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INVESTIGATING GUEST SATISFACTION AND DISSATISFACTION DIMENSIONS USING THE
PROFILE ACCUMULATION TECHNIQUE
Jennifer KimLian Chan
Tom Baum
The Scottish Hotel School
University of Strathclyde
Curran Building, 94 Cathedral Street
Glasgow, G4 OLG, UK
Proceedings of EuroCHRIE Conference 2005, “Facing the Change in Tourism and
Hospitality”, 26–28 October, 2005, Paris, 79
ABSTRACT
This paper investigates guest satisfaction dimensions in the ecolodge context by using the Profile
Accumulation Technique (PAT) developed by Johns and Lee-Ross (1995). Results reveal that satisfaction
dimensions are derived from intangible elements - natural environment and service experiences (guides and
boatman). Main dissatisfaction dimensions are related to tangible elements - discomfort of riverboat cruise,
maintenance and functionality of bedroom, lodge walkway, road and journey to the ecolodge. The paper
contributes to the understanding of guest satisfaction dimensions and the Perception Profile of the Ecolodge. It
has significant implications for managing both guest satisfaction and sustainable use of eco-resources.
Key words: Profile Accumulation Technique (PAT), Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction Dimensions, Perception
Profile of Ecolodge, Service Experience, Measurement of Consumer satisfaction
INVESTIGATING GUEST SATISFACTION AND DISSATISFACTION DIMENSIONS USING THE
PROFILE ACCUMULATION TECHNIQUE
Jennifer KimLian Chan
Tom Baum
The Scottish Hotel School
University of Strathclyde
Curran Building, 94 Cathedral Street
Glasgow, G4 OLG, UK
INTRODUCTION
Consumer satisfaction has become one of the most researched areas within marketing and consumer
behaviour (Williams, 2002). It has also recognised the complexity and controversial nature of the measurement
and definition of satisfaction as well as its constructs, as Peterson and Wilson (1992: 62) noted: “studies of
customer satisfaction are perhaps best characterised by their lack of definitional and methodological
standardisation.” On the other hand, service quality dimensions that consumers use to assess the quality of
services are perceived as critical factors of business success (Kanadampully, 2000; Hudson and Shephard, 1998)
and as a globally important strategic force (Imrie et al. 2002). Consumer satisfaction is important in the
hospitality context due to the nature of the business that deals with people and provides services to paying
guests (Lockwood and Jones, 1984). Favourable and unfavourable responses resulting from satisfaction and
dissatisfaction are important areas for improvement in service quality and are pertinent to today‟s competitive
business environment. Within tourism and hospitality literature is documented a growing need for more reliable
ways to measure consumer satisfaction as evidenced from both theoretical and the methodological limitations of
previous empirical studies (Oh and Parks, 1997). It is recognised that consumer satisfaction is a complex human
process involving extensive cognitive, affective and other undiscovered psychological and physiological
dynamics. It has resulted in extensive debate in marketing literature in relation to the determinants of consumer
satisfaction and how it is best measured (Oh and Parks, 1997). Consequently, it is pertinent that consumer
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satisfaction research should be conducted in a broader framework to reflect its complex definition and the true
context. Hence, this paper adopts a different perspective and an alternative approach to investigating quality
dimensions. This paper arguably is a pioneer investigation using a novel approach – namely, the Profile
Accumulation Technique (PAT) - to investigate satisfaction and dissatisfaction dimensions in the ecolodge
context. It suggests that a change in approach is necessary for investigating quality dimensions, and adopts a
novel research tool to assess service experience, i.e. the PAT developed by Johns and Lee-Ross (1995).
RESEARCH OBJECTIVE
This paper aims to present an alternative approach in exploring consumer satisfaction in the service
experience context. The main objective is to identify satisfaction and dissatisfaction dimensions in the ecolodge
by using the Profile Accumulation Technique (PAT). The research question addresses: What are the underlying
dimensions of guest satisfaction and dissatisfaction in service experience consumption in the ecolodge context?
MEASUREMENT OF CONSUMER SATISFACTION AND DISSATISFACTION
Measuring consumer satisfaction requires the collection of information to determine consumer needs,
pleasures, displeasures and overall well-being. It means understanding the attributes that are the most important
to them and which attributes affect their decision-making, in addition to obtaining a performance evaluation on
how well the firm is delivering each attribute.
Although extensive research works have been focused on consumer satisfaction, satisfaction literature
has not yet explicitly established a general consensus definition of satisfaction (Giese and Cote, 2002). There is
a wide variance in the definition of satisfaction. These problems are pervasive and important (Peterson and
Wilson, 1992; Yi, 1990) and influence and limit the valid measures of satisfaction. Satisfaction literature has not
yet established a generally accepted definition of satisfaction that limits the abilities to develop an appropriate
measure. On the other hand, the literature review demonstrates the complexity of measuring consumer
satisfaction via various theories with different perspectives, and that while different approaches have been
explored extensively in the past, no consensus has yet been reached. Despite the lack of any common conceptual
consensus that clearly defines satisfaction and a clear definition of consumer satisfaction; previous studies
confirm that perceptions of quality, expectations and performance are pivotal in explaining consumer
satisfaction. It is suggested that consumer satisfaction is a subjective measurement of an evaluative orientation -
consumers express, through their intentions and behaviour, a subjective judgement associated with emotion
(Noe, 1999), consisting of both attributes and experiences (Ross and Iso-Ahola, 1991).
In the nature of service consumption, consumers learn and adapt their attitudinal and behavioural
responses as a result of a consumption experience (Williams, 2002). During and after the consumption and use
of product or services, consumers develop feelings of satisfaction or dissatisfaction. Satisfaction with a
consumption experience is one of two ways to measure consumer satisfaction (Otto and Ritchie, 1996). It refers
to the total experience, which may be influenced by a variety of factors, such as involvement, motivation, social
interaction, and programme or site attributes. Satisfaction with an experience is largely driven by the
involvement and motivation of customers, which are more difficult to manipulate (Mannell and Iso–Ahola,
1987) and also can be termed “experienced quality” (Johns, 1999). The incident based approach (individual
incidents) is used to measure the satisfaction dimensions where it accounts the feelings of overall satisfaction. In
the service experience context, it is found that satisfaction results from the experiential nature of consumption
and contains both perceptions and experiences (Otto and Ritchie, 1996). The psychological environment (also
called service experience) – i.e. subjective personal reactions and feelings experienced by consumers when they
consume a service - has been found to be an important aspect of consumer evaluation and satisfaction with
services (Ross and Iso-Ahola, 1991). Arnould and Price (1993) adopt a similar approach in the context of white-
water rafting and reveal that experiential themes – i.e. personal growth, self-renewal, communities and harmony
with nature – are significant in explaining the underlying dimensions of satisfaction from experiential
perspectives since hospitality services are more of an experience and less of a utilitarian transaction (Johns and
Lee-Ross, 1997). In particular, understanding experiential phenomena is crucial, as emotional reactions and
decisions often prevail amongst consumers (Wakefield and Blodgett, 1994). Hence, it is logical to analyse the
underlying dimensions of satisfaction from the experiential perspectives. The experiences and attitudes of the
consumers can be translated into future action, both economically and personally.
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THEORIETICAL AND METHODOLOGICAL LIMITATIONS IN
ASSESSING CONSUMER SATISFACTION IN SERVICE EXPERIENCE CONTEXT
The review of existing theories adopted in the consumer satisfaction research shows the theoretical
concerns and methodological problems of assessing consumer satisfaction in the service experience context.
First, expectancy disconfirmation theory (Oliver, 1980) is widely used to explain consumer satisfaction. This
theory assumes that satisfaction is caused by the confirmation or positive disconfirmation of consumer
expectations, and dissatisfaction results from negative disconfirmation. It regards consumer satisfaction as a
post-consumption cognitive evaluation by the consumer.
The expectancy disconfirmation theory has had an important influence on subsequent consumer
satisfaction studies and the majority of tourism and hospitality studies are based on this theoretical framework.
Most studies have found disconfirmation to be a significant predictor of customer satisfaction, but it is
expectation that has received mixed support, and so this theory has suffered criticism despite its contribution.
Disconfirmation theories define satisfaction as the difference between what is expected and what is perceived.
Yet, the consumers in tourism and hospitality revise their expectations during the service process and service
encounters. In fact, many researchers also recognise that consumer expectations are not static but evolve as the
tour unfolds (Geva and Goldman, 1989; Wilkie, 1994; Bowen, 2001). Furthermore, consumers may find it
difficult to form expectations prior to consumption in the service consumption context. Both the intangibility
and inseparability of many services may make forming expectations more difficult. In addition, since the
consumer is involved in shaping the service as he interacts with the service provider; his expectations are more
likely to be formed during the early stages of consumption rather than before consumption begins. Furthermore,
as the service experience unfolds, there is no reason to believe that expectations will not continue to evolve. The
dynamic aspect of service delivery is likely to result in the consumers experiencing satisfaction during the
process of service consumption. It is possible that satisfaction evaluation is not limited to post-consumption, as
it may occur during the consumption process. Also, consumers may make several satisfaction judgements
during the service delivery process. But the measurement process underlying the expectancy – the
disconfirmation paradigm – holds that expectations are formed prior to consumption, and these remain
unchanged during the course of consumption and satisfaction, i.e. post-consumption. Therefore, these points
seem to contradict the assumptions from expectancy – disconfirmation theories.
Second, the SERVQUAL model has been prevalently adopted to determine service quality dimensions
and widely applied in various service categories; but the model has notable limitations (Carman, 1990; Babakus
and Boller, 1992; Fick and Ritchie, 1991). The dimensionality of service quality has been found inconsistent,
and discrepancies due to its inability to replicate and the number and types of dimensions also raised questions.
In the same vein, there are methodological issues in measuring consumer satisfaction, specifically
concerning the research paradigm, research design and the validity of the data. Previous consumer satisfaction
research predominantly adopts a positivist paradigm and quantitative scale in the research method.
Questionnaires with scale–responses have been the main instrument to gather information and the
methodological approach was always quantitative but suffered several limitations (Bowen and Clarke, 2002).
The SERVQUAL-style questionnaire, developed by Parasuraman et al. (1985; 1988) to measure consumer
satisfaction, faced serious criticism including: validity of its expectation scores (Oberon and Hales, 1990) being
an unscientific method to unsolicited responses (Johns and Less-Ross, 1997); the choice of measurement scale
(Woodruff et al. 1983) whereby the composition of attribute-specific and overall evaluation structure are
incapable of addressing affective and holistic factors in service experiences (Fick and Ritchie, 1991); and to
capture enriched understanding of guest satisfaction that consisted of “emotional/affective and experiential
aspects” (Johnston, 1995; Cadotte and Turgeon, 1988a; 1988b). Explicitly, the voice of consumers and their
experiences show that their satisfaction was ignored. Arguably, an investigation of consumer satisfaction that
involves consumer experiences needs to be grounded in the realities that the tourists themselves describe. The
experience gained is the core output and an important element in influencing satisfaction within tourism and
hospitality. What matters is the individual‟s cognition and feelings about the experience being undertaken (Ross
and Iso-Aloha, 1991).
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This leads to the argument about the inadequacy of quantitative–based customer satisfaction and
dissatisfaction data for understanding satisfaction. On the other hand, qualitative approaches have gained
greater attention as a research method in the hospitality context. Johns and Gyimothy (2002) used focus groups
to capture the consumers‟ voice and in-depth unstructured interviews to investigate the emotional experiential
content of visits to Legoland in Denmark. Fournier and Mick (1999) contend that satisfaction is an experience
and should be expressed through the consumer‟s voice. Johns and Lee-Ross (1997: 362) introduce the Profile
Accumulation Technique (PAT), which is able to measure guests‟ expectations and perceptions of the service in
a “freer, less interventional way than was achieved using SERVQUAL style questionnaires”.
PROFILE ACCOMULATION TECHNIQUE (PAT)
Building from the existing theoretical and methodological limitations on consumer satisfaction, PAT as
a novel research tool to measure service experience was adopted in this paper to investigate consumer
satisfaction dimensions. This technique is developed to overcome the ambiguity and limitations of closed-ended
questionnaires, which are deemed less relevant and their answers convey a general impression rather than
referring specifically to what was asked. It is believed that different people have different interpretations, and
survey questionnaires are rigidly set and offer no in-depth answers as well as biases (Johns and Lee–Ross,
1995). It is a free response data collection technique and has been used to assess the quality of various customer
services including hotels and is appropriate for “experienced–oriented.” The PAT produces a more natural and
detailed evaluation of guest satisfaction than a closed-end questionnaire survey (Johns and Lee-Ross, 1995;
1997) and reduces biases and limitations imposed by the quantitative technique. The PAT is a self-written
assessment with great flexibility to assess service experience (Johns and Lee-Ross, 1995; 1997). Thus, it
collects more authentic data from the informants through their own written text. This means that informants
respond “freely” and “flexibility” by saying exactly what they want. Thus, the data is not tainted by possible
irrelevant assumptions of the service providers or any prompts on the part of the researcher (Johns and Lee-
Ross, 1995). It allows qualitative and quantitative analysis with a minimum sample size of 50, which is
sufficient to generate meaningful information (Johns and Lee-Ross, 1997).
RESEARCH METHOD
This paper describes exploratory qualitative research. An inductive approach was adopted to answer
the research question, since it is subjective in nature within an interpretative paradigm. Specifically, this study
focuses on the individual service experience in the ecolodge context in relation to their satisfaction and
dissatisfaction that are based on “on-site experiential” behaviour. PAT was a feasible and practical way to
collect data, as there was good cooperation from the ecolodge operators. Sampling was based on purposive
techniques; the selection of the informants was based on the guest arrival lists, and the availability and ease with
which the researcher could access them when the research was being conducted. A replicated PAT survey form
(Johns and Lee-Ross, 1997), a four-paged open-ended questionnaire format, was adopted to collect data.
Sample size consisted of 53 guests staying at two ecolodges in Sukua, Sabah, Malaysia from November 2003 to
February 2004. The PAT survey forms were given to the informants by the receptionists during check-in, to be
completed and returned at checkout time. Respondents were asked:
a) What are the things you have been most satisfied with during your stay in this ecolodge?
b) The reasons why these things most satisfied you?
c) What are the things that most dissatisfied?
d) The reasons why these most dissatisfied you?
DATA ANALYSIS
Responses are analysed based on the qualitative approach and also an informal way for quantifying
qualitative data. First, the data was analysed using qualitative analysis techniques. The responses were read and
re-read until a set of comprehensive categories and themes emerged for each positive and negative service
attribute. The data analysis sought to “understand the people studied” and interprets meaning from the data
(Patton 1990:392). Thus, categories and themes emerged from the positive and negative responses. Second, data
is analysed based on an informal way to present qualitative data from a phenomenological paradigm (Hussey
and Hussey, 1997). This presentation is simply a transformation of qualitative data into a pragmatic form for
understanding by using numbers to represent the meaning. The analysis involves counts of repeat responses
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and percentages in terms of total positive and negative responses. These findings were then translated into radar
web based on positive and negative responses as supplementary presentation and interpretation of data to
develop the Perception Profile of The Ecolodge (Radar Wed Figure 1). This makes research more accessible and
more understandable for practitioners by relating it to numbers. It has also benefited end users (ecolodge
operators) as compared to qualitative analysis, a form of “story telling” which tends to project less significant
value for end–users. However, one must note that this analysis is an “informal way” of quantifying data. It does
not account for any validity and reliability as in the quantitative approach.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS
Satisfaction Dimensions From Positive Service Quality Attributes
The positive service attributes are termed as satisfaction dimensions and also as motivator factors or
satisfiers (Johns and Lee-Ross, 1997). These attributes are capable of increasing guest satisfaction and serve as
the motivation to visit the ecolodge. The empirical evidence reveals a wide range of positive service attributes
from the responses that are sourced from the external environment of the ecolodge. These positive attributes are:
atmosphere and experience (wildlife viewing, riverboat cruise), services and welcome, guide services and
boatman services, and natural environment and attractions, which contribute to guest satisfaction significantly.
Atmosphere and experiences are the main satisfaction dimensions for the guests in the ecolodge. The guide and
boatman services contributed significantly to the success of wildlife viewing. Nevertheless, these positive
service quality attributes are intangible elements, which are more difficult to manage than the tangible elements
for the ecolodge operators.
Dissatisfaction Dimensions From Negative Service Quality Attributes
The negative service attributes are termed as dissatisfaction dimensions and also as maintenance factors
(Johns and Less-Ross, 1997). These attributes are capable of causing guest dissatisfaction and are unable to
increase satisfaction if they are absent; thus, they are standards of the service experience in the ecolodge. The
finding reveals that the main dissatisfaction dimensions are: discomfort of riverboat cruise, bedroom, cold
shower, other facilities and information, unsafe walkway and road, and journey. These findings are controllable
aspects of the service attributes, consisting of tangible elements that are controllable with the exception of
natural attractions and wildlife which are tangibles but uncontrollable. These are sourced from both the internal
and external environments of ecolodge. There were many negative aspects of the riverboat cruise trip. These
aspects include long waiting time with short duration of cruise, boat congestion on the river, diesel boat engines
causing noise and fumes, strong sun, the poor condition of life jackets in the boat, and less wildlife seen. These
aspects are controllable with the exception of wildlife seen. The negative aspects of the bedroom were due to
poor maintenance of facilities and cleanliness, which are controllable by the ecolodge operators. The informants
expected hot showers instead of cold showers. The negative aspects of other facilities and information related to
a lack of snack shop, laundry and information and these factors are controllable. The negative aspects of the
walkways were due to its slippery path and broken lights. These are aspects that are for the attention for
ecolodge operators to reduce the dissatisfaction of guests.
This seems to conclude that satisfaction dimensions are more related to intangibles, whilst
dissatisfaction dimensions are more related to tangibles. These correspond with findings from the studies of
Johns and Lee-Ross (1997) in small hotels and guesthouses, and Khan (2003).
Findings and Discussion on the Perception Profile of The Ecolodge
The empirical findings presented in Radar Web 1 below sought to provide a clear picture and
pragmatic way to indicate the significance of each aspect in both positive and negative service attributes. It
provides an overall picture as “The Perception Profile of The Ecolodge”, which consists of “soft dimensions”
and “hard dimensions” in ecolodges that contribute to both a positive and negative experience. Main satisfaction
dimensions include experiences from riverboat cruises, wildlife viewing, natural environment, variety of food
and friendly staff services. Atmosphere and experiences is the most significant satisfaction dimension with
guide and boatman services contributed significantly to the success of wildlife viewing. Main dissatisfaction
dimensions are maintenance factors leading to dissatisfaction are lodge maintenance (cleanliness, safety,
discomfort and minimum standard), the riverboat cruise (boat engine causing environmental pollution),
environmental issues (noise and air pollution and waste management), and long journey along a bumpy road to
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the lodge. Hence, the Perception Profile of The Ecolodge is a useful decision-making guide in terms of which
areas/aspects ecolodge operators should address in relation to guest satisfaction.
Radar Web Figure 1 The Perception Profile of the Ecolodge
The Perception Profile of The Ecolodge
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
Riverboat cruiseFood
Wildlife
Natural environment &
attractions
Bedroom
Staff
Guide serivces
Location
Services /welcome
Boatman services
Atmosphere & Experiences
Lodge
Other facilities &
information
Road & journey to lodge
Walkway
Cold shower
Positive Service Quality Aspects
Negative Service Quality Aspects
One can also conclude that satisfaction dimensions are derived from the atmosphere and experiences
resulted from the interaction with the physical environment and wildlife, and the participation in the eco
activities. Satisfaction dimensions leading to the satisfaction of guests can be an area where the ecolodge
operators should continue to invest, since they are areas of opportunities to safeguard guest satisfaction. These
satisfaction dimensions are within the psychological environment, which is paramount to the quality of
management and contribution to sustainable resource management. This suggests that efforts in relation to the
conservation and preservation of natural resources will contribute to guests‟ overall positive experiences and
subsequently contribute to their satisfaction. The guide and boatman services contributed significantly to the
success of wildlife viewing. This means local guide training in terms of knowledge of wildlife, local information
and English language are essential in order to secure guest satisfaction, and so is an ideal area for investment.
Dissatisfaction dimensions act as a maintenance foundation for the ecolodge and facilities, and are also related
to a commitment to protect pristine eco environment by the ecolodge management. These are tangible elements
related to the generic facilities, infrastructure and amenities as a foundation for the ecolodge context to operate,
including the availability of facilities and proper maintenance, comfort and cleanliness, as well as the pristine
ecolodge environment. Thus, these are crucial aspects needing the ecolodge operator‟s attention in improving
guest dissatisfaction. Also, it is likely that some of the factors that affect guests‟ experiences in the ecolodge
context are beyond the control of the ecolodge operators, such as no control over how, when and where the
informants consume the services. Furthermore, in the service consumption context, guests are part of the service
production and delivery.
RESEARCH CONTRIBUTION AND LIMITATION
Contributions of this paper include the identification of satisfaction/dissatisfaction dimensions of eco
guests and the development of a Perception Profile of the Ecolodge as a useful information guide pertaining to
guest satisfaction. These are valuable empirical findings adding to the existing body of knowledge in terms of
guest satisfaction. It has significant implications for understanding and managing both guest satisfaction and
sustainable use of eco-resources within the ecolodge context as well as marketing the ecolodges in Sukau.
Satisfied guests will be likely to recommend and develop positive word of mouth marketing based on the
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satisfaction dimensions. These are areas “to shrine or uniqueness” that can be capitalised on as selling points
and as competitive edges for the ecolodge in Sukau. The study provides useful information about aspects of
service that can be specifically targeted for improvement and resulting in more appropriate decision–making as
compared to service quality dimensions assessed from service quality theory. It is able to tailor to particular
dimensions rather than developing one strategy broadly applied across the whole dimensions.
More importantly, these dimensions were identified based on the voices of the guests, thus have strong
internal validity. It is also a more reliable “authentic” data as the data collection was gathered for the
understanding of people‟s experiences and perceptions from their own words via PAT. It seems reasonable to
conclude that the PAT is deemed an appropriate and suitable research tool to assess quality dimensions in the
service experience. PAT is perceived capable of producing data to illuminate more directly the interconnection
between actions and consequences. The data itself is descriptive of social relationship, and interchanges that
reveal the succession of actions and events in which the actors are engaged.
Limitations in this study include shortcomings of the qualitative approach in terms of its validity and
reliability as compared to the quantitative approach due to its purposive sampling technique and small sample
size, which made generalising its findings impossible. It is noted that data analysis for PAT may be time
consuming for the researcher; data collected are from open–ended questions. This means that coding and data
interpretation can also become complicated.
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