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Gender Differences in the Structure of Interests
Abstract
Multidimensional scaling (MDS) analysis was used to analyze the structure of interests of the Women- and Men-in-General samples used in the revision of the 1985 Strong Interest Inventory (Hansen & Campbell, 1985). In the present study, the intercorrelation matrices of the Strong Interest Inventory General Occupational Themes, for the 1985 Women-in-General and Men-in-General Reference Samples, were separately submitted to MDS. Results from earlier analyses that found sex differences in the structure of interests (Feldman & Meir, 1976; Rounds, Davison, & Dawis, 1979; Utz & Korben, 1976) may have been confounded because matched-interest samples were not used. Subjects for the Women-in-General and Men-in-General samples used in this study were selected with the specific intention of matching the interests of females and males by choosing participants who were matched on occupational title. The obtained two-dimensional solutions demonstrated a gender difference in the underlying structure of interests for these reference groups. Possible explanations and implications of these results are discussed.
... Fitzgerald and Betz (1994) also argued that, as with majority groups, there is little reason to assume that knowledge collected from ethnic populations should equally apply across gender. Although there have been a few studies on the presence of gender differences in the general population, there are no definitive conclusions about the invariance of the RIASEC structure across gender (Anderson, Tracey, & Rounds, in press;Hansen, Collins, Swanson, & Fouad, 1993;. For example, Hansen et al. (1993) indicated that differences in the RIASEC structure between men and women seem to be present. ...
... Although there have been a few studies on the presence of gender differences in the general population, there are no definitive conclusions about the invariance of the RIASEC structure across gender (Anderson, Tracey, & Rounds, in press;Hansen, Collins, Swanson, & Fouad, 1993;. For example, Hansen et al. (1993) indicated that differences in the RIASEC structure between men and women seem to be present. Also, Hansen et al. (1993) suggest that men and women conceptualize the R and I scales differently, and women do not discriminate between the R and I types to the extent to which men discriminate between them. ...
... For example, Hansen et al. (1993) indicated that differences in the RIASEC structure between men and women seem to be present. Also, Hansen et al. (1993) suggest that men and women conceptualize the R and I scales differently, and women do not discriminate between the R and I types to the extent to which men discriminate between them. In contrast, Anderson et al. (in press), Rounds and Tracey (1993), and Tracey and Rounds (1993) found no gender differences in terms of interest structure. ...
Items from the Vocational Preference Inventory (J. L. Holland, 1985b) were administered to a sample of 370 African American and White high school students to investigate differences in the circular structure of RIASEC interests across ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and gender. Analyses using both the randomization test of hypothesized order relations (L. Hubert & P. Arabie, 1987) and 3-way MDS suggest that there are no differences in interest structure between African American and White high school students. However, structural differences were found when both ethnicity and SES were considered together.
... Ainda no que diz respeito às diferenças por sexo na estrutura dos interesses, Hansen et al. (1993) avaliaram 300 mulheres e 300 homens de 93 ocupações distintas, com idade média de 38 anos. Foi utilizada a primeira seção do teste SII-Strong Interst Inventory, que operacionaliza os seis tipos de interesses do Riasec. ...
... Ainda, retoma-se a recomendação desses autores no que diz respeito à utilização conjunta dos resultados de testes de inteligência e interesses, uma vez que uma informação não substitui a outra em processos de orientação profissional. Por fim, quanto à análise das correlações parciais, pode-se inferir que a variável sexo modera o efeito das correlações entre as variáveis analisadas, uma vez que se observou a diminuição da magnitude das correlações ou mesmo que estas deixaram de ser significativas, reafirmando estudos já realizados (HANSEN et al., 1993;SARTORI;NUNES, 2009;entre outros). ...
This study investigated the association between professional interests and intelligence with adolescents, and also differences at these constructs regarding participants gender. 211 students took part on this study, from a private school located at Paraná. Students attended to the three grades of High School, most of them were women (58.3%), mean age 16.5 years old. Two tests were used: Escala de Aconselhamento Profissional (EAP) and Bateria de Provas de Raciocínio (BPR-5), both constructed and with validity evidences from Brazil. Results showed few and low significant correlations between the constructs, suggesting divergence between them. There were significant differences regarding five from seven interests areas accessed and at spatial and numerical intelligence. Results are discussed in terms of the possibilities of using this information in vocational guidance with teenagers.
... One question highly debated in the field of vocational interests is whether structural presumptions hold for both females and males. Past studies yielded contradictory results: Some show evidence for invariance across gender (e.g., Anderson, Tracey, & Rounds, 1997;Darcy & Tracey, 2007;Nagy, Trautwein, & Lüdtke, 2010;Tracey & Rounds, 1993), other studies reveal considerable gender differences in model structure (e.g., Armstrong, Hubert, & Rounds, 2003;Hansen, Collins, Swanson, & Fouad, 1993). Thus, the issue of structural gender invariance remains an unresolved matter. ...
... Moreover, for both the male and the female sample we found a closer than assumed proximity between R and I; thus, the usual distinctions between RIASEC dimensions is not as salient as Holland's model assumes. This close proximity between adjacent interest dimensions described by Armstrong et al. (2003) as type compression was also found in other studies (Hansen et al., 1993;Nagy et al., 2010). Whereas Nagy et al. (2010) showed this proximity also investigating the GIST-R, Armstrong et al. (2003) revealed type compression between R and I investigating a variety of samples completing either the SII (Harmon et al., 1994) or the UNIACT-R (ACT, 1995). ...
The study investigates consequences of eliminating items showing gender-specific differential item functioning (DIF) on the psychometric structure of a standard RIASEC interest inventory. Holland’s hexagonal model was tested for structural invariance using a confirmatory methodological approach (confirmatory factor analysis and randomization tests of hypothesized order relations). Results suggest that eliminating items showing gender-specific DIF had no considerable influence on the instrument’s psychometric structure. Considering DIF as one possibility to improve test fairness when developing interest inventories is discussed.
... Female students do not lag behind their male classmates in science achievement tests, grades, and course enrollments, but they nevertheless express less favorable attitudes toward science, participate in fewer STEM-related extracurricular activities, and aspire less often to science careers than their male counterparts (Catsambis, 1995;Major & Morganson, 2008;Morganson et al., 2010;Planty et al., 2009). Additionally, many studies over the years have highlighted gender differences in preferred fields, and showed that, in terms of the Holland typology (Holland, 1997), women tend to prefer artistic, social, and conventional fields, whereas men tend to prefer realistic, investigative, and enterprising fields (e.g., Hansen, Collins, Swanson, & Fouad, 1993;Low & Rounds, 2007;Su, Rounds, & Armstrong, 2009). These findings highlight the need to further investigate the role of gender in women's limited participation in STEM-related careers. ...
... Moreover, the present study suggests that women prefer higher levels than men in four aspects: providing mental health services, community service, work with the public, and using artistic ability. These findings are compatible with previous studies that demonstrated women's greater preference for communal aspects and the social and the artistic fields (Hansen & Campbell, 1985;Hansen et al., 1993;Low & Rounds, 2007;Moore & Ollenburger, 1986;Proyer & Häusler, 2007;Su et al., 2009). This finding, along with the findings about STEMrelated aspects, may indicate that even in the 21st century, women are apparently still influenced by gender-stereotypic choices, which lead them to report gender-compatible preferences in career aspects. ...
The present research focused on gender differences in career preferences, comparing those in 2010 with those in 1990 (as reported by Gati, Osipow, & Givon, 1995). The tested hypothesis was that gender differences in aspect-based career preferences (e.g., income, teamwork, professional advancement, length of training) would have decreased over the past 20 years. The career preferences of 21,767 young adult women and 15,532 men-who used an Internet-based career guidance system in 2010 to assist them in making a career decision-were analyzed and compared with the respective preferences of 1,252 young adult women and 751 young adult men who used a previous version of the system in 1990. As hypothesized, gender differences were attenuated in most aspects (e.g., professional advancement, management); however, these differences increased in a few aspects (e.g., community service and counseling are increasingly preferred by women). The findings and their implications are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2013 APA, all rights reserved).
... Adjacent types are assumed to be more similar in interests and vocational pursuits than opposite types. The generally circular order of the six types has been supported in multiple studies (Prediger, Swaney, & Mau, 1993;Hansen, Collins, Swanson, & Fouad, 1993;Anderson, Tracey, & Rounds, 1997;Tracey & Robbins, 2005;Rounds & Gerstein, 2002). ...
... These findings are consistent with criterion validity studies for vocational interest assessments in general (Holland & Rayman, 1986). Factorial validity of SDS has been established through the exploration of the RIASEC circumplex in several studies (Boyle & Fabris, 1992;Darcy & Tracey, 2007;Hansen et al., 1993;). ...
This study investigated the relationships among negative career thoughts and profile elevation, differentiation, career decidedness, and satisfaction with choice. Study participants were 226 university students enrolled in an Introduction to Career Development course. The Career Thoughts Inventory (CTI) was used to measure negative career thoughts, the Self-Directed Search (SDS) was used to measure profile elevation and differentiation, the Occupational Alternatives Question (OAQ) was used to measure career decidedness, and the Satisfaction with Choice item was used to determine participants’ level of satisfaction with their first career choice. A series of multiple regression analyses were conducted to determine the amount of variance accounted for by negative career thoughts (decision-making confusion, commitment anxiety, and external conflict) in profile elevation, differentiation, career decidedness, and satisfaction with choice. Negative career thoughts were found to account for a significant amount of variance in profile elevation, career decidedness, and satisfaction with choice. In addition, exploratory analyses were conducted to examine the interaction of decision-making confusion, commitment anxiety, and external conflict on the criterion variables. No significant interaction effects were found for the analyses with profile elevation or differentiation as the criterion variables. With regard to career decidedness, a significant three-way interaction was indicated, and the three main effects and three two-way interactions as a set were significant with satisfaction with choice as the criterion variable. Results of this study support the inverse relationship between career decidedness, satisfaction with choice, and negative career thoughts. Findings suggest the need to fully explore negative thinking that interferes with clients making effective career decisions.
... Nonetheless, the fact that differences occurred for women but not for men contrasts with Phillips and Bruch's (1988) finding that shy undergraduates of both genders were less likely than nonshy students to report interpersonally oriented vocational interests. For the current study the results might be understood relative to how men and women's sex role socialization patterns relate to career interests (Betz & Fitzgerald, 1987;Hansen, Collins, Swanson, & Fouad, 1993). The tendency for men to develop preferences for noninterpersonally oriented occupations may have reduced variance on the avoidance index such that anxiety differences were minimized. ...
This study examined whether social phobics differed from nonanxious controls in occupational adjustment. Results indicated that generalized and nongeneralized social phobics, in contrast to controls, were underemployed and believed that their supervisor would rate them as less dependable. Nongeneralized social phobics and controls believed their supervisor would rate them higher in work role conformance and likelihood of advancement than did generalized social phobics. Generalized socially phobic women, in contrast to nongeneralized and control group women, were more likely to be employed in noninterpersonally oriented jobs. Generalized social phobics were more anxious than controls when starting their current job but did not differ in job satisfaction. Results are discussed relative to the nature of social phobia, subtype differences, and counseling services.
... Besides, Holland's Career Choice Theory also criticized for being bias in measuring race and gender (Anderson, Tracey and Rounds 1997;Haverkamp, Collins, and Hansen, 1994) and also Hexagonal Model is seen bias in gender and culture (Hansen et al. 1993;Tinsley, 2000). Furthermore, Holland's Career Choice Theory has also been criticized for not emphasizing the culture role in maintaining the working environment (Capuzzi and Stauffer, 2005). ...
Career self-efficacy is an important aspect of making choice, planning, and decision-related to career. Social Career Cognitive Theory (SCCT) is a career theory explaining the career self-efficacy aspect. SCCT has been expanded in the career aspect in 1994 which emphasis interest, career choice and performance aspect. Besides that, SCCT also emphasizes the importance of self-efficacy in career development externally and internally. This article elaborates on SCCT and the importance of SCCT in explaining the career self-efficacy (CSE) aspect. There are a few theories related to individual career aspects, namely Life Span Theory (Super, 1957), Holland's Theory (Holland, 1959) and Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT). However, SCCT has been chosen as a theoretical base to explain the CSE based on the justifications addressed in this article.
... The relation between gender and vocational interests has been discussed extensively in the literature [5,12,20,25,27,[34][35][36]41]. Similarly to Lippa's work, some studies connected this with a broader idea of the connection between gender and personality traits [18,21,45]. ...
... For gender, findings indicated significant gender differences in pre-service teacher interest, in which male students reported higher levels of subject interest compared to females. Previous research has demonstrated considerable interest differences between the genders, providing evidence for example, that males are more interested in realistic academic fields such as mathematics (Frenzel et al., 2010;Hansen et al., 1993). A study by Eren (2012), also with a pre-service teacher sample, reported no significant gender differences between the three interest dimensions. ...
Interest has been considered an important determinant of teacher quality. However, research into teacher interest, and more specifically, pre-service teachers’ interest is limited. Hence, the current study tackled the current gaps in pre-service teachers’ interest and aimed to explore pre-service teachers’ interest profiles based on the multidimensional framework of teacher interest. A total of 225 pre-service teachers, enrolled in various initial teacher education programs of two universities in Germany, participated voluntarily in the study. The results revealed two distinct pre-service teachers’ profiles based on the three teacher interest factors. Interestingly, the two profiles did not significantly differ in their subject interest levels, but did vary in their didactic and educational interest. In addition, the findings also revealed gender and school track differences in pre-service teachers’ interests and profiles. Consequences for future research and teacher education are discussed in detail.
... Therefore, there is a reason to expect that male students will be characterized by a higher level of negational rationality. Given the gendered perspective on education, there are also arguments to expect a higher level of praxeological rationality among male than female students, while the opposite could be expected in the case of hermeneutical rationality [40][41][42]. There are no solid arguments to expect gender differences in the case of emancipatory rationality. ...
This paper introduces and empirically tests the model of tetragonal educational rationality that consists of four interrelated categories: hermeneutic, emancipatory, praxeological, and negational rationalities. Based on a large longitudinal study on primary and middle school students (total N = 1990), we investigated the psychometric properties of the Educational Rationalities Questionnaire (ERQ) and examined relevant correlates, antecedents and longitudinal consequences of the four rationalities. Confirmatory factor analysis corroborated the four-factor structure of the ERQ. Praxeological rationality was more prevalent than hermeneutic rationality, which was accepted more often than emancipatory and negational rationality. Structural equation modeling demonstrated that hermeneutic rationality was primarily driven by participants’ academic self-concept in their native language, as well as extraversion, neuroticism, and valuing creativity. Emancipatory rationality was linked to academic self-concept, valuing creativity, and agreeableness, while praxeological rationality was predicted by extraversion, school achievement, and valuing creativity. Finally, negational rationality was inversely linked with several individual characteristics: academic self-concept, agreeableness, and school achievement. Longitudinal analyses demonstrated that negational rationality was associated with lower grades and more negative emotions during lessons, while hermeneutic rationality was associated with school grades improvement. Emancipatory rationality was related to positive emotions felt during classes, yet negatively with grades. We discuss potential reasons and consequences of these findings.
... International research has shown that Holland's model of vocational personality types is mostly equally applicable to men and women (Darcy & Tracey, 2007;Hansen, Collins, Swanson, & Fouad, 1993;Holland, 1997). In South Africa there are inconsistent findings with research showing that Holland's model is not valid for men or women (du Toit & de Bruin, 2002), that his model is valid for women/ girls but is somewhat problematic for men/boys (Rabie, 2017), and that his model is equally valid for men and women (Morgan, de Bruin, & de Bruin, 2015b). ...
We investigated (a) the fit and structural equivalence of Holland’s model of six vocational personality types in a sample of South African men (n = 139) and women (n = 268) using the South African Career Interest Inventory, and (b) mean score differences for men and women on these types. The results supported the fit and structural similarity of Holland’s model of vocational personality types for men and women but showed that the model fit the data better for women. The largest differences in the mean scores occurred on the Realistic scale. Implications of the results are presented.
... These findings can further be considered in the context of a broader field of research dedicated to the structural (in)variance of interest models across gender. Previous studies on this topic have been inconclusive , with some reporting structural invariance across gender (e.g., Darcy & Tracey, 2007;Nagy et al., 2010), and others providing evidence for gender differences in the underlying structure of interests (e.g., Hansen, Collins, Swanson, & Fouad, 1993). In the present study, even in women, several fit indices showed good fit of the data with the circular model. ...
Choosing a suitable study program is an arduous process for many prospective students. Despite the bulk of information provided by institutions only 40% of enrolling students in Flanders pass all courses in the first year of higher education. Too many students fail in their first year because they are not ‘at place’. These students are in need of valid tools that help them choose a study program that maximally suits their interests and potential. This dissertation is aimed at describing the construction and validation of such an internet-based self-assessment tool, SIMON (Study capacities and Interest MONitor). An instrument such as SIMON needs to answer the two basic questions that prospective students are faced with when going through their study choice process: “what programs interest me?” and “will I be able to succeed?”. Therefore, the construction and validation of a new and context-specific interest tool is discussed that allows (prospective) students to answer the first basic question. The second question (will I be able to succeed?) is addressed by examining the predictive validity of a broad range of variables for tertiary academic achievement. The incremental predictive validity of background factors, cognitive skills and the non-cognitive factors of personality, self-efficacy, motivation, metacognition and test anxiety are examined in a large sample of students. Moreover, the differential predictive validity of these variables is examined across different tertiary education programs. This will allow (prospective) students to evaluate their capacities with reference to specific study programs. Still, answering these two questions is not necessarily enough to get (prospective) students ‘in the right place’. A key matter is whether they are activated by the feedback they receive from such an instrument. Therefore, attention is also devoted to the consequential validity of SIMON by examining the effect of receiving negative attainability feedback on career goal disengagement. It is concluded that SIMON can help students during their study choice process. Directions for future research and further development of SIMON are also addressed.
... These findings can be further considered in the context of a broader field of research dedicated to the structural (in)variance of interest models across gender. Previous studies on this topic have been inconclusive , with some reporting structural invariance across gender (e.g., Darcy & Tracey, 2007;Nagy et al., 2010), and others providing evidence for gender differences in the underlying structure of interests (e.g., Hansen, Collins, Swanson, & Fouad, 1993). In the present study, even in the female sample, several fit indices showed good fit of the data with the circular model. ...
A new, Holland-based Interest Inventory is proposed, intended to facilitate the transition from secondary to tertiary education. Specific interest items were designed to grasp activities that are prevalent during tertiary studies, including an Academic-track-scale to assist in the choice between academic and vocational-oriented programs. Interest profile descriptions are complemented by a list of matching study programs. Data from 3,962 students were analyzed to evaluate the underlying circumplex structure, the criterion validity of the Academic-track-scale and the study program RIASEC codes. It is concluded that the assessment and feedback tools are promising instruments to facilitate the transition to tertiary education.
... Holland's hexagonal model rests on two overlapping components: (a) the circular nature of interests and (b) the six types themselves. The validity examinations of the hexagonal model typically involve conjoint examination of each of these components (e.g., Hansen, Collins, Swanson, & Fouad, 1993;Rounds, in press;, 1993. By examining the six types and the circular arrangement aspects together, it is not possible to determine whether the circular arrangement of vocational interests would be valid if other scales were used. ...
Samples of high school (n = 370) and college (n = 223) students completed the Vocational Preference Inventory (J.L. Holland, 1985b) and the Inventory of Occupational Preference (IOP; T.J. Tracey & J. Rounds, in press). Their responses were examined with respect to whether they fit a uniform circular distribution. For both the high school and college samples, the individual interest items were uniformly arranged in a circle, indicating that there are no preferred points around the circle. Also, the 8 IOP octant scales and the 6 RIASEC scales (i.e., Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, and Conventional) fit the data equally well, indicating that the 6 RIASEC scales are only one of many scale configurations that will fit a circular ordering. The results confirm that vocational interests have a uniform distribution along a circle and that the number of scales used is a matter of convenience. The relative utility of 6 or 8 scales and viewing interests as a set of concentric circles are discussed.
... These studies by Rounds and Tracey, along with others in the last five years by Hansen, Collins, Swanson, and Fouad (1993), Khan, Alvi, and Kirkwood (1990), Prediger, Swaney, and Mau (1993), Care (1996), and Boyle and Farris (1992), confirm the existence of and efficiency of a circular structure with occupations ordered in the manner Holland and colleagues (1993) described. The structure appears in studies of women and men and has regular distances between and among types that are characteristic of a circumplex. ...
We have come to realize that the old arguments about whether heredity or environment—nature or nurture—is the cause of human individuality are irrelevant. A human individual repre-sents an interaction of unique genetic endowment with a unique course of development. It is a complex, non-additive process. Leona Tyler, 1995, p. 2 Most social scientists would agree that major features of the physical and social environment affect the behavior of inhabitants. These environmental characteristics mediate not only the behavior of indi-viduals but the behavior of subcultures and societies over long time periods (Diamond, 1999). That the larger physical world affects behavior has been obvious for some time to environmental psychol-ogists (Altman, 1975; Garling, 1998; Proshansky, Ittelson, & Rivlin, 1976), colleagues in environmental health (Moeller, 1997), geogra-phy (Diamond, 1999), architecture (Gallagher, 1999; Hall, 1966; Nasar, 2000; Sommer, 1969), urban planning (Duany & Plater-Zyberk, 1992), and engineering (Zmeureanu & Marceau, 1999). The reader would readily acknowledge that behavior in a bustling urban neighborhood differs substantially from that on a sun-drenched beach or in a serene mountain setting. When we study an individual, we also study the context in which that individual lives and interacts.
... Indeed, gender mean differences in RIASEC interests found in our data (Table 5) fully correspond to theoretical expectations (Holland, 1997) and previous empirical findings obtained on non-pictorial measures (e.g. Anderson, Tracey, & Rounds, 1997;Darcy, 2005;Hansen, Collins, Swanson, & Fouad, 1993;Holland, 1997;Šverko, 2008;Šverko, Akik, Babarović, Brčina, & Šverko, 2002;Tracey, 2002). Moreover, the effect size of gender differences (Cohen's d) is mainly the same or even somewhat lower than those obtained on our earlier data where verbal Holland-type instruments were used (e.g. ...
... But what are these traditional roles, and how do they become reflected in preferences? Preferences have been conceptualized as different weights placed on career and family compatibility (England 2005;Frehill 1997;Hakim 2002), differences in intrinsic and extrinsic motivations that alter the attractiveness of particular careers (Beutel and Marini 1995;Bobbitt-Zeher 2007;Bridges 1989;Davies and Guppy 1997;Konrad et al. 2000;Johnson 2001;Marini et al. 1996), and different interests in working with people as opposed to physical objects and abstract concepts (Barone 2011;Eccles 2007;Hansen et al. 1993;Lippa 1998). Women also have been found to be less likely than men to cluster in fields with higher economic returns (Davies and Guppy 1997;Wilson and Boldizar 1990), perhaps because they are less likely to view work as their primary adult role (Eccles and Hoffman 1984), because of gender differences in the actual or perceived earnings potential associated with different majors, or because of gender differences in the way different majors are linked to different occupations. ...
Numerous theories have been put forward for the high and continuing levels of gender segregation in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields, but research has not systematically examined the extent to which these theories for the gender gap are consistent with actual trends. Using both administrative data and four separate longitudinal studies sponsored by the U.S. Department of Education's National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), we evaluate several prominent explanations for the persisting gender gap in STEM fields related to mathematics performance and background and general life goals, and find that none of them are empirically satisfactory. Instead, we suggest that the structure of majors and their linkages to professional training and careers may combine with gender differences in educational goals to influence the persisting gender gap in STEM fields. An analysis of gendered career aspirations, course-taking patterns, and pathways to medical and law school supports this explanation.
... International research has shown that Holland's model of vocational personality types is mostly equally applicable to men and women (Darcy & Tracey, 2007;Hansen, Collins, Swanson, & Fouad, 1993;Holland, 1997). In South Africa there are inconsistent findings with research showing that Holland's model is not valid for men or women (du Toit & de Bruin, 2002), that his model is valid for women/ girls but is somewhat problematic for men/boys (Rabie, 2017), and that his model is equally valid for men and women (Morgan, de Bruin, & de Bruin, 2015b). ...
This study examines the relationships of the personality traits of conscientiousness and excitement seeking with self-reported frequency of premeditated cheating in tests and exams among university students. The results show that the two traits combine to account for a statistically and practically significant proportion of variance in academic cheating. It appears that a lack of effort and a need for high excitement seeking may serve as predisposing traits with regard to academic cheating. A model of the role that the two traits may play in explaining academic cheating is presented.
... Gender differences in interests have been the focal point of considerable research (e.g., Hansen, Collins, Swanson, & Fouad, 1993) because of the role they play in occupational gender segregation, such as in the STEM (science, technology, engineering and math) disciplines (Ceci & Williams, 2010). In a meta-analysis of the literature, Su et al. (2009) found that females reported greater social (d ϭ 0.68, K ϭ 80, lower 95% CI ϭ .62, ...
In some cultures, individuals are free to pursue careers that match their personalities. In others, familial and societal expectations regarding career paths may restrict the links between individual personality and interests. Gender role expectations also may vary across cultures and may be associated with gender differences in interests. Past meta-analytic research has shown some career interests are related to personality traits (Barrick, Mount, & Gupta, 2003; Larson, Rottinghaus, & Borgen, 2002), but the cross-cultural variation of these relationships has not been sufficiently explored. Interest and personality data were obtained from an archival data set of 391,485 individuals from 20 countries. Results indicated that in cultures with high in-group collectivism, connections between personality traits and occupational interests may be less pronounced. Cultural gender egalitarianism moderated the level of gender differences in interests, unexpectedly demonstrating that gender differences may be wider in egalitarian cultures. Implications for career guidance in multicultural settings are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2013 APA, all rights reserved).
... The lack of sex differences in the fit of Circumplex 1 (the one occupying the same plane as Holland's RIASEC scales) runs counter to some of the past research examining structural differences in RIASEC scales across the sexes (e.g., Hansen, Collins, Swanson, & Fouad, 1993). However, other studies have found no differences (e.g., . ...
We report the development, examination, and replication of a spherical structure of vocational interests. A sample of 266 undergraduate students were asked to give their preferences to a sample of 229 occupational titles. The principal components analysis conducted on the item level responses supported the presence of the prestige component in addition to the general, people/things, and data/ideas components typically associated with interest data. Twenty-four subscales were created for geometrically defined combinations of the prestige, people/things, and data/ideas components and these subscales were found to lie on the surface of the sphere. This spherical representation was then examined on independent samples of college (N= 223) and high school students (N= 370). Strong support was yielded for the structure.
... Adjacent types are assumed to be more similar in interests and vocational pursuits than opposite types. Although not perfectly symmetrical, the generally circular order of the six types has been confirmed in multiple studies (Boyle & Fabris, 1992;Care, 1996;Hansen, Collins, Swanson, & Fouad, 1993;Khan, Alvi, & Kirkwood, 1990;Prediger, Swaney, & Mau, 1993). The hexagon shape and RIASEC mnemonic have a utilitarian value for practice (Reardon & Lenz, 1998). ...
Federal and state mandates require all high school students to select a high school major area of interest. This includes students with disabilities, regardless of the type of diploma they are seeking or what is being taught in the Exceptional Student Education programs in which they are participating. These mandates present a challenge to educational programs that do not include transition planning in the students with disabilities coursework. To assist students with disabilities being served in special diploma settings in determining a high school major area of interest along with implementing self-determination strategies, a career counseling intervention was warranted in “Eastcoast,” Florida.
This study investigated the implementation of a transition portfolio intervention on students with disabilities making informed choices of high school majors and career choices. The study utilized a nonequivalent group’s pretest and posttest design to assess between-group and within-group changes in career choices. The study used the Holland Self-Directed Search to determine students’ areas of career interest and whether these scores compared to the students’ high school major choice. Participants in both the intervention and comparison groups completed activities. In addition, as a social validation measure, students in both groups were asked about their perceptions in their self-determination skills at the end of the study by completing the American Institutes for Research Self-Determination Assessment.
To determine if any change occurred in high school major choices for students with disabilities, how aligned their career choices were as compared to their chosen major, and their perceived level of self determination; data were collected from a sample of 43 students. All selected students were 18 years or older, working toward a Special Option One diploma, and receiving instruction in high school settings that offered similar Exceptional Student Education programs. The treatment group, 26 participants, was served at High School I, and the control group, 17 participants, received services from High School C. The intervention lasted one semester.
The findings from the ANOVA related to congruence measures for students with disabilities choosing a high school major, congruence measures on the Self-Directed Search, consistency levels on the Self-Directed Search, differentiation scores on the Self-Directed Search, and self-reported feelings of empowerment were insignificant. Upon looking further within the separate groups, there were several trends that showed the treatment group’s mean scores on the research questions were moving in the expected way. Also, many students reported high levels of self determination, meaning they knew what they liked and what they were good at.
Limitations of the study were reviewed, including the low number of participating students and short period of time the intervention took place. Recommendations were made for consideration in encouraging students with disabilities to be included actively in decision making related to their education. Further research considerations were reviewed.
Although the overall findings of this research were not statistically significant, schools, teachers, and administrative teams should respect the career choices of students and use these choices to plan transition services that match the preferences and interests of these students. This study demonstrated that students know themselves better than anyone else and should be actively included in selecting educational programs that will enhance their education.
... Research on structural differences across gender has yielded ambiguous results. Hansen, Collins, Swanson and Fouad (1993) concluded that the structure of interest is different for men and women. The opposite conclusion of no gender difference in interest structures was reached by Rounds (in press) and by Tracey and Rounds (1993). ...
Ninety-eight Bolivian university students completed the Spanish version of Holland's Self-Directed Search. The fit of three different structural models of vocational interest (Holland's [1973] circumplex, Gati's [1979] three group partition, and Rounds and Tracey's [in press] three group partition) were fit to the correlations among the RIASEC scales using the randomization test of hypothesized order relations (Hubert & Arabie, 1987). Nonsignificant probabilities and low correspondence indices were obtained for all three models. These results indicate poor model fit, suggesting that none of these models adequately characterize the structure of vocational interests of the Bolivian students sampled. Multidimensional scaling was used to depict the structure of the Bolivian sample's vocational interests in two dimensions.
... Other studies, which investigated gender differences in Holland's RIASeC (realistic, investigating, artistic, social, enterprising, conventional) typology (Holland, 1985(Holland, , 1997, also revealed differences in the vocational interests of men and women. Women tend to be interested in the artistic, social, and conventional fields, whereas men tend to be interested in the realistic, investigating, and enterprising fields (Hansen & Campbell, 1985;Hansen, Collins, Swanson, & Fouad, 1993;Holland & gottfredson, 1976;Low & Rounds, 2007;Moore & Ollenburger, 1986). ...
The present study compared gender differences in directly reported and indirectly derived career preferences and tested the hypothesis that individuals' implicit preferences would show less gender-biased occupational choices than their directly elicited ones. Two hundred sixty-six visitors to a career-related Internet site were asked to (a) list 5 to 10 suitable occupations (the directly reported list) and (b) report their preferences in terms of 31 career-related aspects. The latter were used to produce a short list of promising occupational alternatives (the indirectly derived list), using the occupational database of an Internet-based career planning system. Each occupation in the database rated for sex dominance. The findings indicated that the sex dominance ratings of the occupations on the directly reported list accorded with the participants' gender for both men and women: Men's lists included mostly “masculine” occupations, whereas women's lists included mostly “feminine” occupations. This gender bias was significantly lower for the implicit lists. The difference between the directly reported and the indirectly derived lists was larger for women than for men, suggesting that the impact of stereotypes is more pronounced in women's than in men's directly reported career preferences.
This study examined the structure of Holland’s personality model (HPM) among male and female South Korean college students using the Korean version of the Self-Directed Search (K-SDS) and investigated gender differences in the circular structure of HPM and circular plots of the K-SDS subscales (i.e., activities, competences, vocations, and self-estimates). The study outcomes were as follows: Our findings supported the validity of HPM among Korean college freshmen. However, there were gender differences in the fit between the data and the circular ordering model. Also, the differences in the realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising, and conventional (RIASEC) circular plots and the magnitude of the correlations among the RIASEC types across the four subscales and gender were found. These results suggest that practitioners should cautiously interpret and communicate the results of the SDS to college students considering cultural and gender specificity. Implications and limitations of the present research are discussed.
Where students participate in guidance programs of which interest measurement is a component, careers counsellors often tend to base their initial intervention approach on the inventory results, Some students do not respond positively to this approach. It is suggested that this may occur particularly when students’ direct statements of occupational preference and their inventoried interests are at odds. Whether particular groups of students may be predisposed by virtue of their interest orientation to this condition is investigated. The extent to which a sample of Year 10 students express preference for occupations which are not congruent with their measured interests is analysed within the context of Holland personality/interest groups. Results imply that students who display interest in non-traditional areas are more likely to express incongruent occupational aspirations.
This article provides a summary and critique of the technical development of the Campbell Interest and Skill Survey. Competent use of any psychological assessment requires a thorough study of the manual and technical information However, the reality is that many counselors will not take the time to review exhaustively detailed manuals, for example, the Manual for the Campbell Interest and Skill Survey (hereinafter referred to as CISS Manual; Campbell, Hyne, & Nilsen, 1992). For that reason, this article provides a condensed summary of the technical development as well as a critique of the CISS Manual.
In this study the authors examined the applicability of Holland's hexagonal model of interests to Chicana(o)/Latina(o) samples using multidimensional scaling and a test of the hypothesized order relations.
While powerful gender inequalities remain in American society, women have made substantial gains and now largely surpass men in one crucial arena: education. Women now outperform men academically at all levels of school, and are more likely to obtain college degrees and enroll in graduate school. What accounts for this enormous reversal in the gender education gap? In The Rise of Women: The Growing Gender Gap in Education and What It Means for American Schools, Thomas DiPrete and Claudia Buchmann provide a detailed and accessible account of women's educational advantage and suggest new strategies to improve schooling outcomes for both boys and girls.The Rise of Women opens with a masterful overview of the broader societal changes that accompanied the change in gender trends in higher education. The rise of egalitarian gender norms and a growing demand for college-educated workers allowed more women to enroll in colleges and universities nationwide. As this shift occurred, women quickly reversed the historical male advantage in education. By 2010, young women in their mid-twenties surpassed their male counterparts in earning college degrees by more than eight percentage points. The authors, however, reveal an important exception: While women have achieved parity in fields such as medicine and the law, they lag far behind men in engineering and physical science degrees. To explain these trends, The Rise of Women charts the performance of boys and girls over the course of their schooling. At each stage in the education process, they consider the gender-specific impact of factors such as families, schools, peers, race and class. Important differences emerge as early as kindergarten, where girls show higher levels of essential learning skills such as persistence and self-control. Girls also derive more intrinsic gratification from performing well on a day-to-day basis, a crucial advantage in the learning process. By contrast, boys must often navigate a conflict between their emerging masculine identity and a strong attachment to school. Families and peers play a crucial role at this juncture. The authors show the gender gap in educational attainment between children in the same families tends to be lower when the father is present and more highly educated. A strong academic climate, both among friends and at home, also tends to erode stereotypes that disconnect academic prowess and a healthy, masculine identity. Similarly, high schools with strong science curricula reduce the power of gender stereotypes concerning science and technology and encourage girls to major in scientific fields. As the value of a highly skilled workforce continues to grow, The Rise of Women argues that understanding the source and extent of the gender gap in higher education is essential to improving our schools and the economy. With its rigorous data and clear recommendations, this volume illuminates new ground for future education policies and research.
(Résumé français ci-dessous).
In France, the expression “career education” has been translated (under the impetus of the Ministry of Education) by “éducation à l’orientation” (“education for orientation”). However, while “carrière” is perfectly equivalent to “career”, “orientation” is not. This word primarily evokes selection at school and then refers to the action of giving one's active life a direction. Hence a suspicion: has career education become in French high schools an “education of choices” (an expression that is sometimes encountered) aimed at making students accept the “orientation decisions” (“orientation” meaning in this case: "selection" and "streaming") taken by the teachers’ board? However, beside that, what might be an “education for orientation” which, by preparing young people to give direction to their active lives, would allow them to face the challenges of the 21st century? These questions formed the heart of the debates at an international conference (500 participants from 15 countries) organized in Paris by INETOP (National Institute for the Study of Work and Vocational Guidance), from 24 to 26 May 2000. The journal “L’Orientation Scolaire et Professionnelle” published the following year a special issue containing the main interventions in the form of articles. The attached paper recaptures the introductory speech. It first traces three key moments in the development of “education for orientation” in France. First, the pioneering work of the 1950s by Antoine Léon and his collaborators. Then, the impulses for career education from the States (with Edwin L. Herr and Kenneth B. Hoyt). And, finally, the major impact of the Quebec ADVP movement (Activation of Vocational and Personal Development by Denis Pelletier, Charles Bujold and Gilles Noiseux, who referred to Donald Super). How to explain this success of “education for orientation” at the end of the 20th century, when the works of Léon and his collaborators went almost unnoticed in the middle of the century? Several factors can be mentioned: an ideology that values individual success in an open society, mass education and the construction of school systems with complex architecture, changes in the organization of work, professional functions and the globalization of employment, etc. Methods of “education for orientation” in use rarely explain their final purposes: do they aim to make future workers adaptable and flexible, to allow optimal self-development, to regulate student flows, to promote social integration? The scientific foundations of these educational programs are often fragile. Most of them have never been rigorously assessed. Nevertheless, those who were, proved to achieve some of their pedagogical objectives (students have a finer and more differentiated view of the trades, a more diversified and school decentered image of themselves, etc.). Two studies however show that such activities, conducted in class by teachers, result in a drop in the level of aspiration of pupils from modest backgrounds.///
RESUME.
En France, l’expression « career education » a été traduite (sous l’impulsion du Ministère de l’Education Nationale) par « éducation à l’orientation » (« éducation for orientation »). Cependant, alors que « carrière » est parfaitement équivalent à « career », « orientation » ne l’est pas. Ce mot évoque primordialement la sélection à l'école, puis renvoie à l'action de donner une direction à sa vie active. D’où un soupçon : l’éducation à la carrière serait-elle devenue dans les collèges et lycées français une « éducation des choix » (expression que l’on rencontre parfois) visant à faire accepter par les élèves les « décisions d’orientation » (au sens de sélection) des conseils de classe ? Néanmoins, que pourrait être une « éducation à l’orientation » qui, en préparant les jeunes à donner une direction à leur vie active, leur permettrait d’affronter les défis du 21ème siècle ? Ces questions formèrent le cœur des débats d’une conférence internationale (500 participants venant de 15 pays) qu’organisa l’Institut National d’Etude du Travail et d’Orientation Professionnelle, du 24 au 26 mai 2000, à Paris. La revue « l’Orientation Scolaire et Professionnelle » publia l’année suivante un numéro hors-série reprenant les principales interventions sous forme d’articles. Le texte attaché est celui de la conférence plénière qui introduisit la conférence. Il retrace d’abord trois moments-clés du développement de « l’éducation à l’orientation » en France : les travaux princeps des années 1950 d’Antoine Léon et de ses collaborateurs, les impulsions pour une éducation à la carrière en provenance des Etats (avec Edwin L. Herr et Kenneth B. Hoyt) et l’impact majeur du mouvement québécois de l’Activation du Développement Vocationnel et Personnel (de Denis Pelletier, Charles Bujold et Gilles Noiseux, qui se référaient à Donald Super). Comment expliquer ce succès de l’éducation à l’orientation à la fin du 20ème siècle, alors que les ouvrages de Léon et de ses collaborateurs passèrent presque inaperçus au milieu du siècle ? Plusieurs facteurs peuvent être évoqués : une idéologie valorisant la réussite individuelle dans une société ouverte, la scolarisation de masse et la construction de systèmes scolaires à l'architecture complexe, les transformations de l'organisation du travail, des fonctions professionnelles et la mondialisation de l'emploi, etc. Les méthodes d’éducation en orientation en usage explicitent rarement leurs finalités : visent-elles à rendre les futurs travailleurs adaptables et flexibles, à permettre un développement optimal de soi, à réguler les flux d’élèves, à favoriser l'intégration socié¬tale ? Les fondements scientifiques de ces programmes éducatifs sont souvent fragiles. La plupart d'entre eux n'ont jamais été rigoureusement évalués. Néanmoins, ceux qui le furent s'avèrent atteindre certains de leurs objectifs pédagogiques (les élèves ont une vision plus fine et différenciée des métiers, une image d'eux-mêmes plus diversifiée et décentrée de l’école, etc.). Deux études montrent cependant que de telles activités, conduites en classe par des enseignants, se traduisent par une baisse du niveau d'aspiration des élèves de milieu modeste.
The aim of the present investigation is to examine key aspects regarding the validity of the spherical model of vocational interests in Germany, namely, its structural validity, its convergent validity—with an instrument assessing vocational interests according to the RIASEC (R—Realistic, I—Investigative, A—Artistic, S—Social, E—Enterprising, and C—Conventional) model—and its construct validity regarding the pattern of gender differences. To this end, the Personal Globe Inventory (PGI) was translated and completed by a sample of German university students. Results of randomization tests of hypothesized order relations provided support for the structural validity of the instrument in female and male university students. Principal components analyses with target rotations identified two particular scales as outliers. RIASEC scores derived from the PGI correlated strongly with corresponding scales of another instrument, and gender differences were in line with previous findings reported in the literature. Overall, our results provide evidence for the validity of the spherical model in German university students.
This chapter reviews and integrates the literature on the psychology and measurement of interests. Following consideration of different definitions of interests, it offers a working definition. It then presents and briefly discusses many of the major interest assessment measures, some of them among the most longest-lived and psychometrically sophisticated in psychology. General findings and themes on the reliability and validity of interest assessments are considered, along with possible group differences in interest preferences. Interests are then placed in a broader context through examination of the relationships between interests and other domains, especially personality and ability. The chapter concludes with a discussion of needed research.Keywords:assessment;Holland's Interest Theory;interdomain model;interest inventories;interests;O*Net;Strong Vocational Interest Blank;RIASEC;testing;UNIACT
This article reviews literature published in 1993 that is of interest and use to career counselors. Topical areas include definitions of career counseling, descriptions of and outcome research on career assessment and intervention methods, career counseling issues and techniques of particular relevance to women and members of various special groups, and counseling with persons making career transitions.
This study examined whether the vocational interests of Asian Americans, Middle-Eastern Americans, and Native Americans, as measured by the 2005 Strong Interest Inventory (SII), followed Holland’s (1997) calculus hypotheses for a RIASEC ordering. The structures of interests of these three racial/ethnic groups were examined for fit with two structural models: (1) a less-stringent model requiring a circular RIASEC ordering and (2) a more stringent model requiring equal distances between adjacent interest types. Individuals who completed the 2005 Strong Interest Inventory were included in the sample (N = 22,394), and the overall sample was divided between racial/ethnic groups, gender, and professional status (i.e. student and employed adults). Results from randomization tests of hypothesized order and circular unidimensional scaling analyses found a circular RIASEC order is applicable to Asian American, Middle-Eastern American and Native American students and employed adults, regardless of gender, when measured by the 2005 Strong Interest Inventory. Results from this study indicate that the current version of the Strong Interest Inventory measures vocational interests in a manner that strongly aligns with Holland’s calculus hypothesis for both men and women.
Examining vocational interests is a central component of career counseling; yet, little research has investigated structural differences for specific subpopulations or the role of cultural factors on vocational interests. The purpose of this study was to examine the structure of interests, congruence between expressed and measured interests, and the relationship between contextual factors, congruence, and vocational interests for South Asian Americans. Circular unidimensional scaling analyses examined the structural nature of interests for females and males and found a better fit with Holland’s model for South Asian American females when compared to males. Correlation and multiple regression analyses found that contextual variables, such as acculturation, cultural values, and gender did not predict congruence but did predict vocational interest themes. Gender, acculturation, and individualistic and collectivistic cultural values predicted Realistic and Social interests.
Tracey and Rounds (this issue) have used sequential scale construction and sophisticated statistical packages to validate and extend earlier research on the structure of interests and on the impact of prestige on vocational interests. Their results, while intriguing from a scientific and theoretical perspective, probably are too complex to be implemented in career counseling sessions with clients who are engaged in making career decisions.
A significant proportion of the earnings gap between men and women is attributable to occupational sex segregation and the concentration of women in relatively low-paying occupations, but we do not yet know why women continue to be employed disproportionately in lesser-paying occupations. I attempt to explain the sex gap in the relationship between average occupational earnings and occupational attainment by modeling occupational placement among a nationally representative sample of college-educated new labor force entrants. I test empirical predictions derived from supply- and demand-side theories of occupational sex segregation using a conditional logit model, strong controls for human capital investments, and a set of occupational characteristic measures that extends beyond those used in previous research. The results of this analysis show that sex differences in college major explain 11–17% of the sex gap in the likelihood of employment in relatively high-paying occupations. However, even among recent labor force entrants who have very similar human capital investments, i.e., college graduates with the same majors, women and men enter different types of occupations. The sex differences in the distribution of workers across occupational characteristics, coupled with the differential remuneration of the influential characteristics explains an additional 41% of the sex gap in the attainment of relatively lucrative occupational placement.
Ethical assessment practices require practitioners to examine assessments in terms of their appropriateness for male and female clients. This article explores gender differences on career assessments in the areas of individual differences and career choice process with a focus on ethical implications for gender-sensitive career assessments. Although the focus of this discussion is on career assessment with women, the suggestions also apply to male clients. Recommendations for gendersensitive career assessment and interpretation are provided.
Career interests and self-efficacy (using J. L. Holland's realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising, and conventional types for both) and the big five personality dimensions (openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism) were used to predict college students' career exploration behaviors approximately 18 months later. Among 113 college students, none of the predictors was associated with subsequent environmental exploration. However, after controlling for gender and year in school, five of six interest types, one self-efficacy type, and two personality dimensions were associated with subsequent self-exploration. Whereas realistic, artistic, and conventional interests; artistic self-efficacy; and openness were positively associated with self-exploration, investigative and enterprising interests and extraversion were negatively associated with such exploration. Implications for theory, research, and intervention are presented.
Assessment of cultural differences in the structures of vocational interests assumes metric and translation equivalence of interest measures used for culturally diverse populations. The present study examines the adequacy of the Spanish translation of Holland's (1990) Self-Directed Search-Easy (SDS-E) using back-translation procedures and structural analyses. The most recent revision of the English-language SDS-E and, separated by a 1-week interval, the back-translated (Spanish to English) version of the SDS-E developed for this study were completed by 145 undergraduates. Analyses using the randomization test of hypothesized orders (Hubert & Arabie, 1987) indicated that Holland's model adequately fit both the SDS-E and back-translated scale (Bktran) scores of this sample and that the model fit the Bktran data significantly better than it fit the SDS-E data. For both instruments, Holland's model fit the scores of the men (n = 73) significantly better than it fit the women's (n = 70) scores. This observed gender difference accounted for the superior fit of the full Bktran data matrix to Holland's model, because a significant difference in model-data fit was observed only for the female subsample. These results suggest that the Spanish version is an adequate translation of the SDS Form E, but that Holland's model fits less well for women.
Interest measurement approaches to guidance are often used in Australian schools. These approaches assume that the measures are relevant to Australians, that the students are sufficiently mature to express interests that have some degree of stability, and that these interests will bear some relationship to the futures of the students. To investigate the truth of these assumptions, eight cohorts (i.e., groups) of female secondary school students completed the Career Assessment Inventory (CAI; Johansson, 1982). Data were collected 3 years later for each cohort, together with college course desti nations. Multidimensional scaling (MDS) was used to investigate the structure of interests of the students within groups identified by course destination. A three-dimensional solution indicates a strong relationship between interests and course destination using Holland's (1985) vocational theory and an empirical course cluster typology (Elsworth, Harvey-Beavis, Gilding, & Briant, 1986).
This is the first biannual review of research for the Journal of Career Assessment. A selective review, this article covers the 2- year period, 1993-1994. Seven inclusion criteria were employed in an effort to reduce the extensive literature by up to 50%. Principal topics were: The origin, structure, and nature of vocational interests; Career indecision; Culture and career assessment; Gender and career assessment; and Tests as tools: What should we teach graduate students? Several conclusions were drawn from this review. The proportion of vocational interests that can be attributed to genetic sources is apparently greater than was previously believed. Further, interests may be broad constructs if strong correlations between interests and personality continue to be found. Repeated confirmation of the circular arrangement of interests is leading to three-dimensional (spherical) models of interests. The introduction of one new, and three revised, interest inventories is testimony to the future viability of vocational interests as diagnostic and treatment devices. Career decision appears to have a strong neurotic component, but our understanding of the nature of indecision is limited by a failure to relate this area to basic decision science. Research on culture and gender in career development continues at a high rate. Finally, questions are raised about the adequacy of vocational assessment training in graduate programs. A call is made for more systematic theoretical work in vocational assessment and for a closer link to interventions.
The purpose of this article is to provide an overview of issues related to using career assessment with African-American clients. We first discuss the philosophy and practice of career assessment, and present an expanded view of assessment. In the second section, we outline general issues in career counseling with African-American clients, including topics to explore in career counseling and the role of the counselor's and client's racial identity attitudes. The third section consists of specific issues in using career assessment with African-American clients, such as how race and racial identity attitudes might influence the process of assessment, and psychometric and theoretical issues in using career assessment instruments. The final section offers some directions for future research and practice regarding career assessment.
This study examined the correspondence between two models of personality structure, both of which purport to be comprehensive: Holland's (1992) vocational personality typology and the five-factor model. In this research, 102 female and 91 male college students completed the Self-Directed Search (SDS; Holland, 1985a) and the NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI; Costa & McCrae, 1985). Results of canonical analyses revealed two dimensions to which SDS and NEO-PI variable sets were related for both females and males; however, the nature of the dimension pairs differed by gender. For females, significant overlap between SDS and NEO-PI domains was represented by a dimension characterized by a Nonpersonal Orientation at one pole and an Interpersonal Orientation at the other pole, and a Closedness-Openness dimension. For males, overlap between the two domains was explained by Closedness-Openness and Introversion-Extraversion dimensions. Results generally were consistent with theoretical definitions of the Big-Five personality dimensions, as well as the trait characterizations of the six Holland types. Results also revealed associations of Prediger's (1982) Data/Ideas and Things/People with the Closedness-Openness and Nonpersonal-Interpersonal dimensions, respectively.
The primary purpose of this research was to examine the vocational structure for Korean college students based on Holland’s hexagon theory. The secondary purpose of this research was to provide validity data for using the Korean Strong Interest Inventory in Korea. With a sample of 829 Korean college students, using the Strong Interest Inventory 1994 version in Korean, the results showed that there was an overall significant difference between male and female students. There were good fits of Holland’s circular order model to the data for both male and female groups. Both male and female Korean students had similar fit indices in their size.
This article summarizes problems entailed in the use of ability measures and interest inventories with women clients. Several purposes of assessment are reviewed, followed by types of bias in tests and inventories and the responses of test publishers to these issues. Finally, guidelines for counselors in the use and interpretation of these measures with women clients are summarized.
In 1987, Hubert and Arabie proposed a randomization test of hypothesized order relations, and this has been operationalized in the Microsoft FORTRAN RANDALL program. This program enables the evaluation of the fit of any pattern model to a data matrix of similarities or dissimilarities. The exact probability of the model-data fit exceeding chance (as defined by a random relabeling of the rows and columns of the data matrix) is provided. This program is especially valuable in the evaluation of circumplex models of data as found in color perception, vocational interests, and interpersonal behavior.
This article reviews the position of women in the UK labour market and the increasing complexity of their employment patterns. It criticises current career theory for girls and women and examines enhancers and inhibitors of women's career development. Finally, some promising developments in theory-building for girls and women are briefly discussed, together with some implications for practice.
We critically review Holland's structural hypotheses to provide a framework for discussing the task of evaluating vocational interest models. Two forms of Holland's RIASEC model are proposed and the predictions from these models are specified. Holland's circular order model and circumplex structure are then evaluated to demonstrate Hubert and Arabie's randomization test of hypothesized order relations and confirmatory factor analysis. These models and methods are illustrated with two RIASEC correlation matrices based on the Unisex edition of the ACT Interest Inventory. Finally, we briefly discuss issues of model comparison and methods to integrate the empirical literature on interest structure.
This review summarizes and evaluates the use of multidimensional scaling in vocational psychology. Multidimensional scaling applications are found in two primary areas: vocational interests and occupational perceptions. These areas correspond to the two major uses of multidimensional scaling: configural verifica tion and dimensional identification. Two issues—the relationship between multidimensional scaling and al ternative data analytic methods, and the selection of occupational stimuli—are discussed. A number of de veloping areas for the application of multidimensional scaling are identified.
Administered Holland's Vocational Preference Inventory to 373 undergraduates. The 11 scales of the inventory were intercorrelated and factor analyzed. 6 common factors were obtained: (a) Conventional Economic, (b) Feminine, Social, (c) Social Desirability, (d) Material World Orientation, (e) Status, and (f) Artistic. The distances between each pair of the 6 personality types in the 6-dimensional space defined by the common factors were computed and compared with Holland's 1971 hexagonal model of the relationships among the 6 types. The placement of the 6 personality types in 6-dimensional space by the factor analysis corresponded closely to Holland's model. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
116 of the 162 Occupational scales of the 1981 revision of the Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory (SCII) were constructed with new criterion samples. This study (a) assessed the concurrent and predictive validity of the revised SCII and explored its usefulness for predicting college majors (Exp I) and (b) examined the differential effect of stable and unstable interests during college on the validity of the SCII (Exp II). Data were analyzed for 354 females and 261 males who completed the SCII as college freshmen; 81% were still enrolled in school at the time of this study. Results indicate that the revised SCII can be used to predict college majors, having concurrent and predictive validity comparable to previous forms of the SCII. It was slightly more predictive for females than for males. Findings also show that the majority of Ss had stable interests during their college careers. The revised SCII was significantly more predictive of college majors for Ss who were satisfied with their majors or who had stable interests than it was for those who were dissatisfied or had unstable interests. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
We discuss the task of evaluating conjectures of order within proximity matrices in connection with an inappropriate inference procedure proposed by Wakefield and Doughtie and subsequently adopted by other authors. This strategy is criticized and a different method based on randomization is proposed. An example from Holland's theory of personality types is used throughout this article for illustration. Finally, we develop the testing of two competing theoretical conjectures against a given proximity matrix as a natural extension of evaluating one such hypothesis. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Compared the internal structural relationships of scales from the svib, the kuder occupational interest survey, holland's vocational preference inventory, the minnesota vocational interest inventory, and the american college testing program vocational interest profile. The configurations of the scales for all the inventories were found to be similar and to conform to the circular configurations of interest proposed by A. Roe and J. Holland. The common configuration of vocational interests was used to reconcile previous contradictory research results about the comparability of interest scores from various instruments and as a basis for counselor interpretation. (33 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The purpose of this study was to investigate two hypotheses. The first stated that the structure of interests was similar across two cultures (United States and Mexico) using two levels (students and professionals) of males in a single occupation (engineering). Thus, holding occupation and gender constant, the cross-cultural similarity of the structure of interests was examined. Support was found for this hypothesis. The second hypothesis investigated three forms of Holland's calculus assumption concerning the specific structure of the six occupational themes. Holland's calculus assumption states that the distance between all adjacent occupational types (e.g., RI) is less than the distance between all alternate types (e.g., RA) which, in turn, is less than the distance between all opposite types (e.g., RS). A more stringent form assumes that the six themes form the vertices of an equilateral hexagon, while a weaker form merely asserts that the structure of the occupational themes is circular. The calculus assumption was supported, thereby also supporting the assumption of a circular structure. Evidence in support of an equilateral hexagonal structure was not found.
The research by Fouad and Dancer, Swanson, and Prediger and Vansickle—each using an impressive data set and a rigorous research design—contributes to the existing literature on the structure of interests. Fouad and Dancer and Swanson's results provide evidence that the Holland RIASEC-order hypothesis is robust across cultures. Analogous to the construct of values, the construct of interests appears to have a broad pattern of structural similarity across cultures in concert with specific sample differences that reflect the individual differences of cultures. These specific sample differences call into question the calculus assumption on which Holland's congruence construct is based. Prediger and Vansickle's Hexagon Congruence Index, however, may offer an alternative to existing methods of congruence assessment that circumvents the calculus assumption.
Holland uses a hexagon to model relationships among his six types of vocational interests. This paper provides empirical evidence regarding the nature of the interest dimensions underlying the hexagon. Two studies are reported. Study 1 examines the extent to which two theory-based dimensions—data/ideas and things/people—fit 27 sets of intercorrelations for Holland's types. Three of the data sets involve the mean scores of career groups (total of 228 groups and 35,060 individuals); 24 involve the scores for individuals (total of 11,275). Study 2 explores the heuristic value of the data/ideas and things/people dimensions by determining whether they contribute to the understanding of why interest inventories work. Two data sets covering a total of 563 occupations are used to calculate correlations between the vocational interests of persons and the tasks which characterize the persons' occupations. Each occupation's principal work tasks are determined from job analysis data obtained from the U.S. Department of Labor. Study 1 results provide substantial support for the theory-based dimensions. Study 2 results suggest that interest inventories “work” primarily because they tap activity preferences which parallel work tasks. Counseling and research applications of the data/ideas and things/people dimensions are suggested and implications for interest assessment are noted.
Using a multidimensional scaling procedure, the present study examined the fit of Holland's RIASEC hexagon model to the internal relationships among the Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory (SCII) General Occupational Theme scales. SCII intercorrelation matrices for both sexes as reported in the SCII Manual were submitted, separately for each sex, to TORSCA 9 nonmetric scaling analysis. The Wakefield and Doughtie procedure was used to compare obtained TORSCA coordinates with expectations from Holland's hexagonal model. As a comparison, identical analyses were performed on Vocational Preference Inventory (VPI) scale intercorrelation matrices, these data having originally served as the basis for advancing the utility of the hexagon model. For females, the SCII-hexagon fit was not good, with a near reversal of the Social and Enterprising scales. For males, the SCII-hexagon fit was good. For either SCII or VPI scales, the female data met expectations from Holland's model less often than the male data. A replication study on SCII data for 305 female clients of a vocational assessment clinic confirmed the previously observed sex differences. Sex differences in the structure of vocational preferences are discussed.
A Hebrew interest inventory for females in Israel, based on Holland's 1966 1973 vocational classification, was examined on 322 female pupils and 167 working females. Results showed that: (a) with the exception of the Conventional and Enterprising fields, subjects occupied in a field had their highest interest score in that field; (b) for all six interest fields, the highest interest score was the score of those who were engaged in that field; (c) in a smallest space analysis, the activities, competencies, and occupation sections of the interest inventory formed the Investigative, Realistic, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, and Conventional circular arrangement; (d) a correlation of .38 between interest score and job satisfaction was found.
The purpose of the present study was to examine the structure underlying the measured interests of African-American college students. The Strong Interest Inventory (SII; Hansen & Campbell, 1985) was administered to 357 subjects (189 females and 168 males). Intercorrelations among the General Occupational Theme (GOT) scales were (a) compared to correlations computed in the SII reference groups and (b) subjected to a nonmetric multidimensional scaling analysis (MDS) to examine the configuration of the RIASEC scales in a two-dimensional space. MDS stimulus coordinates then were used to examine distances predicted by the hexagonal structure of Holland's (1985) model. Results indicated support for the validity of Holland's (1985) model.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the construct validity of the occupational themes on the Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory. Male (199) and female (204) college counseling center clients were administered the SCII and the Edwards Personal Preference Schedule. Predicted relationships were made on the basis of Holland's descriptors. The data were analyzed by means of a multiple correlation followed by a stepwise regression. The 15 EPPS needs were treated as predictor variables. All of the relationships were in the predicted direction with approximately 50% reaching significance. It was concluded that the occupational themes and related descriptors were validated in terms of similar personality variables. Further construct validation for these scales was recommended.
The Academic Comfort (AC) Scale of the Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory (SCII) underwent its second name change within 16 years on the latest revision of the SCII (D. P. Campbell & J. C. Hansen, 1981, Manual for the SVIB-SCII (3rd ed.), Palo Alto, CA: Stanford Univ. Press). The purposes of this study were (a) to further define the construct of “academic comfort” by investigating criteria associated with the scale throughout its development and (b) to investigate Academic Comfort as a moderator variable of predictive validity of the SCII. Data were obtained from two sources: the occupational criterion samples from the 1981 revision of the SCII, and a longitudinal study of liberal arts students. Results indicated that the AC scale is moderately correlated with grade point average and strongly related to attained educational level; that AC scores are positively related to educational goals and graduate school plans; and that the SCII is substantially more predictive of college majors for those students with high AC scores than it is for those students with low AC scores.
Multidimensional scaling is the problem of representingn objects geometrically byn points, so that the interpoint distances correspond in some sense to experimental dissimilarities between objects. In just what sense distances and dissimilarities should correspond has been left rather vague in most approaches, thus leaving these approaches logically incomplete. Our fundamental hypothesis is that dissimilarities and distances are monotonically related. We define a quantitative, intuitively satisfying measure of goodness of fit to this hypothesis. Our technique of multidimensional scaling is to compute that configuration of points which optimizes the goodness of fit. A practical computer program for doing the calculations is described in a companion paper.