization of NT-E. The authors suggest that CRIS scores can be used in studies concerned with drawing inferences about the effects of racial identity attitudes.
... One potential problem with research using this model is the psychometric limitations of the instrument most commonly used to measure racial identity (Ponterotto & Wise, 1987;Yanico, Swanson, & Tokar, 1994). The limitations include poor internal consistency estimates of the Encounter subscale, thus calling into question whether the model consists of three or four factors. ...
Reports on a study that investigates whether the quality of interactions between students and faculty have an influence on students' academic motivation and academic self-concept. Results reveal that students who had more positive perceptions of faculty encouragement had higher academic self-concept scores and academic motivation scores than students who had more negative perceptions of faculty encouragement. (Contains 15 references and 2 tables.) (Author/GCP)
... The model was then operationalized using the Racial Identity Attitudes Scale (RIAS; Parham & Helms, 1981). The RIAS currently has three different versions (RIAS, RIAS-B, and RIAS-L) and has been the subject of a number of psychometric investigations that have raised concerns about the validity of the instruments (Fisher, Tokar, & Serna, 1998;Ponterotto & Wise, 1987;Yanico, Swanson, & Tokar, 1994). ...
This study tested William Cross's (1991, 1995) revised racial identity model. The relationship between racial identity attitudes and internalized racialism was examined in 153 African American college students attending a historically Black university. Participants completed the Cross Racial Identity Scale (B. J. Vandiver et al., 2000) and the Nadanolitization Scale (J. Taylor & C. Grundy, 1996). Findings indicated that the pre-encounter racial identity attitudes of miseducation and self-hatred, and immersion-emersion anti-White attitudes, were positively related to beliefs in the mental and genetic deficiencies of Blacks as well as the sexual prowess of Blacks. Pre-encounter assimilation attitudes were negatively related to beliefs in the natural abilities of Blacks, whereas internalization Afrocentricity attitudes were positively related. These results provide support for Cross's revisions of his racial identity model.
... global) measures of racial identity (Helms & Piper, 1994), especially ones that improve on the psychometric properties of available versions of the RIAS (cf. Yanico, Swanson, & Tokar, 1994). ...
This study extended social cognitive career theory (R. W. Lent, S. D. Brown, & G. Hackett, 1994) and racial identity theory (J. E. Helms, 1990) to the math-related interests and academic choice intentions of Black college students. Participants were 164 Black 1st-year undergraduates who completed measures of racial identity attitudes and math-related indexes of self-efficacy, outcome expectations, perceived sources of efficacy information, interests, and academic choice intentions. A social cognitive path model of students' math-related interests and choice intentions offered good overall fit to the data. Racial identity attitudes generally yielded small relations to the social cognitive variables and the outcome criteria. Self-efficacy and outcome expectations predicted interests, and interests predicted choice intentions, across racial identity attitude levels. Implications for practice and for further research on Black students' academic and career development patterns are considered.
... It is important that different racial identity instruments be used in light of the relatively low alpha coefficients reported in the Pope-Davis et al. study .70;Dissonance,.59;Immersion,.69;Emersion,.49; and Internalization, .60), as well as the history of psychometric problems with all versions of the RIAS in general (e.g., Ponterotto & Wise, 1987;Yanico, Swanson, & Tokar, 1994). In spite of recent attempts to defend low Cronbach's alphas of racial identity instruments (Helms, Henze, Sass, & Mifsud, 2006), most conventional psychometric wisdom recognizes that if scores produced from any instrument are unreliable, not only is the validity of the scale scores dubious, but the power of the statistical analyses is compromised (Murphy & Davidshofer, 1998;Thompson, 2003). ...
This study investigated how predictive the Cross Racial Identity Scale (CRIS; B. J. Vandiver, W. E. Cross, F. C. Worrell, & P. Fhagen-Smith, 2002), a measure of Black racial identity, was of African American cultural practices, beliefs, and attitudes (i.e., enculturation) as measured by the African American Acculturation scale-33 (H. Landrine & E. Klonoff, 1995). Findings revealed that all but 1 of the CRIS subscales significantly predicted enculturation. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.
Este estudio investigó hasta qué punto la Escala Cross de Identidad Racial (CRIS, por sus siglas en inglés; B. J. Vandiver, W. E. Cross, F. C. Worrell, & P. Fhagen-Smith, 2002), una medida de la identidad racial Negra, podría predecir prácticas culturales, creencias y actitudes Afroamericanas (p. ej, la endoculturación) medidas por la Escala de Aculturación Afroamericana-33 (H. Landrine & E. Klonoff, 1995). Los hallazgos revelaron que todas, a excepción de una, de las subescalas CRIS predijeron la endoculturación de una manera significativa. Se discuten implicaciones teóricas y prácticas.
... Items are anchored from 1 (strongly agree) to 5 (strongly disagree), and mean scores for each subscale were included separately in the analyses below. Although overall RIAS scores at the extremes do show convergent validity, questions have been raised about the validity and reliability of some of the subscales (Lemon & Waehler, 1996), particularly the encounter scale (Yanico, Swanson, & Tokar, 1994). ...
Emotion-related constructs hold understudied promise for understanding interand intraethnic attitudes and behaviors of African Americans. This article describes preliminary steps taken to explore the construct of interethnic social comfort through the revision and expansion of an existing measure of interethnic social distance, and to explore its psychometric properties among several subsamples of a group of 238 African American undergraduates. Items from the Revised Social Scales were found free from traditional social desirability. Factor analyses suggested a single-factor latent structure for in-group (i.e., Black) social comfort and a two-factor latent structure for out-group (i.e., White) social comfort, which distinguished intimate from nonintimate relationships. Subscales based on these analyses showed high internal consistency reliability and convergent and discriminant validity by patterns of correlations with measures of ethnic identity, related attitudes, self-relevant beliefs, and demographic background. Gender and other demographic differences, limitations, and next steps for establishing validity are discussed.
... The RIAS (Helms & Parham, 1990Parham & Helms, 1981) was developed to assess Cross's (1971) original nigrescence model (NT-O), and has four subscales: Pre-Encounter, Encounter, Immersion-Emersion, and Internalization. Despite its frequent use, the reliability and validity of some RIAS scores have not been supported in several studies (Burlew & Smith, 1991;Chappell, 1995;Fischer, Tokar, & Serna, 1998;Lemon & Waehler, 1996;Morrow, 1998;Ponterotto & Wise, 1987;Yanico, Swanson, & Tokar, 1994). ...
We examined the structural validity, internal consistency (alpha and omega), and test–retest reliability of scores on the Cross Racial Identity Scale (CRIS; Vandiver et al., 200086.
Tajfel , H. 1981. Human groups and social categories: Studies in social psychology., Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. View all references; Worrell, Vandiver, & Cross, 200497.
Worrell , F. C. 2008. Nigrescence attitudes in adolescence, emerging adulthood, and adulthood. Journal of Black Psychology,, 34: 156–178. doi:10.1177/0095798408315118 View all references), as well as the relationship between CRIS scores and several variables related to psychological adjustment. Participants consisted of several groups of African American college students (34 ≤ n ≤ 340) attending a predominantly White university in a Western state. Confirmatory factor analyses indicated an acceptable fit of the data to the theoretical model, and alpha and omega coefficients indicate that CRIS scores have moderate to high internal consistency. CRIS scores also demonstrated stability over periods between 2 and 20 months in ranges that suggest long-term stability of racial attitudes. As predicted by the expanded nigrescence model (Cross & Vandiver, 200123.
Cross , W. 1991. Shades of Black: Diversity in African-American identity, Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press. View all references), only self-hatred attitudes had consistent, meaningful relationships with psychological adjustment.
... None of the versions of the Racial Identity Attitude Scale (RIAS; Helms & Parham, 1990, 1996Parham & Helms, 1981) is included in this study. Although the RIAS is the most frequently cited instrument in the racial identity literature, unlike the ASCS, the CRIS, and the MIBI, there is extensive literature on the psychometric properties of RIAS scores (e.g., Burlew & Smith, 1991;Chappell, 1995;Fischer, Tokar, & Serna, 1998;Helms, 1990;Helms & Parham, 1996;Lemon & Waehler, 1996;Morrow, 1998;Ponterotto & Wise, 1987;Sabnani & Ponterotto, 1992;Yanico, Swanson, & Tokar, 1994) that provides definitive conclusions about the instrument's strengths and limitations. Moreover, the RIAS is based on the original nigrescence model (Cross, 1971), which differs substantially from the expanded model Worrell, Cross, & Vandiver, 2001) on which the CRIS is based, and which is examined in this study. ...
In this study, we examined the internal consistency and the structural validity of scores on the African Self-Consciousness Scale (ASCS), the Multidimensional Inventory of Black Identity (MIBI), and the Cross Racial Identity Scale (CRIS). Participants consisted of 225 African American college students—75 attending predominantly White institutions (PWIs) and 150 attending historically Black colleges and universities (HBCUs). Internal consistency estimates were above .60 for scores on one ASCS subscale, six MIBI subscales, and six CRIS subscales. Exploratory factor analytic procedures supported a two-factor structure for ASCS scores, a five-factor structure for MIBI scores, and a six-factor structure for CRIS scores. Implications for Black racial identity and scale development are discussed.
In a large, heterogenous sample, psychometric analyses revealed both strengths and weaknesses of the Racial Identity Attitude Scale—Long Form (Helms & Parham, 1996).
Providing readers with cutting-edge details on multicultural instrumentation, theories, and research in the social, behavioral, and health-related fields, this Handbook offers extensive coverage of empirically-supported multicultural measurement instruments that span a wide variety of subject areas such as ethnic and racial identity, racism, disability, and gender roles. Readers learn how to differentiate among and identify appropriate research tools for a particular project. This Handbook provides clinical practitioners with a useful starting point in their search for multicultural assessment devices they can use with diverse clients to inform clinical treatment.
The authors tested the validity of scores on the Multidimensional Inventory of Black Identity (MIBI; R. M. Sellers, S. A. Rowley, T. M. Chavous, J. N. Shelton, & M. A. Smith, 1997) using confirmatory factor analysis and correlations. Results show partial support for construct validity. An item analysis was performed to identify problematic items. Implications for racial identity research are discussed.
This research investigates the impact of racial identity on Black students' perceptions of community outreach. Colleges and universities are steadily forming university-community partnerships. Research has not fully addressed those indicators that may influence relationship-forming between Black students and Black community members. The sample includes 276 Black students who attended either a historically Black college and university (HBCU) or a predominantly White institution (PWI). Hierarchical regression analyses found that the Black racial identity scale 's (B-RIAS) pre-encounter stage negatively predicted and a combination of the immersion-emersion and internalization stages positively predicted community outreach. This study has implications for shaping university-community agendas involving Black students and Black community members, and it offers a unique framework to think about Black students' civic participation.
We used an African-centered model of male-female equality, Black feminist theory, racial identity theory, and findings from the rape myth acceptance literature to explore male dominant and White racial dominant attitudes among antirape activists and a comparison group of nonactivists. As predicted, activists and sexually nonaggressive men rejected rape myths and possessed more egalitarian attitudes toward women than did nonactivists and sexually aggressive men. Activists also rejected White racial dominance more than nonactivists at the internalization-stage leveL Attitudes related to White racial dominance did not predict rape myth acceptance. However, preencounter racial attitudes and internalization of racial attitudes are significantly associated with rape myth acceptance and attitudes toward women. Implications are discussed and recommendations put forward to include educational materials in manhood training programs that counter White supremacist and male supremacist ideologies.
This article raises a number of critical questions for scale development and theorizing in the field of Black racial identity. In particular, the authors suggest that research on Black racial identity would benefit from longitudinal studies and the examination of the existence of overarching racial identity constructs.
Este artículo plantea varias preguntas críticas sobre el desarrollo de escalas y teorías en el campo de la Identidad Racial Negra. En lo particular, los autores sugieren que investigaciones basadas en la Identidad Racial Negra se beneficiarian con estudios longitudinales y la examinación de la existencia de conceptos expansivos sobre la identidad racial.
The authors developed a model of the relationships between racial identity development and socially desirable responding, using a sample of African American undergraduate students. Instruments used were the Racial Identity Attitude Scale‐Long Form (J. E. Helms & T. A. Parham, 1996) and the Balanced Inventory of Desirable Responding (D. L. Paulhus, 1991). The results challenge previous research conclusions regarding social desirability and racial identity development. Implications of findings for researchers, instrument developers, and counselors are included.
A Black feminist model was used to investigate rape myth acceptance between African American antirape activists and a comparison group of nonactivists using Cross's (1991) racial identity model and Downing and Roush's (1985) feminist identity model. As predicted, activists rejected rape myths more than nonactivists; the earlier stages of both models were associated with rape myth acceptance; the later stages were associated with rape myth rejection; and activists evidenced more sociopolitical maturity (race and gender consciousness) than nonactivists. The findings suggest that researchers may need to investigate to what degree rape myth acceptance serves an overarching system of social domination where racism and sexism overlap.
This study explored the relationship between specific theories of racial identity attitudes and the asymmetry hypothesis—which states that discriminatory acts perpetrated by the strong against the weak will be seen as more biased than similar acts perpetrated by the weak against the strong. Participants consisted of 92 African American undergraduate students who completed the Racial Identity Attitude Scale (RIAS), the African Self-Consciousness Scale (ASC), and the Discriminatory Scenarios Questionnaire. Pro-Black attitudes were positively correlated with the attribution of more racial bias to White as compared to African American characters who were described as discriminating against individuals not of their racial group. No significant relationship was found between anti-Black attitudes and the attribution of racial bias. This study also investigated the relationship between the RIAS and the ASC.
This study explored the racial and gender attitudes and feminist activism of 100 self-identified African American feminists (50 women and 50 men) to determine (a) whether Black feminists possess weak racial identities due to feminist influences stereotypically associated with White American culture, (b) if Black feminist men share similar gender attitudes, beliefs, and feminist activism levels with Black feminist women, and (c) whether racial and gender identity attitudes predict feminist activism. Multivariate analyses revealed strong racial and feminist identities (measured by the Racial Identity Attitudes Scale-Form B [RIASB] and the Gender Role Journey Scale, respectively) and no significant gender differences. However, Black women reported a wider range of feminist activism than Black men. A hierarchical regression analysis revealed that sexual orientation, preference for the label feminist, and high scores on the Gender Role Journey Personal-Professional Activism subscale were important predictors of feminist activism. Empirical findings refute common stereotypes characterizing feminism as White, emasculating, of no interest to men, and divisive.
Racial identity attitude has become a popular research topic. Primary purposes of this study were twofold: (a) assessing the effects of college environment on racial identity attitudes and then (b) the effects of environment and racial identity attitude on African American men’s body size preferences regarding women.Using weighted scale scores, the two university types differed only on racial identity attitudes. There was no difference, however, in men’s body size preferences for women when comparing university types and racial identity in combination.Suggestions regarding the instrument and limitations of this study are discussed.
This article provides a selective review of the multicultural counseling training (MCT) literature. A brief historical account of multicultural counseling (MCC) is followed by three other sections detailing current models of MCT, conceptualization of training objectives, and empirical research. Within these sections, critical issues for the present and future development of MCT are highlighted and discussed.
The purpose of this article is to provide an overview of issues related to using career assessment with African-American clients. We first discuss the philosophy and practice of career assessment, and present an expanded view of assessment. In the second section, we outline general issues in career counseling with African-American clients, including topics to explore in career counseling and the role of the counselor's and client's racial identity attitudes. The third section consists of specific issues in using career assessment with African-American clients, such as how race and racial identity attitudes might influence the process of assessment, and psychometric and theoretical issues in using career assessment instruments. The final section offers some directions for future research and practice regarding career assessment.
Item response models (IRMs) were used to analyze Cross Racial Identity Scale (CRIS) scores. Rasch analysis scores were compared with classical test theory (CTT) scores. The partial credit model demonstrated a high goodness of fit and correlations between Rasch and CTT scores ranged from .91 to .99. CRIS scores are supported by both methods
Given that over 50 studies have been published using the Black Racial Identity Scale (BRIAS), the study of its dimensions and structural components are important to understanding Black people and the evolution of Black racial identity theory. Unconstrained and constrained confirmatory factor analysis models were estimated across males and females to test the hypothesis that Black men and Black women will respond similarly on the BRIAS. Findings suggest that items on the BRIAS scales are not invariant across groups through interpreting fit indexes and the Lagrange multiplier test. The results of this study supports past research that found inconsistent psychometric qualities of the BRIAS.
The purpose of this study was to explore to what extent ethnic identity and racial identity are related constructs among African American college students by examining (a) the association of racial identity to ethnic identity and (b) the relative and unique contribution of both constructs to race-related stress. Participants were 140 college African American college students (about 70% females) enrolled in two universities in a major city in the Southwest United States. Participants age ranged from 17 to 58 years (M = 24, SD = 6.8). In terms of educational level, 10% of the students were freshmen, 17% sophomores, 24% juniors, 19% seniors, 21% graduate students, and 9% did not indicate their year in school. The following assessment instruments were used: Black Racial Identity Attitude Scale (BRIS-B) (Parham & Helms, 1081), the Multigroup Ethnic Identity Scale (MEIM) (Phinney, 1992), and the Index of Race-Related Stress, Brief version (IRRS-B) (Utsey, 1999). Endorsement of preencounter racial attitudes was negatively related to ethnic identity achievement, whereas endorsement of internalization racial attitudes was positively related to ethnic identity. Results also indicated that racial identity attitudes were related to the stress associated with experiences of racism at the cultural and individual level, whereas ethnic identity was not associated to race-related stress. Ethnic identity did not moderate the relation of racial identity to race-related stress.
This article reviews the literature in the areas of theoretical contributions to career development, vocational assessment, individual differences, and career counseling written in 1994. It also reviews relevant career books that appeared on the scene. Areas covered in the review as noted above for the most part are consistent with other reviews and represent the contemporary research thrusts in the field.
Except where reference is made to the work of others, the work described in this dissertation is my own or was done in collaboration with my advisory committee. This dissertation does not contain any proprietary or classified information.
Sickle cell disease (SCD) occurs in 1 of every 400 to 500 African American births. Despite its prevalence, there has been a relative dearth of attention paid to SCD in the psychological literature. African American SCD adolescents and young adults, individuals at an already vulnerable developmental stage, are at increased risk for psychological distress and psychosocial impairments (e.g., depression and low self-esteem, poor social and academic/vocational functioning). Such difficulties often result in problematic adherence to medical regimens, and thus represent a potentially serious clinical and public health problem that merits the attention of psychologists working in medical settings. This article (1) reviews the psychosocial needs peculiar to SCD patients transitioning from adolescence to young adulthood; (2) applies a culturally informed stress-coping-adjustment framework to assess and address the psychological status, psychosocial functioning, and disease outcomes of these individuals; and (3) describes a culturally and developmentally sensitive, psychoeducational group intervention.
This study replicates and extends prior studies of the dimensionality, convergent, and external validity of African Self-Consciousness Scale scores with appropriate exploratory factor analysis methods and a large gender balanced sample (N = 348). Viable one- and two-factor solutions were cross-validated. Both first factors overlapped significantly and were labeled “Embracing African Heritage.” The second subscale of the two-factor solution was labeled “Refusal to Deny African Heritage.” Only the structural validity of the first factor of the two-factor solution was fully consistent with prior findings. Partial evidence of convergent validity was found for all factors, and only the second factor of the two-factor solution received external validity support. Implications for usage of the African Self-Consciousness Scale and recommendations for further investigation are discussed.
Racial attitude characteristics of African Americans may have important implications for patient-therapist matching in substance abuse treatment. The Black Racial Identity Attitude Scale (BRIAS) is a questionnaire used to measure racial identity attitudes. This study tested the stability and internal consistency of the BRIAS in an African-American substance-abusing population. This is the first known test of the BRIAS in a clinical population. African-American veterans (n = 53) were administered the BRIAS to test for stability over time and internal consistency. Initial analysis of the instrument revealed that a majority of items were not stable over time. Using the initial results, we removed 26 problematic items. Three modified scales remained, each having marginal test-retest reliability. Two of the modified scales had moderately adequate internal consistency, and the third was minimally adequate. We found that the BRIAS did not demonstrate sufficient internal consistency or stability in this population to adequately identify the constructs of the Nigrescence Racial Identity Development theory of William Cross, Jr. There is a growing recognition of the need to explore the extent of racial, ethnic, and cultural factors in substance abuse behavior and treatment; therefore, we recommend that further attention be directed toward developing an instrument to reliably and accurately measure identity constructs among African-American clinical subjects.
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