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Saffron corm as a natural source of fungicides: The role of saponins in the underground
Abstract
Fungi cause important deteriorations of corms from Crocus sativus L. In order to screen the antifungal properties of this organ to fight such infections, two independent experiments based on the lyophilized and sterilized external (peel) and internal parts of the corm were conducted against five fungi isolated from infected corms during August. The minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) after 30 days of the peel treatments were 5.4% against Aspergillus niger, 3.9% against Bipolaris spicifera, Fusarium oxysporum, Penicillium raistriicki and 2.3% against Rhizopus nigricans while the MIC of the internal part were not detected for A. niger and B. spicifera, 7.0% against F. oxysporum and P. raistriicki and 3.9% against R. nigricans. The higher toxicity of the peel against fungi led us to investigate the influence of the saponins exclusively detected on the external part of the corm, as partially responsible for the extra observed effect. The main influence of these compounds on the toxicity was against F. oxysporum, the most desvasting pathogen in saffron corms, followed by B. spicifera and A. niger. The growth inhibition of P. raistriicki and R. nigricans was almost negligible. However, other compounds such as phenolics compounds could also be responsible for the fungicidal activity detected. These results illustrate that saffron corms could be further exploited in order to discover new phytochemical products with antifungal properties.
... Several factors including solvent type and volume, temperature, pH and pressure effect on extractability of phenol compounds from plant matrices. Rubio-Moraga et al. [8] have studied the extraction of phenolic compounds of SC by using deionized water through direct solvent extraction technique. Esmaeili et al. [1] extracted phenolic compounds of dormant and waking SCs with ethanol 50%, methanol 80%, ethanol 80%, acetone 80% and water by direct solvent extraction method. ...
... Rubio-Moraga et al. [8] reported 4.6 mg QE/100 g fresh matter SC extracted by direct solvent centrifuging method. ...
... There is not any case study based on SC antibacterial activity; however, Rubio-Moraga et al. [8] screened the The antimicrobial activity of plant extracts may be attributed to the presence of polyphenols in extracts as high antimicrobial activity that exhibited by plant extracts with elevated TPC [38]. The effects of plant extracts as antimicrobial agents depend on the polyphenol type such as phenolic acids, flavonoids, and tannins. ...
Subcritical water extraction (SWE) was employed for the extraction of bioactive constituents from Crocus sativus corms. The extraction temperature and time, as the principal experimental variables, were investigated in the range of 100–180 °C and 10–30 min respectively. A central composite face-centered design (CCD) showed 180 °C and 21.99 min were the optimum conditions for maximizing the antioxidant activity and total phenolic content (TPC) of the extract. Under the optimized conditions, the amount of TPC, ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) and the 2, 2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) IC50 were 816.34 mg gallic acid/100 g dry matter, 1138.95 mM, and 61.67 mg kg−1, respectively. Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) analysis showed dodecane (20.043%) is one of the main non-polar constituents in the saffron corm (SC) SWE extract (SC-SWE extract). Microdilution and disc diffusion methods revealed a degree of activity against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli. The results exhibited that SWE is a practical technique to extract bioactive constituents with antioxidant and antibacterial properties from Crocus sativus corms.
... In a recent study, Mastino et al. [54] underlined that the phenolic compounds represent a rich source of protectants and biocides, which can be used as alternative strategies for the control of postharvest diseases in fruits [54]. Rubio-Moraga et al. [55] pointed out that saponins and phenolic compounds could be responsible for the fungicidal activity detected in internal parts of the corms, against five fungi [55]. According to Zhang et al. [56], The effectiveness of the antifungal activity of the plant extracts is correlated with the extraction process, particularly the interaction between the solvent and the raw material, which allows its dissolution and separation from the solid matrix, depending on the solvent/solid ratio, particle size, temperature and the timing of the extraction [56]. ...
... In a recent study, Mastino et al. [54] underlined that the phenolic compounds represent a rich source of protectants and biocides, which can be used as alternative strategies for the control of postharvest diseases in fruits [54]. Rubio-Moraga et al. [55] pointed out that saponins and phenolic compounds could be responsible for the fungicidal activity detected in internal parts of the corms, against five fungi [55]. According to Zhang et al. [56], The effectiveness of the antifungal activity of the plant extracts is correlated with the extraction process, particularly the interaction between the solvent and the raw material, which allows its dissolution and separation from the solid matrix, depending on the solvent/solid ratio, particle size, temperature and the timing of the extraction [56]. ...
Numerous fungal plant pathogens can infect fresh fruits and vegetables during transit and storage conditions. The resulting infections were mainly controlled by synthetic fungicides, but their application has many drawbacks associated with the threatened environment and human health. Therefore, the use of natural plants with antimicrobial potential could be a promising alternative to overcome the side effects of fungicides. In this regard, this study aimed at evaluating the antifungal activity potential of saffron petal extract (SPE) against three mains important fungal pathogens: Rhizopus stolonifer, Penicillium digitatum and Botritys cinerea, which cause rot decay on the tomato, orange and apple fruits, respectively. In addition, the organic composition of SPE was characterized by attenuated total reflection Fourier transform infrared (ATR-FT-IR) spectroscopy and its biochemical, and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analyses were carried out. The obtained results highlighted an increased inhibition rate of the mycelial growth and spore germination of the three pathogenic fungi with increasing SPE concentrations. The mycelial growth and spore germination were completely inhibited at 10% of the SPE for Rhizopus stolonifer and Penicillium digitatum and at 5% for B. cinerea. Interestingly, the in vivo test showed the complete suppression of Rhizopus rot by the SPE at 10%, and a significant reduction of the severity of grey mold disease (37.19%) and green mold, when applied at 5 and 10%, respectively. The FT-IR spectra showed characteristic peaks and a variety of functional groups, which confirmed that SPE contains phenolic and flavonoid components. In addition, The average value of the total phenolic content, flavonoid content and half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) were 3.09 ± 0.012 mg GAE/g DW, 0.92 ± 0.004 mg QE/g DW and 235.15 ± 2.12 µg/mL, respectively. A volatile analysis showed that the most dominant component in the saffron petal is 2(5H)-Furanone (92.10%). Taken together, it was concluded that SPE could be used as an alternative to antioxidant and antifungal compounds for the control of postharvest diseases in fruits.
... The antifungal assay using spores from A. versicolor, A. niger and F. oxysporum were performed according to (Rubio-moraga et al., 2013), with some modifications. The treatments were prepared in a sterile Eppendorf tube containing 3000 spores (40 μL) of each fungus in sterile potato dextrose broth (PDB), and 20 μL of the different treatments. ...
... The antifungal assay after the germination of the spores was performed according to (Rubio-Moraga et al., 2013), with some modifications. The spore suspension at a concentration of 5 × 10 3 spores/mL (100 μL) was transferred to a 96-well microtiter plate. ...
In this study, garlic essential oil (GEO) has been encapsulated in chitosan nanoparticles (NPCH) with sodium tripolyphosphate (TPP). Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy, UV–vis spectrophotometry, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) techniques were applied to characterize GEO-NPCH. The obtained nanoparticles exhibited a regular distribution and spherical shape with size range of 200–400 nm as revealed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The maximum encapsulation efficiency (EE) and loading capacity (LC) of GEO-loaded chitosan nanoparticles were about 32.8% and 19.8% respectively. Nanoparticle formulations of GEO were found to have antifungal activity against Aspergillus versicolor, A. niger and Fusarium oxysporum. In addition, they showed growth promoting effects by increasing emergence, shoot and root fresh weight on wheat, oat and barley.
... Few studies have been carried out on the chemical composition, biochemistry, and extraction of bioactive compounds from Crocus sativus L. corms. The phenolic content in saffron corm has been considered in dormancy and waking stages (Esmaeili et al. 2011;Rubio-Moraga et al. 2013). Furthermore, in vitro metal chelating and antioxidant properties of the corm extract have been studied in comparison to saffron tepal and leaf (Sánchez-Vioque et al. 2012). ...
... In this study, TFC values of 0.912 and 1.558 mg QE/100 g dry saffron corm were obtained in the optimized SC-DSE and SC-UAE extracts, respectively. However, a TFC value of 4.6 mg QE in 100 g fresh saffron corm was reported by the direct solvent extraction using a 50% (v/v) aqueous isopropanol solution (Rubio-Moraga et al. 2013). Different studies exhibited that extraction yield and purity are considerably influenced by the processing and plant species (Babbar et al. 2011). ...
In this study, the response surface methodology (RSM) based on a central composite face-centered design (CCD) was used to optimize the extraction of bioactive constituents from Crocus sativus corms. The ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) was compared with the conventional direct solvent extraction (DSE) procedure. The optimum conditions of ethanol (80%), 48 °C and 60 min in DSE, and ethanol (80%), 37 °C, 45 min, and 37 kHz in UAE, were determined to receive extracts with maximum antioxidant activity and total phenolic content (TPC). The results showed TPC values of 89.28 and 100.39 (mg gallic acid equivalents in 100 g dry saffron corm) and total flavonoid contents (TFC) of 0.912 and 1.558 (mg quercetin equivalents in100 g dried saffron corm) for the optimized DSE and UAE extracts, respectively. The GC-MS analysis showed n-hexadecanoic acid as one of the main non-polar constituents in the saffron corm extract (39.315% and 19.015% in DSE and UAE extracts, respectively). The disc diffusion tests revealed a degree of activity of saffron corm extracts against Staphylococcus aureus at a minimum concentration of 300 mg/mL.
... The corm composition was documented by Rubio Moraga et al. (2013) who reported that the corm contains glucose, aspartic and glutamic acids, cysteine, serine, glycine, threonine, tyrosine, alanine, arginine, histidine, lysine, proline, phenylalanine, leucine, valine, methionine, two saponins (one triterpenic and another steroidic) and a high molecular weight protein. ...
... Chichiriccò et al. (2019) showed that anthers are rich in unsaturated long-chain fatty acids and can be used as a protective agent in ulcerative colitis. Rubio-Moraga et al. (2013) investigated the toxicity of the external (peel) and internal parts of the corms against five fungi and showed that the minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) after 30 days of the peel treatments were 5.4 % against Aspergillus niger, 3.9 % against Bipolaris spicifera, Fusarium oxysporum, Penicillium raistriicki and 2.3 % against Rhizopus nigricans. Saponins and phenolics compounds could be responsible for the fungicidal activity detected. ...
Saffron is obtained from the dried red stigmas of Crocus sativus L., an autumnal herbaceous flowering plant belonging to the Iridaceae family. It is largely cultivated in Iran, India, Afghanistan, Greece, Morocco, Spain and Italy. Saffron global production is estimated at 418 t y⁻¹ on 121,338 ha. It is known as the most expensive spice in the world and as beneficial for human health due to three main bioactive compounds: crocin, picrocrocin and safranal. The demand for saffron is increasing worldwide for its interesting role in cuisine, medicine and cosmetics. Due to the reduction of its production, recent investigations have been conducted to study how to improve stigma yield, quality and antioxidant activity by selecting of corm geographical origin and climatic conditions, using biostimulants such as mycorrhizal fungi as well as choosing irrigation regimes, drying methods and storage processes. New research activities have been focused on the medicinal properties of this spice, such as its neuroprotection in the context of ocular disease, free radical scavenging and detoxifying capacities. This work offers an overview of the historical, economic, genetic, botanical, agronomic and qualitative traits of saffron as well as the properties, traditional and recent uses of the spice as well as its by-products such as tepals, stamens, styles, corms and leaves.
... The lyophilized and sterilized external and internal parts of C. sativus corm exbited antifungal properties against Aspergillus niger, Bipolaris spicifera, Fusarium oxysporum, Penicillium raistriicki and Rhizopus nigricans. The authors (Rubio-Moraga et al., 2013) suggested, that more potent activity of peel was due to the presence of triterpenoid saponins azafrine 1 and azafrine 2 (Rubio-Moraga et al., 2011). However, phenolic compounds may also be responsible for the established fungicidal activity. ...
... Proteoglycans, triterpenic saponins and other bioactive components in corms possess anticancer activity Rubio-Moraga et al., 2011), antidepressant (Wang et al., 2010) and fungicidal (Rubio-Moraga et al., 2013) properties. Phenolic compounds in corms exhibit significant radical scavenging activity (Esmaeili et al., 2011). ...
The present article is the first comprehensive review on the chemical composition and pharmacological activities of the raw materials of Crocus species. In the present review, data on chemical constituents and pharmacological profile of Crocus sativus stigmas, as well as of other plant parts (perianth, stamens, leaves, corms) of different Crocus spp. are given. This review discusses all the classes of compounds (carotenoids, flavonoids, anthocyanins, terpenoids, phenol carboxylic acids, etc.) detected in raw materials of Crocus plants providing information on the current state of knowledge on phytochemicals of Crocus species. Almost all structural formulas of the compounds identified and isolated from Crocus species are given; all compounds are presented in accordance with the types of the studied raw materials. The latest hypotheses relating to the biosynthesis pathways of the main biologically active compounds of saffron (crocin, picrocrocin, safranal), as well as chemotaxonomy of Crocus genus are briefly summarized. The present review discusses the most thoroughly studied pharmacological activities (namely, antioxidant, antiparasitic, hypolipidemic, antihypertensive, immunomodulatory, antimicrobial, antitumor, cytotoxic, antidepressant) of saffron stigmas extracts, of its individual phytochemicals (safranal, crocin, crocetin), as well as pharmacological activities of raw materials of other Crocus species. This comprehensive review will be informative for scientists searching for new properties of saffron stigmas, as well as for saffron producers, since the present review highlights the prospects for the use of waste products in the production of the expensive spice. In addition, the present review provides information on pharmacological properties and composition of other Crocus species as promising medicinal and food plants. In the present review the emphasis will be put on the chemical constituents of Crocus species and the intraspecies variation in phytochemicals and pharmacological activities.
... Several fungal species of the genera Fusarium, Rhizoctonia, Penicillium, Aspergillus, Sclerotium, Phoma, Stromatinia, Cochliobolus, and Rhizopus have been reported to be associated with saffron diseases (Ahrazem et al., 2010;Rubio-Moraga et al., 2013). Rot caused by Fusarium oxysporum is the most destructive disease in saffron, causing severe performance losses in most saffron fields (Cappelli, 1994). ...
... As a subterranean organ, corms are prone to fungi attack due to permanent contact with soil, high temperature and soil humidity, plus the high water content of this organ (Ahrazem et al., 2010). The corm rot incited by F. oxysporum is the most destructive disease in saffron, having caused severe yield losses in Italy (Cappelli, 1994), Japan (Yamamoto et al., 1954), India (Shah and Srivastava, 1984) and Spain (García-Jiménez and Alfaro-García, 1987;Rubio-Moraga et al., 2013). ...
... Additionally, the liposoluble fraction of saffron flower stamens contains high levels of linoleic, linolenic, and palmitic fatty acids, exhibiting strong antimicrobial effects both in vitro and within food matrices against common food-borne pathogens like S. aureus and E. coli (Zara et al., 2021). Saffron corms also contain antifungal compounds that remain effective at high temperatures, with the outer part of the bulb showing enhanced antifungal activity against Fusarium oxysporum, attributed to a mixture of triterpenoid saponins (Rubio-Moraga et al., 2013). Saffron has shown significant anti-inflammatory effectiveness in various experimental models. ...
Article type: Saffron, derived from the flower of Crocus sativus L., is one of the most valuable and sought-after spices in the world. This review provides a comprehensive and novel overview of saffron horticultural practices, with a special focus on the innovative potential of its various byproducts. It encompasses the entire cultivation process, including harvesting, postharvest handling, storage, and the challenges faced in its marketing. Moreover, this review brings attention to the often overlooked saffron byproducts (petals, stamens, leaves, corms), which recent studies have shown to contain valuable bioactive compounds. These compounds exhibit significant potential for diverse applications across the food, pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and textile industries. By emphasizing the novel aspects of fully utilizing saffron byproducts, this review contributes to enhancing the value of the saffron production chain and opens new avenues for sustainable agricultural practices.
... Infected plants die off early, resulting in reduction of corm yield, quality, and flower and stigma production. Several fungal species of the genera Fusarium, Rhizoctonia, Penicillium, Aspergillus, Sclerotium, Phoma, Stromatinia, Cochliobolus, Rhizopus and an unidentified basidiomycete have been reported to be associated with saffron diseases (Vilcoq 1898;Ahrazem et al.2010;Rubio-Moraga et al. 2013). As we have been able to isolate strains of Porostereum sp. from the corms, it may be the previously unidentified basidiomycete producing corm rot in C. sativus. ...
Crocus sativus L. commonly known as saffron is a small geophyte comprising of a subterranean corm, leafy vegetative shoot and purple-colored flowers. The early evidence of cultivation and utilization of saffron dates back to 2500–1500 BC in Mediterranean regions. C. sativus has a triploid genotype which results in abnormal gamete formation and hence it is propagated vegetatively. The medicinal and aromatic property of saffron is due to the apocarotenoids: Crocin and safranal, present in the stigma of the flower. The cultivation and production of C. sativus is constantly declining worldwide for the last few decades due to various biotic and abiotic factors. One of the most important factors that influences plant health is the endophytic community harbored by the host plant. C. sativus harbors a huge diversity of fungal endophytes with significant bioactive potential. The application of microbes of endophytic origin for sustainable cultivation and crop management of saffron are also reported. The endophytic microbes of saffron also yield bioactive natural products for pharmacological and industrial applications.KeywordsSaffronKashmirApocarotenoidsFungal diversitySustainable cultivationMicrobes
... Saffron propagation is a labour demanding task since the corms have to be removed and replanted manually. The low rate of corm multiplication, along with pathogen infestation, biotic and abiotic stresses and poor crop management limit the availability of saffron planting material (Menia et al., 2018;Parray et al., 2012;Rubio-Moraga, Gómez-Gómez, Trapero, Castro-Díaz, & Ahrazem, 2014). Therefore, the natural propagation of saffron is relatively complex. ...
Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) is the most expensive spice in the world. This plant species is propagated vegetatively through the formation of daughter corms from the mother one. Unfortunately, many factors hamper the efficient propagation of saffron through this traditional practice. For example, the low production rate of daughter corms and the risk of fungal infection, which also affect the daughter corm quality. Therefore, the conventional propagation method cannot meet the demand for planting material. The use of biotechnological tools, particularly the in vitro culture techniques, can be of great benefit for saffron propagation. Hence, in recent years, various regeneration systems through somatic embryogenesis and organogenesis were established for saffron using different explant types, medium components, plant growth regulators (PGRs), and culture conditions. In the present review, the most relevant advances and main achievements made in saffron micropropagation are reported, and the major bottlenecks encountered during in vitro culture of this species and that restrict the commercial production of saffron corms and plantlets are discussed.
... The increased growth of tomato plants suggests that tepal extract may act as a promoter of plant growth with a 3 g/L concentration, which contains 1.308 mg CGE/L of anthocyanin and 20.181 mg GAE/L of polyphenol. Corms also are a rich source of phenolic, flavonoid, and especially saponin (RubioMoraga et al., 2013), likely to participate in increased growth characteristics of the treated plants in the results of current research. Saffron stigmas contain nitroge nous substances, anthocyanins, glycosides, monoter penes, aldehydes, flavonoids, vitamins, volatile oils, proteins, carbohydrates (Amin and Hosseinzadeh, 2015). ...
An experiment was carried out in a greenhouse to study the effect of aqueous extracts of Crocus sativus L. byproducts on tomato plants. Three concentrations of tepals and corms were used by fertigation: 1 g/L, 2 g/L, and 3 g/L. The aqueous extract of the stigmas was used as a foliar application at 0.6 g/L. The experiment was carried out in a completely randomized block with three repetitions for each concentration. The concentration of tepal extract at 3 g/L significantly (p≤0.05) increased the plants' height, the chlorophyll a, b con tent in the leaf. The same results were observed for the foliar treatment with stigmas; however, there was no effect of tepal extract on the carotenoid con tent. On the other hand, the concentration 2 g/L of the corms extract had a positive impact (p≤0.05) in the chlorophyll b content while the concentration of 3 g/L increased the plant's height, the chlorophyll a (p≤0.05). Current results indicate that Crocus sativus byproducts could improve certain physiological aspects of the recipient plants and be new and natural biostimulants.
... Even if a specific characterization of plant pathogens was not conducted, the high wilting rate found in MG could be related and favored by the presence, in this site, of several fungal species belonging to Ascomycetes such as Blumeria, Colletotrichum, Curvularia, Gibberella, Leptosphaeria, Plectosphaerella, Ramularia, Stigmina. Indeed, all these have been reported to be associated with saffron diseases [57,58]. We also detected some taxa, previously reported as endophytic fungal isolates, belonging to two Ascomycota lineages representing two orders (Helotiales and Pleosporales) and one order each in Basidiomycota and Mortierellomycota, namely Agaricales and Mortierellales, respectively. ...
Soil fungi strongly influence ecosystem structure and functioning, playing a key role in many ecological services as decomposers, plant mutualists and pathogens. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) establish mutualistic symbiotic associations with plant roots and act as biofertilizers by enhancing plant nutrients and water uptake. Information about the AMF association with Crocus sativus L. (saffron) and their impact on crop performances and spice quality has been increasing in recent years. Instead, there is still little data on the biodiversity of soil microbial communities associated with this crop in the Alpine environments. The aims of this study were to investigate the fungal communities of two Alpine experimental sites cultivated with saffron, and to rank the relative impact of two AMF inocula, applied to soil as single species (R = Rhizophagus intraradices, C. Walker & A. Schüßler) or a mixture of two species (M = R. intraradices and Funneliformis mosseae, C. Walker & A. Schüßler), on the resident fungal communities which might be influenced in their diversity and composition. We used Illumina MiSeq metabarcoding on nuclear ribosomal ITS2 region to characterize the fungal communities associated to Crocus sativus cultivation in two fields, located in the municipalities of Saint Christophe (SC) and Morgex (MG), (Aosta Valley, Italy), treated or not with AMF inocula and sampled for two consecutive years (Y1; Y2). Data analyses consistently indicated that Basidiomycota were particularly abundant in both sites and sampling years (Y1 and Y2). Significant differences in the distribution of fungal taxa assemblages at phylum and class levels between the two sites were also found. The main compositional differences consisted in significant abundance changes of OTUs belonging to Dothideomycetes and Leotiomycetes (Ascomycota), Agaricomycetes and Tremellomycetes (Basidiomycota), Mortierellomycetes and Mucoromycetes. Further differences concerned OTUs, of other classes, significantly represented only in the first or second year of sampling. Concerning Glomeromycota, the most represented genus was Claroideoglomus always detected in both sites and years. Other AMF genera such as Funneliformis, Septoglomus and Microdominikia, were retrieved only in MG site. Results highlighted that neither sites nor inoculation significantly impacted Alpine saffron-field fungal communities; instead, the year of sampling had the most appreciable influence on the resident communities.
... Despite the numerous studies on saffron flowers, insufficient attention has been paid to saffron corms as the main important factor in saffron flowering. Although saffron's phenological stages are essentially defined based on corm formation and growth (Gresta et al., 2008), agronomic management is performed mainly based on flower emergence rather than corm growth Rubio-Moraga et al., 2013). ...
Saffron (Crocus sativus L.), a member of the Iridaceae family, is a sterile triploid geophyte plant. Saffron is adapted to arid and semiarid regions and naturally has an annual life cycle, but it is cultivated as a perennial crop by controlling its corm growth. It is important to study the crucial factors affecting mother corm formation and growth due to their special role on the dried stigma yield of saffron. At the beginning of this chapter, various aspects of saffron corms have been described from a botanical point of view. In the following sections, agronomic factors affecting corms formation have been discussed to determine the importance of these factors. The adverse effects of global warming and climate change on saffron flower induction are also reviewed in this chapter.
... Among those plants that showed antifungal activities (Rubio- moraga et al., 2013), and antibacterial activities ( Pintado et al., 2011), we cite the saffron (Crocus sativus L.) one of the local products in Morocco. This product represents an essential source of income for the arid zones of Morocco. ...
An open field trial was realized to assess the efficacy of the aqueous extract of the saffron stigmas as a biostimulator for the growth improvement of the tomato plant (Solanum lycopersicum L.). Five concentrations of aqueous saffron extract used as foliar treatment determined: 0.05 g/l, 0.4 g/l, 0.6 g/l, 1 g/l, and 2 g/l, with control, in a completely randomized experimental design with three replicates. Application of saffron extract as a foliar spray resulted in morphological and biochemical stimulation of tomato plants. Plant height was significantly (p ≤ 0.05) improved by the applied treatments. However, the highest concentration of extract used for treatment (2 g/l) negatively influenced plant height. The contents of polyphenols, flavonoids, anthocyanins, flavanols, condensed tannins, lycopene, carotenoids, and °Brix showed significant improvement (p ≤ 0.05) in response to varying concentrations of the aqueous saffron extract. The level of 0.6 g/l of saffron extract contributed to a significant improvement, and to plant height and antioxidant content of tomato. Moreover, an antifungal effect of the extract against Phytophthora infestans (Pi) was observed. Our results provide a biological alternative to chemical products, for quality improvement and sustainable agricultural bioproduction.
... Infected plants die off early, resulting in reduction of corm yield, quality, and flower and stigma production. Several fungal species of the genera Fusarium, Rhizoctonia, Penicillium, Aspergillus, Sclerotium, Phoma, Stromatinia, Cochliobolus, Rhizopus and an unidentified basidiomycete have been reported to be associated with saffron diseases (Vilcoq 1898;Ahrazem et al.2010;Rubio-Moraga et al. 2013). As we have been able to isolate strains of Porostereum sp. from the corms, it may be the previously unidentified basidiomycete producing corm rot in C. sativus. ...
A total of 294 fungal endophytes were isolated from the corms of Crocus sativus at two stages of Crocus life cycle collected from 14 different saffron growing sites in Jammu and Kashmir (J & K) State, India. Molecular phylogeny assigned them into 36 distinct ITS genotypes which spread over 19 genera. The diversity of endophytes was higher at the dormant than at the vegetative stage. The Saffron microbiome was dominated by Phialophora mustea and Cadophora malorum, both dark septate endophytes. Some endophytes were found to possess antimicrobial properties that could be helpful for the host in evading the pathogens. These endophytes generally produced significant quantities of indole acetic acid as well. However, thirteen of the endophytic taxa were found to cause corm rot in the host with different levels of severity under in vitro as well as in vivo conditions. This is the first report of community structure and biological properties of fungal endophytes associated with Crocus sativus, which may eventually help us to develop agro-technologies, based on plant-endophyte interactions for sustainable cultivation of Saffron. The endophytes preserved ex situ, in this study, may also yield bioactive natural products for pharmacological and industrial applications.
... These extracts can also lower blood pressure and contractile response (Fatehi, Rashidabady, & Fatehi-Hassanabad, 2003 ). Bioactive components in corm include proteoglycans showing cytolytic activity against tumoural (Escribano et al., 2000a; Escribano, Ríos, & Fernández, 1999) and plant (Fernández, Escribano, Piqueras, & Medina, 2000) cells, and triterpenic saponins with anticancer (Rubio-Moraga et al., 2011) and fungicidal (Rubio-Moraga, Gómez-Gómez, Trapero, Castro-Díaz, & Ahrazem, 2013 ) activities . Phenolic compounds with radical scavenging activity (Esmaeili, Ebrahimzadeh, Abdi, & Safarian, 2011 ) and a mannanbinding lectin (Escribano, Rubio, Alvarez-Ortí, Molina, & Fernández, 2000b) have also been found in corm. ...
Saffron is cultivated for production of the saffron spice. Nevertheless, a huge amount of saffron by-products including corms, tepals and leaves with little or no commercial value are generated during the processing of the spice. This biomass contains bioactive compounds whose exploitation can increase the profitability and sustainability of this traditional crop. A significant amount of polyphenols, mainly glycosides of kaempferol, luteolin and quercetin, have been determined in tepals and leaves of saffron. Proliferation of Caco-2 cells was greatly inhibited by the tepal and leaf extracts (ED50 0.42 mg/ml), while the corm extract caused some signs of toxicity and completely abolished proliferation (ED50 0.05 mg/ml). To our knowledge, these are the first data reporting the inhibition of the proliferation of Caco-2 cells by extracts from tepals and leaves of saffron, and polyphenols could be responsible for this effect.
... Azafrines 1 and 2 are localized in the external part of the corms, suggesting their involvement in plant defense. 119,120 Saponin Properties. Saponins or saponin-containing plant extracts are exploited by the pharmaceutical industry. ...
The mastery of the development cycle of a project, especially in software development, has become a need and an unavoidable necessity to produce a deliverable with value. Thus, to satisfy the requirements of users who have become more volatile. In this regard, the Agile manifesto, or Manifesto for Agile software development, has been proposed to bring increased flexibility and pragmatism to the delivered products by giving values and fundamental principles to revolutionize software development processes incrementally, but without handling the technical framework of their productions.So, our defiance in this paper is to add a technical framework to agile software development processes by proposing a user stories’ meta-model driven method in the Model Driven Architecture (MDA) approach. This approach will lead us to put the models and their meta-models at the center of the development process of any software system to facilitate the development process based on the construction and the transformation of models tasks in the Agile context.KeywordsUser StoryMeta-modelModel Driven Architecture (MDA)Agile
COVID-19 is a disease caused by SARS-CoV-2. The entry of a virus into human cells is a critical phase in its infection. The binding of the spike protein of SARS-CoV-2 to Angiotensin converting enzyme 2 ACE2, an enzyme found on the surface of human cells, initiates the infection. Online software tools that overlay the three-dimensional structures of viruses, including SARS-CoV-2, address the problem of structure superposition by overlaying the ACE2 and spike complexes of the first protein on those of the second protein.In this work, overlaying the three-dimensional structures of viruses was addressed by superimposing ACE2 and then applying the resulting transformation from this superposition to the spike. Finally, the root mean square deviation RMSD was calculated. We used the discrete to continuous DTC algorithm to align the 3D structures; the results from the DTC were compared to the results from TopMatch and SuperPose, which are online tools for aligning 3D structures. The obtained results prove that aligning each structure then combining them is the most suitable approach for properly studying the structural evolution of SARS-CoV-2.KeywordsStructure alignment algorithmDiscrete To ContinuousTopMatchSuperPoseCoronavirusesSARSCov2
Substance abuse, such as drinking alcohol, leads to mental diseases and causes severe, irreversible and chronic impairment of vital organs. The effectiveness of conventional screening methods, such as questionnaires, among patients with alcohol use disorder (AUD) is limited due to the subjectivity inherent in these methods. There is a major need for reliable, efficient, and objective procedures for AUD diagnosis. AUD affects human brain health and significantly influences brain waves. The alteration in brain waves related to alcohol consumption may be determined by analyzing electroencephalogram (EEG) patterns. In the context of studying brain signal modifications linked to alcohol consumption, this paper presents a novel method based on the “Discrete To Continuous” (DTC) approach to select the most relevant and accurate alcoholic EEG signals recorded from 64 channels using a publicly available dataset. Such a dataset’s dimension needs a lot of computation time and memory performance. Our approach was compared to the Dynamic Time Warping (DTW) algorithm. The results of the DTC and DTW approaches are compatible. The findings of our study give promising results regarding the identification of the most significant channels to determine alcoholism anomalies. Thus, our method will overcome time complexity and memory performance issues in the classification process of EEG signals.Keywordsalignment algorithmDiscrete to ContinuousElectroencephalographyAlcoholism
Saffron is a geophyte species that propagates only vegetatively through the multiplication of corms. The extension of the cultivation area needs high-quality corms. Low multiplication rates and fungal infestation of corms reduce productivity and quality, thus limiting the availability of planting material. The study of fungi linked to corms in the dormant phase of saffron revealed the presence of different fungal species. The isolation from corms showing different types of symptoms allowed to note the dominance of the genus Fusarium, with variable isolation percentages, the highest was 20% for Fusarium solani and the lowest 8% for F. equiseti. Isolation from corms with small necrotic spots showed the presence of 8 fungal species, with a dominance of Aspergillus, Aspergillus niger (25%), Rhizopus oryzae (20%) and Fusarium solani (13%). Isolation from healthy corms showed dominance of Acremonium sp. (43%), Aspergillus nomius (20%) and Ulocladium sp. (15%). Other species were encountered, such as Beauveria sp. And Botrytis sp. The percentage of indeterminate fungi, isolated from the three types of corm lots, was variable, in the order of 14% in diseased corms and 9% in those appearing healthy. The study of the fungal diversity associated with corms meant for sowing may provide useful information on the pathogens carried by the corms. This latter can cause fungal diseases responsible for serious losses in saffron fields. Using high-quality corms will probably contribute to a good development of saffron plants, a satisfactory stigmas yield and the formation of a large number of mother bulbs (bulbs capable of producing bulbils in the following season).KeywordsCormsDormancy phaseFungiSaffron
Saffron, a Crocus sativus L. derivative, has been recognized for its medical benefits since ancient times. Besides being an active flavoring and coloring agent in several food items, saffron has primarily been known for its pharmacological properties. Its major metabolites like crocin, picrocrocin, and safranal have been studied in vivo and in vitro as active pharmaceutical agents for inflammation, depression, microbial infections, and cancer-like diseases. These phytochemicals are well known for targeting the etiology of various diseases, making them an essential plant derivative in modern times. Moreover, research has shown saffron with several toxicological consequences as well. Numerous experimental and clinical studies have been conducted to determine the toxicity and safety of saffron. Saffron extract, safranal, and crocin have little or no acute toxicity. Organ toxicity has been detected at high dosages during sub-acute exposure. The teratogenic effects of saffron and its components have been particularly noted at high concentrations. This review provides a comprehensive outlook on the pharmacological attributes of saffron and its derivatives, besides highlighting their associated toxicity.
The medicinal uses of saffron (Crocus sativus Linnaeus) have a long history beginning in Asian countries since the Late Bronze Age. Recent studies have validated its potential to lower the risk of several diseases. Saffron has been suggested to be effective in the treatment of a wide range of disorders including coronary artery diseases, hypertension, stomach disorders, dysmenorrhea and learning and memory impairments. In addition, different studies have indicated that saffron has anti-inflammatory, anti-atherosclerotic, antidiabetic, antigenotoxic and cytotoxic activities. The anticonvulsant and anti-Alzheimer properties of saffron extract were shown in human and animal studies. The efficacy of Crocus sativus in the treatment of mild to moderate depression was also reported in clinical trial. Many of these medicinal properties of saffron can be attributed to a number of its compounds such as crocetin, crocins and other substances having strong antioxidant and radical scavenger properties against a variety of radical oxygen species and pro-inflammatory cytokines.
Crocus sativus L. (Saffron) is an economically vital medicinal and aromatic plant. Saffron is known as the “Golden Condiment” being the world’s highest priced spice (€30,000 /kg) which is derived from its dry stigmas. Each stigma weighs about 2 mg, therefore, approximately 150,000 flowers are required to produce 1 kg of saffron. In India, saffron is cultivated in Kashmir valley on uplands (“Karewas” at an altitude of 15851677 m above sea level) and Kishtwar region of Jammu and Kashmir State. The major components of Crocus sativus stigma are the apocarotenoids like, picrocrocin (responsible for bitter taste), crocin, crocetin (responsible for bright natural color), and the odor-active safranal, which among > 150 volatile and aroma-yielding compounds, contribute to the color, bitter flavor, and aroma so typical of saffron. The terpenoids (Saponins) are present in corms and flavonoids (glycosidic derivatives of quercetin and kaempferol) in flowers. Currently, whole genome sequence of Crocus sativus is lacking, but its transcriptome provides deeper insights into the genes of apocarotenoid and carotenoid biosynthetic pathways and yet explored, insights into the metagenome of the plant. This chapter will present a glimpse of the current status, origin, history, distribution, production, folk uses, phytochemistry, therapeutics of saffron, and progress made in Crocus sativus genomics, metabolomics, transcriptomics, metagenomics, bioinformatics, miRNomics, etc., while their integratome omics approach will provide a useful framework in which synergies can be explored for gaining the insight into the systemic and comprehensive saffron biology and its future genetic progress can be employed by genome modification and genome engineering (through CRISPR-Cas) of target candidate genes.
ITS sequencing data indicate a low degree of variability of Cladophialophora bantiana. The species is restricted to strains differing in less than 6 ITS1 positions. Supplementary SSU and ITS RFLP data show that 31 strains can be assigned to this species. The great majority of these originate from brain infections of humans, cats and dogs. All possess a 558 bp intron at position 1768 in the SSU rDNA gene; a primer selective for the intron and hence diagnostic for the species has been developed. One cerebral strain proves to be a hitherto undescribed species. Subcutaneous strains cluster in Xylohypha emmonsii at about 35 bp difference from C. bantiana; this taxon is re-introduced despite high nDNA homology values. Cladophialophora devriesii contains a single strain; C. arxii is a somewhat heterogeneous assemblage.
A simple method is described for designing primer sets that can amplify specific protein-encoding sequences in a wide variety of filamentous ascomycetes. Using this technique, we successfully designed primers that amplified the intergenic spacer region of the nuclear ribosomal DNA repeat, portions of the translation elongation factor 1 alpha, calmodulin, and chitin synthase 1 genes, and two other genes encoding actin and ras protein. All amplicons were sequenced and determined to amplify the target gene. Regions were successfully amplified in Sclerotinia sclerotiorum and other Sclerotiniaceous species, Neurospora crassa, Trichophyton rubrum, Aspergillus nidulans, Podospora anserina, Fusarium solani, and Ophiostoma novo-ulmi. These regions are a potentially rich source of characters for population and speciation studies in filamentous ascomycetes. each primer set amplified a DNA product of predicted size from N. crassa.
In plants, various chitinases have been identified and categorized into several groups based on the analysis of their sequences and domains. We have isolated SafchiA, a novel class of chitinase from saffron (Crocus sativus L.). The cDNA encoding SafchiA is mainly expressed in roots and corms, and its expression is induced by elicitor treatment, methyl jasmonate, wounding, and by the fungi Fusarium oxysporum, Beauveria and Phoma sp., suggesting a defence role of the protein. Furthermore, in vitro assays with the recombinant native protein showed chitinolytic, and antifungal activity. The deduced protein shares high similarity with chitinases belonging to family 19 of glycosyl-hydrolases, although some changes in the enzyme active site are present. To explore the properties of SafchiA we have expressed recombinant SafchiA in Escherichia coli and generated four different mutants affected in residues involved in the catalytic activity. One glutamic acid essential for family 19 chitinases activity is not present in C. sativus chitinase suggesting that only one acidic residue is necessary for the enzyme activity, in a similar manner as family 18 glycosyl-hydrolases.
Ergosterol has been considered the "fungal sterol" for almost 125 years; however, additional sterol data superimposed on a recent molecular phylogeny of kingdom Fungi reveals a different and more complex situation.
The interpretation of sterol distribution data in a modern phylogenetic context indicates that there is a clear trend from cholesterol and other Delta(5) sterols in the earliest diverging fungal species to ergosterol in later diverging fungi. There are, however, deviations from this pattern in certain clades. Sterols of the diverse zoosporic and zygosporic forms exhibit structural diversity with cholesterol and 24-ethyl -Delta(5) sterols in zoosporic taxa, and 24-methyl sterols in zygosporic fungi. For example, each of the three monophyletic lineages of zygosporic fungi has distinctive major sterols, ergosterol in Mucorales, 22-dihydroergosterol in Dimargaritales, Harpellales, and Kickxellales (DHK clade), and 24-methyl cholesterol in Entomophthorales. Other departures from ergosterol as the dominant sterol include: 24-ethyl cholesterol in Glomeromycota, 24-ethyl cholest-7-enol and 24-ethyl-cholesta-7,24(28)-dienol in rust fungi, brassicasterol in Taphrinales and hypogeous pezizalean species, and cholesterol in Pneumocystis.
Five dominant end products of sterol biosynthesis (cholesterol, ergosterol, 24-methyl cholesterol, 24-ethyl cholesterol, brassicasterol), and intermediates in the formation of 24-ethyl cholesterol, are major sterols in 175 species of Fungi. Although most fungi in the most speciose clades have ergosterol as a major sterol, sterols are more varied than currently understood, and their distribution supports certain clades of Fungi in current fungal phylogenies. In addition to the intellectual importance of understanding evolution of sterol synthesis in fungi, there is practical importance because certain antifungal drugs (e.g., azoles) target reactions in the synthesis of ergosterol. These findings also invalidate use of ergosterol as an indicator of biomass of certain fungal taxa (e.g., Glomeromycota). Data from this study are available from the Assembling the Fungal Tree of Life (AFTOL) Structural and Biochemical Database: http://aftol.umn.edu.
Many plants produce low-molecular-weight compounds which inhibit the growth of phytopathogenic fungi in vitro. These compounds may be preformed inhibitors that are present constitutively in healthy plants (also known as phytoanticipins), or they may be synthesized in response to pathogen attack (phytoalexins). Successful pathogens must be able to circumvent or overcome these antifungal defenses, and this review focuses on the significance of fungal resistance to plant antibiotics as a mechanism of pathogenesis. There is increasing evidence that resistance of fungal pathogens to plant antibiotics can be important for pathogenicity, at least for some fungus-plant interactions. This evidence has emerged largely from studies of fungal degradative enzymes and also from experiments in which plants with altered levels of antifungal secondary metabolites were generated. Whereas the emphasis to date has been on degradative mechanisms of resistance of phytopathogenic fungi to antifungal secondary metabolites, in the future we are likely to see a rapid expansion in our knowledge of alternative mechanisms of resistance. These may include membrane efflux systems of the kind associated with multidrug resistance and innate resistance due to insensitivity of the target site. The manipulation of plant biosynthetic pathways to give altered antibiotic profiles will also be valuable in telling us more about the significance of antifungal secondary metabolites for plant defense and clearly has great potential for enhancing disease resistance for commercial purposes.
Plants elaborate a vast array of natural products, many of which have evolved to confer selective advantage against microbial attack. Recent advances in molecular technology, aided by the enormous power of large-scale genomics initiatives, are leading to a more complete understanding of the enzymatic machinery that underlies the often complex pathways of plant natural product biosynthesis. Meanwhile, genetic and reverse genetic approaches are providing evidence for the importance of natural products in host defence. Metabolic engineering of natural product pathways is now a feasible strategy for enhancement of plant disease resistance.
Amphotericin B is a polyene macrolide antibiotic derived from the actinomycete Streptomyces nodosus. Of the 200 known polyene agents, amphotericin B is the only one with toxicities that are sufficiently limited to permit intravenous administration. All polyenes have a common mechanism of action in that they preferentially bind to ergosterol, the primary sterol in the fungal cell membrane. The consequence of this binding includes disruption of the osmotic integrity of the membrane, with leakage of intracellular potassium and magnesium, and also the disruption of oxidative enzymes in target cells. Amphotericin B has a relatively broad spectrum of action and is useful in treating cases of candidosis, cryptococcosis, histoplasmosis, blastomycosis, paracoccidioidomycosis, coccidioidomycosis, aspergillosis, extracutaneous sporotrichosis and mucormycosis, and some cases of hyalohyphomycosis and phaeohyphomycosis. Resistance (MIC > 2 mg/L) tends to be species-dependent and emerges uncommonly and slowly in isolates from patients treated with amphotericin B. These include some individual strains of Candida albicans, Candida tropicalis, Candida parapsilosis and Candida lusitaniae, which may acquire resistance during treatment. Some isolates of Scedosporium apiospermum, Fusarium spp. and Sporothrix schenckii also show primary resistance, whereas all strains of Scedosporium prolificans demonstrate resistance. The main problems associated with the use of conventional amphotericin B have always been due to its poor aqueous solubility and toxicity rather than antifungal resistance.
Crocus sativus L. (saffron) is used in folk medicine, for example as an antiedematogenic agent. We aimed to evaluate the antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory activity of saffron extracts in mice.
We used aqueous and ethanolic maceration extracts of Crocus sativus L. stigma and petals. Antinociceptive activity was examined using the hot plate and writhing tests. The effect of extracts against acute inflammation was studied using xylene induced ear edema in mice. The activity of the extracts against chronic inflammation was assessed by formalin-induced edema in the rat paw. In the hot plate tests, intraperitoneal injection of both extracts showed no significant antinociceptive activity in mice. The extracts exhibited antinociceptive activity against acetic acid induced writhing. Naloxone partially blocked only the antinociceptive activity of the stigma aqueous extract. Only the stigma extracts showed weak to moderate effect against acute inflammation. In chronic inflammation, both aqueous and ethanolic stigma extracts, as well as ethanolic petal extract, exerted anti-inflammatory effects.
We conclude that aqueous and ethanolic extracts of saffron stigma and petal have an antinociceptive effect, as well as acute and/or chronic anti-inflammatory activity.
We report the rare case of a 19-year-old immunocompetent male suffering both from fungus balls of the sinuses and from chronic rhinosinusitis with massive polyposis. Endoscopic sinus surgery revealed grayish brown necrotic masses embedded in viscous eosinophilic mucus. Inoculated onto petri dishes, these masses as well as the mucus grew a dark pigmented fungus, which was identified as Bipolaris spicifera.
A simple method is described for designing primer sets that can amplify specific protein-encoding sequences in a wide variety of filamentous ascomycetes. Using this technique, we successfully designed primers that amplified the intergenic spacer region of the nuclear ribosomal DNA repeat, portions of the translation elongation factor 1 alpha, calmodulin, and chitin synthase 1 genes, and two other genes encoding actin and ras protein. All amplicons were sequenced and determined to amplify the target gene. Regions were successfully amplified in Sclerotinia sclerotiorum and other sclerotiniaceous species, Neurospora crassa, Trichophyton rubrum, Aspergillus nidulans, Podospora anserina, Fusarium solani, and Ophiostoma novo-ulmi. These regions are a potentially rich source of characters for population and speciation studies in filamentous ascomycetes. Each primer set amplified a DNA product of predicted size from N. crassa.
A description is provided for Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. radicis-lycopersici . Information is included on the disease caused by the organism, its transmission, geographical distribution, and hosts. HOSTS: Lycopersicon spp., including L. esculentum Mill. (tomato). Plants from several families may also be susceptible to some strains, in particular Capsicum frutescens L., Solanum melongena L. ( Solanaceae ), Arachis hypogea L., Astragalus glycyphyllos L., Glycine max (L.) Merr., Phaseolus vulgaris L., Pisum sativum L., Trifolium spp., Vicia faba L., ( Leguminosae ), Cucumis spp. ( Cucurbitaceae ), Beta vulgaris L. and Spinacia oleracea L. ( Chenopodiaceae ) (Jarvis & Shoemaker, 1978; 69, 7094; 73, 7659). DISEASE: Crown and root rot. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: Australia, Belgium, Canada, Crete, France, Germany, Greece, Israel, Italy, Japan, Mexico, Spain, Sweden, The Netherlands, UK, USA. TRANSMISSION: Long range dissemination is via contaminated seed (73, 5786), diseased planting material (70, 1472) and by movement of infected soil/compost (64, 2160). Locally, conidia are readily spread by water flow, e.g. in irrigation or hydroponic systems (71, 4871, 4872, 6378). Some airborne dispersal of microconidia has been detected in glasshouses (Rowe et al. , 1977), presumably resulting from splash droplet formation following sporulation on nearby plant debris. Fungus gnats have been reported to transport the fungus (73, 5534).
For the first time in over 20 years, a comprehensive collection of photographs and descriptions of species in the fungal genus Fusarium is available. This laboratory manual provides an overview of the biology of Fusarium and the techniques involved in the isolation, identification and characterization of individual species and the populations in which they occur. It is the first time that genetic, morphological and molecular approaches have been incorporated into a volume devoted to Fusarium identification. The authors include descriptions of species, both new and old, and provide protocols for genetic, morphological and molecular identification techniques. The Fusarium Laboratory Manual also includes some of the evolutionary biology and population genetics thinking that has begun to inform the understanding of agriculturally important fungal pathogens. In addition to practical how-to protocols it also provides guidance in formulating questions and obtaining answers about this very important group of fungi. The need for as many different techniques as possible to be used in the identification and characterization process has never been greater. These approaches have applications to fungi other than those in the genus Fusarium. This volume presents an introduction to the genus Fusarium, the toxins these fungi produce and the diseases they can cause. The Fusarium Laboratory Manual is a milestone in the study of the genus Fusarium and will help bridge the gap between morphological and phylogenetic taxonomy. It will be used by everybody dealing with Fusarium in the Third Millenium. -W.F.O. Marasas, Medical Research Council, South Africa.
† Bipolaris spicifera is a dematiaceous fungus that has rarely been reported to cause cutaneous infection in humans. A patient with leukemia was examined for a nonhealing ulcer on her leg that developed following minor trauma. Histopathologic study revealed groups of nonpigmented, septate fungal hyphae located predominantly in the necrotic ulcer base. Cultures of a biopsy specimen yielded colonies that were gray to black with a black reverse. Microscopic examination revealed dematiaceous, straight, oblong conidia consistent with B spicifera. The ulcer was successfully treated with surgical excision, skin graft, and amphotericin B.
(Arch Dermatol. 1989;125:1383-1386)
The medicinal virtues of saffron have lately been rediscovered. However, the new findings confirming ancient knowledge in modern research can only be made accessible to the pharmaceutical, food and cosmetics industry if quality can be defined and controlled on all levels of production, from the field down to the finished product. According to EU regulations, the industry needs traceable material of reproducible composition, specifically tailored to the intended use by selection of a suitable cultivar and the appropriate extraction method. Within our screening project, we are building up a database on the characteristics of identified saffron cultivars. Extraction procedures were developed for various applications, and quality control systems installed on all levels from the field to the extract. In addition to saffron extracts, value-added products from other plant parts of Crocus sativus are currently under examination, which might increase the benefits from saffron production for the producing countries.
The essential oils from aerial parts of Thapsia minor Hoffmanns. & Link (Apiaceae), obtained by hydrodistillation, were analyzed by gas-chromatography and gas-chromatography–mass spectrometry. Oxygenated monoterpenes represented the main fraction with geranyl acetate (82.3–83.0%) as the major constituent, making this plant a good source of this compound.Biological activity of the essential oil was evaluated against several fungal strains. The highest activity was found against dermatophyte strains, Crytococcus neoformans and Candida guillermondii with minimal inhibitory concentrations values from 0.32 μl/ml to 1.25 μl/ml. The antifungal activity could be associated with the significant contribution of the oxygenated monoterpene geranyl acetate.Furthermore, this essential oil demonstrated to have potent anti-inflammatory in vitro activity, at concentrations that did not affect macrophages and keratinocytes viability, being the anti-inflammatory properties of the oil mainly due to geranyl acetate.These favorable results emphasize the antifungal and anti-inflammatory abilities of the molecule geranyl acetate and further support the exploitation of T. minor oil for pharmaceutical industry, in order to find new phytopharmaceuticals.
A mixture of highly glycosilated triterpenoid saponins (CS5) isolated from the corm of Crocus sativus or saffron showed cytotoxic activity against HeLa tumoral cells. The main reverse phase HPLC fraction of this mixture (CS5-1) contains two new oleanane-type saponins, denominated Azafrine 1 (1) and Azafrine 2(2). The bidesmosidic saponins were respectively characterized as (1) 3-O-beta-D-glucopyranosiduronic acid echinocystic acid 28-O-beta-D-galactopyranosyl-(1 -> 2)-alpha-L-arabinopyranosyl-(1 -> 2)-[beta-D-xylopyranosyl-(1 -> 4)]-alpha-D-rhamnopyranosyl-(1 -> 2)-[4-O-di-alpha-L-rhamnopyranosyl-3,16-dihydroxy-10-oxo-hexadecanoyl]-beta-D-fucopyranoside and (2) 3-O-beta-D-galactopyranosiduronic acid echinocystic acid 28-O-beta-D-galactopyranosyl-(1 -> 2)-alpha-L-arabinopyranosyl-(1 -> 2)-[beta-D-xylopyranosyl-(1 -> 4)]-alpha-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1 -> 2)-[4-O-di-alpha-L-rhamnopyranosyl-3,16-dihydroxy-10-oxo-hexadecanoyl]-beta-D-fucopyranoside. The surfactant properties of saponins, probably involved in the cytotoxic activity of CS5 and their exclusive localization in the external part or the corm, indicate their possible role as phytoprotectans. The similarity of their structural compositions to that of other triterpenoid saponins which are of special use in the pharmaceutical industry suggest a new application for C. sativus crops through the exploitation of corm for saponin extraction. Crown Copyright
Several honey samples (27) from Burkina Faso were analyzed to determine their total phenolic, flavonoid and proline contents as well as their radical scavenging activity. These samples consisted of 18 multifloral, 2 honeydew and 7 unifloral honeys, derived in the latter cases from flowers of Combretaceae, Vitellaria, Acacia and Lannea plant species. The total phenolic contents varied considerably with the highest values obtained for honeydew honey. Similarly, much variation was seen in total flavonoid and proline content, with Vitellaria honey having the highest proline content. Vitellaria honey was also found to have the highest antioxidant activity and content. The correlation between radical scavenging activity and proline content was higher than that for total phenolic compounds. This suggests that the amino acid content of honey should be considered more frequently when determining its antioxidant activity.
This study selected 13 fruits and vegetables to determine their total phenolic and flavonoid contents and their stimulatory effects on splenocyte proliferation from female BALB/c mice. The highest total phenolic content was observed in mulberry (1515.9 ± 5.7 mg gallic acid equivalents (GAE)/100 g fresh matter (FM)) among four selected fruit species. The highest total phenolic content was observed in a variety of red onions (310.8 ± 4.9 mg GAE/100 g FM) among nine selected vegetable species. The highest total flavonoid content was observed in mulberry (250.1 ± 6.3 mg quercetin equivalents (QE)/100 g FM) among the selected fruits. The highest total flavonoid content was observed in ceylon spinach (133.1 ± 26.2 mg QE/100 g FM) among the selected vegetables. The mulberry, strawberry and red onion demonstrated an immuno-modulatory potential via stimulating splenocyte proliferation. Bitter melon showed a significantly (P < 0.05) negative correlation with splenocyte proliferation. Their immuno-modulatory components are highly correlated with phenolics, including flavonoids. The total phenolic contents in all selected fruits and vegetables significantly correlated with splenocyte proliferation in vitro.
The effects of industrial tomato paste processing and long-term (12 months) ambient storage on the content and stability of quercetin, kaempferol, ascorbic acid (AA), dehydroascorbic acid (DHAA), β-carotene and lycopene were evaluated in a commercially produced tomato paste.
The initial thermal treatment (hot break; 93 °C for 5 min) resulted in significant reductions in quercetin (54%), kaempferol (61%), AA (63%) and β-carotene (30%), whereas subsequent processing steps (e.g. evaporation and sterilization) did not result in marked changes in these compounds. Lycopene was stable during hot break but decreased by 20% through evaporation and sterilization. The ratio of DHAA:vitamin C increased during hot break to 23%, whereas the ratio of DHAA:vitamin C remained relatively low in subsequent processing steps, indicating that AA was not oxidized. AA decreased with prolonged storage, with only 13% remaining at 12 months. The carotenoids and quercetin remained stable through 12 months of ambient storage.
Tomato pomace contained significant amounts of carotenoids and flavonoids, indicating that it may be an underutilized processing byproduct.
Fungal species of the genus Aspergillus play significant roles as model organisms in basic research, as "cell factories" for the production of organic acids, pharmaceuticals or industrially important enzymes and as pathogens causing superficial and invasive infections in animals and humans. The release of the genome sequences of several Aspergillus sp. has paved the way for global analyses of protein expression in Aspergilli including the characterisation of proteins, which have not designated any function. With the application of proteomic methods, particularly 2-D gel and LC-MS/MS-based methods, first insights into the composition of the proteome of Aspergilli under different growth and stress conditions could be gained. Putative targets of global regulators led to the improvement of industrially relevant Aspergillus strains and so far not described Aspergillus antigens have already been discovered. Here, I review the recent proteome data generated for the species Aspergillus nidulans, Aspergillus fumigatus, Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus terreus, Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus oryzae.
Endophytic fungi are microorganisms living within the tissues of host plants, and have proven to be rich sources of biologically active secondary metabolites and therefore have attracted increasing attention in recent years.
To isolate and characterize bioactive constituents from the endophytic fungus cultures of Crocus sativus Linn. (Iridaceae).
Endophytes were isolated from the corm of C. sativus. Endophytic fungus cultures were subjected to repeated column chromatography. Chemical structure was elucidated based on extensive spectroscopic methods and X-ray diffraction analysis. Several pathogenic fungi isolates and tumor cell lines were employed to evaluate the antifungal and cytotoxic activities of the isolated compound.
An isolate of Penicillium vinaceum (strain no. X17) was obtained from the corm of C. sativus. Chemical investigations of the endophyte culture broth afforded an unique quinazoline alkaloid (1), identified as (-)-(1R,4R)-1,4-(2,3)-indolmethane-1-methyl-2,4-dihydro-1H-pyrazino-[2,1-b]-quinazoline-3,6-dione, which showed cytotoxic (IC(50) range 40.55-76.83 μg/mL) and antifungal (MIC(80) range 16-64 μg/mL) activities.
Endophytes in C. sativus can be a rich source of novel bioactive compounds, which prompts us to expand the medicinal resource of this valuable plant in another way. Compound 1 exhibited potential cytotoxic and antifungal activities and may be considered a lead compound for promising antifungal and anticariogenic agent.
It is well known that phenolic compounds are constituents of many plants. In this study, the total phenolics content in Crocus sativus L. corms in dormancy and waking stages were determined by the Folin-Ciocalteu method. Analysis was carried out by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) after silylation by N-methyl-N-trimethylsilyl trifluroacetamide (MSTFA) + %1 trimethyl iodosilane (TMIS). Numerous compounds were detected and 11 compounds were identified. The highest phenolics content in waking corms was observed for gentisic acid (5.693 ± 0.057 μg/g) and the lowest for gallic acid (0.416 ± 0.006 μg/g); also these two phenolic compounds are the highest (0.929 ± 0.015 μg/g) and lowest (0.017 ± 0.001 μg/g) phenolics in dormant corms, respectively. The results from quantization and GC-MS analysis showed a high concentration of phenolic compounds in waking corms than the dormant stage. Furthermore, the radical scavenging activities of saffron corms were studied by 1,1-diphenyl-2-pycrylhydrazyl (DPPH) test and EC
50values were determined about 2055 ppm and 8274 ppm for waking and dormant corms, respectively.
Plants have developed many mechanisms to protect themselves against most potential microbial pathogens and diseases. Among these mechanisms, pathogenesis-related proteins are produced as part of the active defence to prevent attack. In this study, a full-length cDNA encoding the CsPR10 protein was identified in fresh saffron stigmas (Crocus sativus). The deduced amino acid sequence from the nucleotide sequence of the coding region showed homology with PR10 proteins. The clone expressed as a protein in fusion with a GST tag produced a 47-kDa protein in E. coli. CsPR10 had ribonuclease activity, with features common to class II-type ribonucleases; its specific activity was quantified as 68.8 U·mg(-1) protein, thus falling within the range of most PR10 proteins exhibiting RNase activity. Antifungal activity of CsPR10 was assayed against Verticillium dahliae, Penicillium sp. and Fusarium oxysporum. CsPR10 inhibited only F. oxysporum growth, and antifungal potency was reflected in a IC(50) of 8.3 μm. Expression analysis showed the presence of high transcript levels in anther and tepal tissues, low levels in stigmas and roots, and no signal detected in leaves. This protein seems to be involved in the active defence response through activation of the jasmonic acid pathway.
Anti-Candida activity of essential oils has been widely studied and as a consequence they are being investigated as possible alternatives or complementary therapeutic agents for candidosis. We reviewed the most studied essential oils concerning chemical composition and in vitro/in vivo studies under the perspective of their possible clinical use.
A case of phaeohyphomycosis caused by Bipolaris spicifera involving the brain and sinuses is presented. The patient survived following surgery and ketoconazole therapy, which successfully treated both the sinus and the brain infections.
Bipolaris spicifera is a dematiaceous fungus that has rarely been reported to cause cutaneous infection in humans. A patient with leukemia was examined for a non-healing ulcer on her leg that developed following minor trauma. Histopathologic study revealed groups of nonpigmented, septate fungal hyphae located predominantly in the necrotic ulcer base. Cultures of a biopsy specimen yielded colonies that were gray to black with a black reverse. Microscopic examination revealed dematiaceous, straight, oblong conidia consistent with B spicifera. The ulcer was successfully treated with surgical excision, skin graft, and amphotericin B.
A number of cytochrome P450s are targets for compounds that are clinically used or under clinical evaluation for treatment of patients with mycotic infections, such as dermatophytosis, superficial and systemic candidiasis, cryptococcosis and aspergillosis, with skin diseases, such as psoriasis or ichthyosis, and other retinoid-sensitive malignancies, e.g., neuro-ectodermal glioma. Some of the P450 inhibitors are candidates for the treatment of hirsutism or prostate cancer, others are potent inhibitors of the P450 isomerase involved in the synthesis of thromboxane A2, a potent platelet aggregation inducer and vasoconstrictor.
We constructed nine sets of oligonucleotide primers on the basis of the results of DNA hybridization of cloned genes from Neurospora crassa and Aspergillus nidulans to the genomes of select filamentous ascomycetes and deuteromycetes (with filamentous ascomycete affiliations). Nine sets of primers were designed to amplify segments of DNA that span one or more introns in conserved genes. PCR DNA amplification with the nine primer sets with genomic DNA from ascomycetes, deuteromycetes, basidiomycetes, and plants revealed that five of the primer sets amplified a product only from DNA of the filamentous ascomycetes and deuteromycetes. The five primer sets were constructed from the N. crassa genes for histone 3, histone 4, beta-tubulin, and the plasma membrane ATPase. With these five primer sets, polymorphisms were observed in both the size of and restriction enzyme sites in the amplified products from the filamentous ascomycetes. The primer sets described here may provide useful tools for phylogenetic studies and genome analyses in filamentous ascomycetes and deuteromycetes (with ascomycete affiliations), as well as for the rapid differentiation of fungal species by PCR.
In this study the interaction between the glycoalkaloids alpha-chaconine, alpha-solanine and alpha-tomatine and sterols in model membranes was analysed systematically using techniques like membrane leakage, binding experiments, detergent extraction, electron microscopy, NMR and molecular modelling. The most important properties for sterols to interact with glycoalkaloids turned out to be a planer ring structure and a 3 beta-OH group, whereas for alpha-chaconine the 5-6 double bond and the 10-methyl group were also of importance. The importance of sugar-sugar interactions was illustrated by the high synergistic effect between alpha-chaconine and alpha-solanine, the leakage enhancing effect of glycolipids, and the almost complete loss of activity after deleting one or more mono-saccharides from the glycoalkaloids. The formed complexes which were resistant against detergent extraction existed of glycoalkaloid/sterol in a 1:1 ratio and formed tubular structures (alpha-chaconine) with an inner monolayer of phospholipids, whereas with alpha-tomatine also spherical structures were formed. Based on the results a molecular model for glycoalkaloid induced membrane disruption is presented.
Saponins are common plant secondary metabolites (glycosylated triterpenoid or steroid molecules) which are found in a wide range of dicotyledonous plant species, and also in some monocots1–5. Many saponins have been demonstrated to have potent antifungal activities and often occur in healthy plants at levels which are anticipated to be toxic to saponin-sensitive fungi6. This has led to speculation that saponins may act as pre-formed determinants of resistance to fungal attack. Van Etten et al.7 have proposed the term “phytoanticipin” to distinguish pre-formed antimicrobial substances from those induced de novo in response to pathogen attack (phytoalexins). By this definition saponins fall into the category of phytoanticipins. However, in some instances the concentrations of saponins have been reported to increase in response to microbial attack8,9.
Miconazole is an imidazole antifungal agent that is available in topical, vaginal, and parenteral formulations. Indications for the parenteral product have become rare with the development of newer, more effective agents. A 54-year-old man who had undergone orthotopic heart transplantation developed a widespread subcutaneous Scopulariopsis infection that progressed despite treatment with amphotericin B and itraconazole. Intravenous miconazole was added to his regimen. During the infusion he developed a bradyarrhythmia that resolved after miconazole was discontinued. On rechallenge with a lower dosage, bradyarrhythmia recurred and progressed to ventricular fibrillation. The patient died despite full resuscitation efforts. Only a few case reports exist of miconazole-induced cardiac arrhythmias, and these events were attributed to rapid intravenous administration, insufficient dilution, and the drug's vehicle. We believe that intravenous miconazole should be given with caution to patients with underlying heart disease.
Avenacin A-1 is a member of a group of naturally occurring compounds called saponins. It is found in oat plants, where it protects against fungal pathogens. A combined electrical and optical chamber was used to determine the interaction of avenacin A-1 with Montal-Mueller planar lipid bilayers. This system allowed simultaneous measurement of the effect of avenacin A-1 on the fluorescence and lateral diffusion of a fluorescent lipid probe and permeability of the planar lipid bilayer. As expected, cholesterol was required for avenacin A-1-induced bilayer permeabilization. The planar lipid bilayers were also challenged with monodeglucosyl, bis-deglucosyl, and aglycone derivatives of avenacin A-1. The results show that the permeabilizing activity of the native avenacin A-1 was completely abolished after one, two, or all three sugar residues are hydrolyzed (monodeglucosyl, bis-deglucosyl, and aglycone derivatives, respectively). Fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP) measurements on cholesterol-containing planar lipid bilayers revealed that avenacin A-1 caused a small but significant reduction in the lateral diffusion of the phospholipid probe N-(7-nitrobenzoyl-2-oxa-1,3-diazol-4-yl)-1, 2-dihexadecanoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine (NBD-PE). Similarly, with the sterol probe (22-(N-(7-nitrobenz-2-oxa-1, 3-diazol-4-yl)amino)-23,24-bisnor-5-cholen-3beta-ol (NBD-Chol), avenacin A-1, but not its derivatives, caused a more pronounced reduction in the lateral diffusion than that observed with the phospholipid probe. The data indicate that an intact sugar moiety of avenacin A-1 is required to reorganize membrane cholesterol into pores.
Fusarium graminearum is the predominant pathogen causing fusarium head blight of cereals in North America. Fifteen Canadian isolates of Fusarium graminearum were highly diverse in terms of vegetative compatibility grouping (VCG) and varied for production of ergosterol and mycotoxin production in rice culture. Aggressiveness was assessed by scoring the disease severity incited in wheat spikes by each isolate. Two inoculation methods, single-floret injection and spray of entire spikes, were used to screen 4 wheat varieties for reaction to the F. graminearum isolates. All isolates were of broadly similar aggressiveness, with disease severity ranging from 17.2 to 39.1 for single floret injection, and 39.1 to 69.0 for spray inoculation. Disease severity, ergosterol production, and mycotoxin development were not correlated. Using nitrate non-utilizing mutants the 15 isolates were grouped into 14 VCGs. Deoxynivalenol (DON) was produced by all isolates in rice culture, at levels between 0.2 and 249 ppm. 15-acetyldeoxynivalenol was produced by 14 of the 15 isolates at levels between 0.4 and 44.6 ppm. These results reveal a high level of diversity for several characteristics among F. graminearum isolates from Canada.
In recent years there has been an increasing interest in the use of natural substances, and some questions concerning the safety of synthetic compounds have encouraged more detailed studies of plant resources. Essential oils, odorous and volatile products of plant secondary metabolism, have a wide application in folk medicine, food flavouring and preservation as well as in fragrance industries. The antimicrobial properties of essential oils have been known for many centuries. In recent years (1987-2001), a large number of essential oils and their constituents have been investigated for their antimicrobial properties against some bacteria and fungi in more than 500 reports. This paper reviews the classical methods commonly used for the evaluation of essential oils antibacterial and antifungal activities. The agar diffusion method (paper disc and well) and the dilution method (agar and liquid broth) as well as turbidimetric and impedimetric monitoring of microorganism growth in the presence of tested essential oils are described. Factors influencing the in vitro antimicrobial activity of essential oils and the mechanisms of essential oils action on microorganisms are reported. This paper gives an overview on the susceptibility of human and food-borne bacteria and fungi towards different essential oils and their constituents. Essential oils of spices and herbs (thyme, origanum, mint, cinnamon, salvia and clove) were found to possess the strongest antimicrobial properties among many tested.
Traditional medicine has made use of many different plant extracts for treatment of fungal infections and some of these have been tested for in vitro antifungal activity. This systematic review evaluates antifungal herbal preparations that have been tested in controlled clinical trials. Four electronic databases were searched for controlled clinical trials of antifungal herbal medicines. Data were extracted in a standardized manner by two independent reviewers and are reviewed narratively. Seven clinical trials met our inclusion criteria. Tea tree oil preparations were tested in four randomized clinical trials and some positive outcomes were attributed to the intervention in all trials. Solanum species (two trials) and oil of bitter orange preparations (one trial) were compared with conventional treatments. In all cases encouraging results were reported. There are few controlled clinical trials of herbal antifungal medicines. The most thoroughly clinically tested is tea tree oil, which holds some promise. All herbal remedies require further investigation in rigorous clinical trials.
There have been very few reports in Japan of patients with allergic fungal sinusitis (AFS). We describe two cases caused by Bipolaris spicifera and Schizophyllum commune. The patients were a 70-year-old male (Case 1) and a 55-year-old female (Case 2). Both presented with nasal obstruction and purulent nasal discharge. CT scans revealed each to have a soft tissue mass extending from the ethmoid sinus to the sphenoid sinus. In addition, pathological studies on the contents of the paranasal sinuses of both patients revealed the presence of fungal elements in the allergic mucin. Microbiological studies resulted in the recovery of Bipolaris spicifera from Case 1 and Schizophyllum commune from Case 2. To date there have been no reports of AFS due to these two fungi in Japan. It is very important in the diagnosis of AFS to demonstrate the presence of fungal elements in the allergic mucin. Squash cytology of the paranasal sinus contents was especially useful for proving the presence of fungi.
Resistance to conventional fungicides causes the poor disease control of agriculture. Natural products from plants have great potential as novel fungicide sources for controlling pathogenic fungi. In this study antipathogenic activity of the leaf essential oil and its constituents from Calocedrus macrolepis var. formosana Florin were evaluated in vitro against six plant pathogenic fungi. Chemical analysis of leaf oil by GC/MS allowed identification of alpha-pinene (44.2%), limonene (21.6%), beta-myrcene (8.9%), beta-caryophyllene (8.2%), caryophyllene oxide (2.4%), alpha-cadinol (1.6%), beta-pinene (1.2%), and T-muurolol (1.1%) as main components. Sesquiterpenoid components of the oil were more effective than monoterpenoid components of the oil. In particular, T-muurolol and alpha-cadinol strongly inhibited the growth of Rhizoctonia solani and Fusarium oxysporum, with the IC(50) values < 50 microg ml(-1). These compounds also efficiently inhibited the mycelial growths of Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, P. funerea, Ganoderma australe and F. solani. These results showed that T-muurolol and alpha-cadinol possess antifungal activities against a broad spectrum of tested plant pathogenic fungi and could be used as potential antifungal agents for the control of fungal diseases in plants.
The plant fungal pathogen Fusarium oxysporum (Fox) is the causal agent of root rot or wilt diseases in several plant species, including crops such as tomato (Solanum lycopersicum), banana (Musa sapientum) and asparagus (Asparagus officinalis). Colonization of plants by Fox leads to the necrosis of the infected tissues, a subsequent collapse of vascular vessels and decay of the plant. Plant resistance to Fox appears to be monogenic or oligogenic depending on the host. Perception of Fox by plants follows the concept of elicitor-induced immune response, which in turn activates several plant defense signaling pathways. Here, we review the Fox-derived elicitors identified so far and the interaction among the different signaling pathways mediating plant resistance to Fox.
Illustrated Genera of Imperfect Fungi Arabidopsis defense response against Fusarium oxysporum
- H Barnett
- B Hunter
- Usa Mn
- M Berrocal-Lobo
- A Molina
Barnett, H., Hunter, B., 1998. Illustrated Genera of Imperfect Fungi. APS Press, MN, USA. Berrocal-Lobo, M., Molina, A., 2008. Arabidopsis defense response against Fusarium oxysporum. Trends Plant Sci. 13, 145–150.
Occurrence of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. gladioli on saffron in Italy
- Cappelli
Cappelli, C., 1994. Occurrence of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. gladioli on saffron in Italy.
Phytopahol. Mediterr. 33, 93-94.