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Antifungal potentials of indigenous black soap commonly used in Ibadan, Nigeria
Abstract
Antifungal potentials of indigenous black soap from Ibadan,South western Nigeria were investigated. Seven fungal species (Trichophyton rubrum, T. mentagrophytes, T. proliferans, Microsporium canis, Trichophyton .sp., Aspergillus sp. and Candida albicans) which are responsible for different kind of infections were tested against black soap samples collected from different locations within Ibadan city . All the test mycoorganisms were found to be susceptible to the black soap samples with varying degree of zones of inhibition (ZOI). Candida albicans was the most susceptible fungus in all tested samples. It produced 25mm ZOI at 100% concentration closely followed by the same sample at 75% (23mm). Trichophyton mentagrophytes was the highly susceptible to sample B at 100% concentration having 22mm ZOI. Trichophyton proliferans was susceptible to sample B. M.canis was sensitive to sample E at100% concentration closely followed by sample C and D at the same concentration. At 75% concentration, sample D also produced moderate inhibitory effect on M.canis (15mm). Generally, C. albicans was the most susceptible fungi to all the indigenous black soap samples used in these studies while Aspergillus sp. was least susceptible. However, Aspergillus sp was susceptible to sample D and E at 100% concentration (15mm) [Jonathan SG, Efunshile AM,Olawuyi OJ,Babalola BJ, Efuntoye MO and Dixon DO Antifungal potentials of indigenous black soap commonly used in Ibadan south-western Nigeria. Academia Arena 2013;5(7):50-55] (ISSN 1553-992X). http://www.sciencepub.net/academia. 7
... All these bioactive components generally contribute to effective antimicrobial of TABS. 44 Many other additives to black soap have been found to have antimicrobial activities. These include Aloe vera different parts of lime fruit, and extracts of Pterocarpus stems (Camwood). ...
The African black soap is popular for its cleansing and medicinal properties particularly amongst those of African descent. The “traditional” African black soap” refers to soaps made from the ash derived alkali from agricultural waste and oil extracted from vegetable matter without the addition of cosmetic enhancing products. Production of black soap has been traced to west Africa especially Nigeria and Ghana. The raw materials are readily available in the region making the soap available and affordable for most in sub‐Saharan Africa. It has been described as gentle, super fatted and hypoallergenic. It is advertised as antimicrobial, anti‐acne, exfoliating, skin toning, scar fading and having medicinal properties. It is popular for its management of skin diseases, although some of the claims remain anecdotal. Generations of Africans abroad continue to use modified versions of the soap and claim they are satisfied with the results obtained.
However, in the management of patients with skin disorders, especially eczema, in sub‐Saharan Africa, prescribing an ideal skin cleanser can be challenging as many cannot afford the imported non‐soap cleansers with skin friendly pH.
Studies have shown that the traditional black soap does have antimicrobial properties against staphylococcal and some streptococcal organisms, which are common seen in the tropical climate. The recent ban of some antiseptics in popular antibacterial soaps in this environment, emphasises the need for production of safer antimicrobials. The antimicrobial, physiochemical and phytochemical properties of the African black soap suggest it may have beneficial effects on the overall skin health.
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... The production of ABS involves eight distinct stages [5]: Extraction-The Process involves the extraction palm oil, Burning-burning the plantain skins and cocoa pods in fire until it turns to ashes, Mixing -ashes gotten from the burning stage is mixed with water, Leaching -the ash 604 solution is then leached to remove excess water, Boilingthe dilute ash solution is boiled to increase the concentration. Cooking-This process involves cooking the ash solution with the addition of palm kernel, Adding -extra ingredients are added to the soap mix if necessary. ...
Information and Communications Technology has influenced the need for automated machines that can carry out important production procedures and, automata models are among the computational models used in design and construction of industrial processes. The production process of the popular African Black Soap (ABS), which is widely used for the alleviation of various skin ailments among other uses, is still mostly done manually. In this paper, an automata model was developed for ABS manufacturing process using Moore and Mealy Finite State Machines. Simulation of standard input of raw materials into the machine was achieved using Input-Output methodology with pseudo random number generated input data. The output of this methodology served as the actual fractional contents of the raw ingredients fed into the Moore and Mealy machine. The automata models were simulated for ten runs using application developed with Microsoft Visual C#. The performance of each machine was assessed in order to determine, the most efficient of the machines using execution time as parameter. The simulation results showed that the Mealy Machine is faster than the Moore Machine as evident by the time overhead of over 3hrs in the production time process of ABS.
The paper presents a preliminary report on the observational studies on Senna alata soap for the management of superficial skin infections among the inmates of Ilesa Prison, Nigeria. Thirty three inmates were recruited for the study and randomly distributed into 19 treatments and 14 controls. S. alata leaf powder was incorporated into the soap consisting of caustic soda (NaOH) and palm kernel oil (PKO) to make 1.5% w/w. The herbal soap mixture was poured and allowed to solidify and then cut into stable tablets (65 g each). Tinea versicolor and Tinea corporis were the major fungal infections found on the skin lesions at diagnosis prior to commencement of study, while Epidermophyton floccusum and Cryptococcus sp were microscopically observed to be responsible for the lesions. The 'alata soap' significantly cleared the lesions on 16 subjects (94.1%), comprising (11) T. versicolor and (5) T. corporis. None of the controls was cleared significantly. The study clearly confirmed the folkloric claims on S. alata as an antimicrobial agent for treating skin infections.
Palm kernel oil from various sources was assayed for lauric acid content and inhibitory effect against Staphylococcus aureus , Streptococcus sp. and Candida albicans . The different palm kernel oil samples showed noticeable inhibitory effect on S. aureus and Streptococcus sp. while no significant inhibitory effect was observed on C. albicans. The highest zone of inhibition was observed with the commercial palm kernel oil (PKO) followed by the mechanically extracted PKO. Similarly, lauric acid content was highest in the commercially obtained PKO followed by that mechanically extracted and least in the laboratory prepared PKO.
The comparative study on the effect of locally made black soap and conventional medicated soaps Dettol, Dudu osun, Zee and Tura were investigated on isolated human skin microflora using disk diffusion method. The organisms isolated as skin microbiota were Staphylococcus aureus (30%), Staphylococcus epidermidis (26%), Corynebacterium spp (22%), Bacillus spp (16%) and Echerichia coli (6%). The results obtained revealed that the traditional black soap exhibited a high level of antimicrobial activities resulting in greater zones of inhibition (10.65) against other medicated soaps such as Dettol, Dudu Osun, Zee, and Tura that show the following zones of inhibition 7.58, 9.78, 10.57 and 9.29 respectively. Significant differences (p< 0.05) were also observed on the concentrations used. African black soap through this study can thus, be recommended for use since it has the potentials of treating skin diseases.
Traditionally extracted palm oil and palm kernel oil were obtained from Elaets guineensis (Jacquin). Both oils have been used in the South Eastern Nigeria for the treatment of various diseases and skin infections. Five microorganisms namely; Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas areuginosa, Candida albicans and Aspergillus niger known to cause some infections treatable with these oils were investigated. The results showed that there was no inhibition on the five microorganisms by dura and tenera varieties of Elacis guineensis when tested individually. When the mixed extracts were tested, only Escherichia coli was minimally inhibited.
Inadequate storage facilities in Nigeria have led to yearly wastage of harvested agricultural food products thereby causing great economic loss to our farmers. The dried yam and plantain chips in storage usually loose their integrities and nutrients due to contamination from biodeteriorating and aflatoxigenic fungi. Aflatoxin detection, food values and mineral element compositions of locally made 'gbodo' (prepared from fermented yam, Dioscorea rotundata) and 'elubo ogede' (prepared from fermented plantain, Musa parasidiaca) stored for one and six months respectively were carried out using standard methods. Six different samples of each stored chips were collected and used for these investigations. Each set was carried out in triplicates using completely randomize design. A total number of 15 fungal species were isolated from stored 'gbodo' (GB) and 'elubo ogede' (EO) flour samples. These organisms include Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus fumigatus, Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus japonicum, Aspergillus parasiticus, Aspergillus ochraceus, Aspergillus tamari, Aspergillus tereus, Fusarium sp, Mucur racemosus, Paccilomyces varioti, Penicillum sp., Penicillum notatum, Rhizopus stolonifer, Rhizopus sp. The presence of mycotoxins (aflatoxin B 1 , B 2 , G 1 and G) were detected in all the samples. Aflatoxin B 1 has the highest concentration: 32.33 g/kg in 6 months old 'gbodo' (6MOG) and 25.17 g/kg in (1MOG). Its concentration was however lower in 1 and 6 month old 'elubo ogede' (1MOEO and 6MOEO) in which 23.83 g/kg and 15.0 g/kg were detected respectively. The results showed that, with the exception of 1MOEO, with AFB 1 15.0 g/kg, the levels of aflatoxin contamination in all the stored chips exceeded the maximum AFB 1 residue limit permitted in most countries. Starch content of the samples was found to be higher in 1 MOG and' EO with 73.06 and 75.89% respectively but, the sugar content was generally low. Moisture contents of stored GB and EO also varied from 10.51 to 14.36%. The flours were found to contain moderate amount of protein (7.73 to 9.19%). The ascorbic acid contents of 1MOG and 6MOG were 4.44 and 5.25 mg/100g while that of 1MOEO and 6MOEO were 4.85 and 6.46 mg/100g respectively. It was observed that both GB and EO contained adequate amount of mineral elements such as K, Mg, P, Ca and Na. These fermented flour also has trace amount of Mn, Fe, Cu and Zn. The results showed that 'gbodo 'and 'elubo ogede' stored for over 6 months (without any preservatives) may be medically unsafe for consumption because of the contamination from aflatoxigenic and biodeteriorating fungi. All these observations were discussed in relation to the food safety of the fresh and stored traditional food investigated.
The therapeutic effects of some higher fungi – Fomes lignosus, Lentinus subnudus, Termitomyces robustus, Pleurotus tuber-regium, Pleurotus pulmonarius and their blend (mixture extract) against some pathogenic bacteria infected in albino rats (Rattus norvegicus) were studied. The bacteria used include E. coli, S. aureus, Salmonella typhi, P. aeruginosa, Streptococcus feacalis, and B. subtilis suspension of 0.1mlcfu intraperitoneally administered 7 days pre-fungi extract administration. Survival rates of the experimental rats were discovered to increase significantly. P. tuber-regium had the best therapeutic effect against the test bacteria.The pathological changes observed on the liver and kidney tissues from histological studies were reversed while they reduced to mild conditions in some. Undoubtedly, extracts from the studied fungi have therapeutic abilities against the test organisms.
The prophylactic potentials of five Nigerian higher fungi – Pleurotus tuber-regium, Pleurotus pulmonarius, Termitomyces robustus, Fomes lignosus, Lentinus subnudus and their combination in equal proportion (mixture extract) were investigated. The ethanolic fungi extracts were tested on sets of albino rats (Rattus norvegicus) infected with selected bacteria (Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonela typhi, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Streptococcus feacalis and Bacillus subtilis. Extracts were orally administered at 1.0ml concentration against 0.1ml/cfu microbial suspension intraperitoneally . Survival rates of the experimental rats were monitored. Mixture of these extracts exhibited significant level of prophylactic effect against all the bacteria in the host organisms. [Jonathan SG, Olawuyi OJ and Oluranti OO. Studies on Immunomodulatory and prophylactic properties of some wild Nigerian mushrooms. Academ Arena 2012;4(9):39-45] (ISSN 1553-992X). http://www.sciencepub.net/academia. 4
Investigations were conducted on the onions (Allium cepa) stored for 1, 3 , 9 and 12months respectively. The parameters studied include the proximate analysis and shelf life evaluation of the spice, mineral elements compositions, level of fungal and aflatoxin contamination on fresh and stored onion bulbs. Aspergillus and Fusarium specis were detected in all the samples while Penicillum sp was found in the 1 year old onion bulb sample. Proximate analysis showed variation in their nutrient contents. The moisture content, dry matter, ascorbic acid, starch, glucose, amino acid, protein and mineral nutrients were of significant values in all the samples. The results also showed that the aflatoxin level in the 1st , 3rd and 9th months were statistically insignificant(P>0.05), while those of 12 month old samples were relatively high. [Jonathan SG, Olawuyi OJ, Aina DA, Dada HG and Oyelakin AO. Influence of storage time on biodeterioration, aflatoxin contamination and food values of onion (Allium cepa). Nat Sci 2012;10(11):26-32]. (ISSN: 1545-0740). http://www.sciencepub.net/nature. 5
Inadequate storage facilities in Nigeria have led to yearly wastage of harvested agricultural food products thereby causing great economic loss to our farmers. The dried yam and plantain chips in storage usually loose their integrities and nutrients due to contamination from biodeteriorating and aflatoxigenic fungi. Aflatoxin detection, food values and mineral element compositions of locally made 'gbodo' (prepared from fermented yam, Dioscorea rotundata) and 'elubo ogede' (prepared from fermented plantain, Musa parasidiaca) stored for one and six months respectively were carried out using standard methods. Six different samples of each stored chips were collected and used for these investigations. Each set was carried out in triplicates using completely randomize design. A total number of 15 fungal species were isolated from stored 'gbodo' (GB) and 'elubo ogede' (EO) flour samples. These organisms include Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus fumigatus, Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus japonicum, Aspergillus parasiticus, Aspergillus ochraceus, Aspergillus tamari, Aspergillus tereus, Fusarium sp, Mucur racemosus, Paccilomyces varioti, Penicillum sp., Penicillum notatum, Rhizopus stolonifer, Rhizopus sp. The presence of mycotoxins (aflatoxin B 1 , B 2 , G 1 and G) were detected in all the samples. Aflatoxin B 1 has the highest concentration: 32.33 g/kg in 6 months old 'gbodo' (6MOG) and 25.17 g/kg in (1MOG). Its concentration was however lower in 1 and 6 month old 'elubo ogede' (1MOEO and 6MOEO) in which 23.83 g/kg and 15.0 g/kg were detected respectively. The results showed that, with the exception of 1MOEO, with AFB 1 15.0 g/kg, the levels of aflatoxin contamination in all the stored chips exceeded the maximum AFB 1 residue limit permitted in most countries. Starch content of the samples was found to be higher in 1 MOG and' EO with 73.06 and 75.89% respectively but, the sugar content was generally low. Moisture contents of stored GB and EO also varied from 10.51 to 14.36%. The flours were found to contain moderate amount of protein (7.73 to 9.19%). The ascorbic acid contents of 1MOG and 6MOG were 4.44 and 5.25 mg/100g while that of 1MOEO and 6MOEO were 4.85 and 6.46 mg/100g respectively. It was observed that both GB and EO contained adequate amount of mineral elements such as K, Mg, P, Ca and Na. These fermented flour also has trace amount of Mn, Fe, Cu and Zn. The results showed that 'gbodo 'and 'elubo ogede' stored for over 6 months (without any preservatives) may be medically unsafe for consumption because of the contamination from aflatoxigenic and biodeteriorating fungi. All these observations were discussed in relation to the food safety of the fresh and stored traditional food investigated.
In traditional medicine practice the locally made soap is a vehicle for drug application and drugs are usually
incorporated in powder form. Many herbal soaps being made incorporate the extract of the medicinal plant, but
this makes the soap very expensive and not easily produced for the use of the majority of people. This study
investigates the activity of a herbal soap incorporating two medicinal plants , Senna alata (L) Roxb
(Ceasalpinaceae) and Ageratum conyzoides Linn(Asteraceae) which are well known for their use in the treatment
of skin diseases and their antimicrobial activity, comparing it to the extracts of the plants. The study also
determines the optimum concentration of the herbs to be incorporated into the soap. Three soaps containing 3,5
and 8 % of the moderately fine powder of the two medicinal plants were prepared using the normal cold method
for preparing hand and body soap with NaOH and Palm kernel oil. Extract of the two plants was prepared by cold
extraction with methanol and concentrated in vacuo. The soaps and the extract were tested for antimicrobial
activity against typed organisms and clinical isolates, gram negative, gram positive organisms and fungi. The
results showed that the soap at 5% herbal content was optimal. The soaps showed activity against mainly the gram
positive organisms and fungi. The activity of the extract was not different from that of the soaps and therefore
shows no advantage in using the extracts to prepare the herbal soap.
The antifungal activity of a herbal decoction used by south western Nigeria traditional healers in the treatment of superficial mycoses and related infectious diseases was tested against clinical isolates of Candida albicans , Trichophyton rubrum and Microsporium sp. All the test organisms were susceptible to the herbal decoction. Candida albicans were highly susceptible, while Microsporium species were least susceptible. Qualitative detection of some antimicrobial phytochemicals may account for the antifungal efficacy exhibited by the studied decoction.
Analysis of the phenolic constituents of shea (Vitellaria paradoxa) kernels by LC-MS revealed eight catechin compounds-gallic acid, catechin, epicatechin, epicatechin gallate, gallocatechin, epigallocatechin, gallocatechin gallate, and epigallocatechin gallate-as well as quercetin and trans-cinnamic acid. The mean kernel content of the eight catechin compounds was 4000 ppm (0.4% of kernel dry weight), with a 2100-9500 ppm range. Comparison of the profiles of the six major catechins from 40 Vitellaria provenances from 10 African countries showed that the relative proportions of these compounds varied from region to region. Gallic acid was the major phenolic compound, comprising an average of 27% of the measured total phenols and exceeding 70% in some populations. Colorimetric analysis (101 samples) of total polyphenols extracted from shea butter into hexane gave an average of 97 ppm, with the values for different provenances varying between 62 and 135 ppm of total polyphenols.
Background:
According to the World Health Organization (WHO), 80% of the world's population uses medicinal plants in the treatment of diseases and, in African countries, this rate is much higher. In recent years, however, medicinal plants have represented a primary health source for the pharmaceutical industry. No less than 400 compounds derived from plants are currently used in the preparation of drugs, such as vincristine and vinblastine used in the treatment of cancer. Nigerians still depend largely on crude herbal remedies or traditional medicine. They also use wild plants for cosmetics and perfumery. Some of these herbal remedies have been observed to be effective in certain skin diseases.
Methods:
The data were obtained from history questionnaires completed by patients at the Dermatology Clinic, Lagos State University Teaching Hospital (LASUTH), Ikeja, Lagos, Nigeria, and from oral interviews with vendors and prescribers of herbal preparations at major markets at Lagos and Ijebu-Ode in south-west Nigeria, between July 2004 and July 2006. Photographs of plants were taken at private residences at Lagos, Ibadan, and Ijebu-Ode in south-west Nigeria. A literature search was conducted on 38 of the plants. The data are presented in tabular form.
Results:
Sixty-five per cent of patients had applied some form of herbal remedy before attending our clinic. The reasons for consultation included relapses, unsustained relief, incomplete resolution, and post inflammatory hyperpigmentation. Lesions for which herbs were successfully applied included infantile eczema and seborrhoiec dermatitis, atopic eczema, impetigo, impetiginized eczema, tinea capitis, scabies, erythema multiforme, leg ulcers, localized vitiligo, and sexually transmitted diseases. Partial relief was achieved in dermatophytoses, ichthyosis, leprosy, and systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). Some forms of alopecia, onychomycosis, and vitiligo, as well as allergic dermatoses, were not improved by herbal medicines. The preparation of the remedies was mostly by heating and boiling, infusion, and maceration. In most cases, mixtures of plants or other substances were used. The preparations were applied as poultices, ointments, baths, soaks and soaps, and oral fluids. The plants used included Adansonia digitata, Aframomum melegueta, Aloe species, Azadirachta indica, Cassia alata, Alstonia boonei, Ficus asperifolia, Cocos nucifera, Jatropha gossypyfolia, Ocimum gratissimum, Ricinus communis. A literature search on 38 of the plants used by herbal prescribers revealed the presence of established antimicrobial agents, immune modulating agents, antioxidants, other vitamins and minerals, volatile oils and emollients, and anti-inflammatory agents. Some of the plants may be contaminated by mycotoxins because of poor storage.
Conclusion:
There appears to be clinical, scientific, and pharmacologic basis for the use of herbal preparations. Nigeria needs to provide effective coordination of the practice of herbal medicine to ensure safety, standardization, and preservation of the flora.
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