Virtual Reality in Sport and Wellness: Promise and Reality

Abstract

Virtual reality has been used to help land a person on the moon and to instruct astronauts on how to manipulate the space arm. The military uses virtual environments to prepare soldiers for combat and airlines use virtual reality simulators to train and qualify pilots. Increasingly, game manufacturers are utilizing virtual environments and haptic devices to capture the attention of their adherents. However, many questions remain to be answered. How does one define virtual reality and virtual environments? How can virtual reality environments and simulations be used effectively in sport and wellness situations? Will coaches, athletes, and wellness specialists utilize the tools? What has been accomplished so far and what promises have been made? Do the benefits justify the costs? The reality maybe short of the promise, but can the gap be closed – virtually? This paper explores the promise of virtual reality, the nature of virtual reality environments, examples of existing applications, and a discussion of the research to date. It also provides a vision for the future.

Full text

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VIRTUAL REALITY in SPORT and WELLNESS:
PROMISE and REALITY
Larry Katz, James Parker, Hugh Tyreman, Gail Kopp, Richard Levy, Ernie Chang
Sport Technology Research Laboratory,
Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Calgary
Abstract
Virtual reality has been used to help land a person on the moon and to instruct
astronauts on how to manipulate the space arm. The military uses virtual
environments to prepare soldiers for combat and airlines use virtual reality
simulators to train and qualify pilots. Increasingly, game manufacturers are
utilizing virtual environments and haptic devices to capture the attention of their
adherents. However, many questions remain to be answered. How does one
define virtual reality and virtual environments? How can virtual reality
environments and simulations be used effectively in sport and wellness
situations? Will coaches, athletes, and wellness specialists utilize the tools? What
has been accomplished so far and what promises have been made? Do the
benefits justify the costs? The reality maybe short of the promise, but can the gap
be closed – virtually? This paper explores the promise of virtual reality, the
nature of virtual reality environments, examples of existing applications, and a
discussion of the research to date. It also provides a vision for the future.
KEY WORDS: VIRTUAL REALITY, VIRTUAL ENVIRONMENTS, SPORT,
WELLNESS, VISUALIZATION
Introduction
The phrase “virtual reality” (VR) conjures up many different visions depending on ones
background and experience. Defining the term is difficult as there are hundreds of versions.
Using the Metacrawler search engine (www.metacrawler.com) the first “hit” was identified
with three other search engines (Google, Yahoo, and Ask Jeeves) and describes VR as
“An interactive computer-generated simulated environment with which users can interact
using specialized peripherals such as data gloves and head-mounted computer-graphic
displays.”
Webopedia (www.webopedia.com) defines VR as:
“An artificial environment created with computer hardware and software, and presented to
the user in such a way that it appears and feels like a real environment. To "enter" a virtual
reality, a user dons special gloves, earphones, and goggles, all of which receive their input
from the computer system. In this way, at least three of the five senses are controlled by the
computer. In addition to feeding sensory input to the user, the devices also monitor the user's
actions. The goggles, for example, track how the eyes move and respond accordingly by
sending new video input. … The term virtual reality is sometimes used more generally to

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refer to any virtual world represented in a computer, even if it's just a text-based or graphical
representation.”
According to Chen, Toh, and Fauzy (2004), VR is “Cutting-Edge Technology that allows the
learner to step through the computer screen into a three-dimensional interactive environment
either immersive or non immersive” (p. 147).
In essence, people who develop VR systems are using technology to create environments that
allow the user to actively participate and navigate in events or worlds that engage the mind
and body, whether emulating real worlds or defining imaginary worlds. The degree to which
the senses are engaged (e.g., whether 3D or 2D, immersive or non immersive, surround sound
or no sound) is directly related to the considerations of design, costs of development, costs of
equipment, and the imagination of the user (see Figure 1).
The big players in the VR business are the military, airline industry, space agencies, and
game manufacturers.
Figure 1. Four screen and one screen 3D virtual environments at the University of Calgary.
The first three groups are heavily involved in VR because of the high costs of making
mistakes in the “real world.” Good simulations allow military personnel, pilots, and
astronauts to learn skills, study the impact of their errors, and learn good decision-making
strategies. On the other hand, game manufacturers see great potential in creating
environments that engage the minds and money of their target markets. Ironically, the game
industry may be the most relevant with respect to the use of technology in sport and wellness
because the “volume-to-cost” ratio could make the technology more accessible to coaches,
athletes, and therapists.
This paper is concerned with the potential for VR as a vehicle for coaching, training, fitness,
and rehabilitation. The critical factors are the availability of the technology, the effectiveness
of the resources, and the willingness of coaches, athletes, and therapists to use them.
As a coaching and training tool, VR can allow one to watch, repeat, emulate, deviate, and
speculate. Prior to the development of video technology, athletes watched their coaches
perform the task; then they attempted to emulate the action. After success or variations of

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failure, the athlete would receive feedback from the coach. With the use of video, it became
possible to capture the action and review it repeatedly while receiving extensive feedback. As
computer technology advanced and biomechanical analysis became possible, the process
became even more sophisticated. This process has expanded, and learning and decision-
making, especially at the elite athlete level, can now involve massive amounts of data from a
variety of sources such as video motion capture, pressure sensors, and positioning systems.
New tools are available which would enable coaches to create Virtual Environments for skill
acquisition, training, fitness and rehabilitation. The next logical step would be to construct
VR environments that allow the athlete to vary situations and strategies, including the use of
sound, and see the impact of their actions in “real-time.” Very few sophisticated VR systems
exist in the area of sport and wellness, and those that are being developed are primarily
limited to research laboratories. The question is “What is the potential?”
The Promise
The ultimate promise of VR is to create an environment such as envisioned on the TV series
Star Trek where the “Holodeck” is so sophisticated that one cannot tell the difference
between reality and the virtual environment. Learner-centered Effective Virtual
Environments (EVE) can provide experiences that would engage, provoke, cause reflection,
challenge conceptions, develop skills, and change the way people understand themselves and
their environment. Properly designed, these EVE’s could enhance learning through applying
the concept of “Flow - the psychology of optimal experience” (Csikszentmihalyi, 1982).
According to Csikszentmihalyi (1982), Flow is a state of concentration so focused that it
amounts to absolute absorption in an activity. Anyone watching a child fully engaged in a
video game would understand this concept (see Figure 2). Such VR or effective virtual
environments have the potential to significantly impact performance, but there are major
problems.

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Figure 2. Children engaged in a two person interactive video game using a Nintendo “Power Pad” haptic device.
The Power Pad haptic device was designed to allow children to play video games and
exercise at the same time (see Figure 2). Those who played the game were excited, but only a
few game modules were designed for the unit. It never did “catch on,” and the Power Pad
was discontinued after only a few years (www.gamersgraveyard.com). It is still unclear what
went wrong with the Power Pad, but knowing this could help future designers avoid the same
fate.
The Challenge
In order to develop successful virtual environments, there are five main questions to address:
1. What are the hardware and operating system needs?
2. How do you design effective virtual environments?
3. Can VR environments improve performance in sport and wellness?
4. Are VR environments in sport and wellness cost effective?
5. Will coaches, athletes and rehabilitation specialist use the VR technology?
What are the hardware and operating system needs?
According to Kondruk (2005) from the hardware and operating system perspective, it must be
possible to deliver the ultimate in interactive, cost effective tools in order to support
innovation, collaboration, discovery in visualization, and VR. This requires sophisticated
architecture, including multiprocessor systems, 3D texturing and shading, volume rendering,
dynamic video resolution, extreme scaling, sophisticated speakers, haptic interfaces, wireless
and “networkable” capability, and the capacity to manage individual as well as multi-user
interactions.
Creating effective virtual environments requires collaboration amongst engineers and
scientists from an array of fields including manufacturing, media, and operating system

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development. Issues such as geographical distribution of data, accessibility, and data security
also need to be addressed. Grid computing (the use of multiple high-end machines working
together from potentially, widely ranging locations) can help with the distributed workload,
but bandwidth constraints are still a problem, as is high performance online storage of data.
Researchers are also demanding real-time remote collaboration. Kondruk (2005) further
suggests that real-time processing will require multi-dimensional, multi-attribute, as well as
spatial and nonspatial data fusion. To do this successfully, it may be necessary to reengineer
existing data management strategies. Of course, over time, the problems seem to get more
complex.
How do you design effective virtual environments?
Creating environments that are indistinguishable from the real world and/or creating
environments that allow the users to experience prebuilt worlds and visualize three-
dimensional representations of a problem, are amongst the most complex design endeavors.
Some factors that influence software design for VR environments include: understanding the
user perspective; appropriately applying the enabling technologies (e.g., audio, haptic
devices); and, facilitating the vision of the designer. Systems need to be developed that
engage the user/learner, facilitate the user/learner's opportunities to be effective in solving the
problem, and create an environment where the user/learner can be efficient in achieving the
objectives. Not only must the system be responsive to input from the user, but also the space
in which the activity is performed requires manipulation. All these activities are happening in
real time and need to be interactive. The actions can be independent or multiplayer,
collaborative or competitive (between the user and the system and/or between the user and
other users) and may be independent of time or distance. In all cases, the user enters the
situation (VR environment) and must be provided with the contextual factors (e.g., physical
environment, social cues, tools) to function effectively.
In order to teach new skill related tasks such as those in sports, it may be necessary to "layer
the complexity" of the problem through problem identification, problem representation, and
proper manipulation of space. This layering of the problem complexity has been applied to
the creation of VR skill-training environments at the Canadian Space Agency (Kopp, 2000).
Understanding the perspective of participants in VR environments and game simulations is a
crucial consideration for enhancing the user experience. Sweetser and Johnson (2005) studied
five areas of importance: consistency, intuitiveness, freedom of expression, level of
immersion, and the physics of the environment as they relate to game type preference and
game-playing experience. For example, they state that: "… interactions with the game
environment and objects in the game environment should be intuitive and meet player
expectations. People who are less experienced game players can be baffled by the physics of
the game world and often need to relearn how to interact with the world like a child." (p.
321).
Self-control of the learning situation also appears to influence both attitude and performance
of the user (Bund & Wiemeyer, 2004). Using table tennis videos of skilled professionals and
allowing athletes to have control of practice scheduling for viewing of the videos, Bund and
Wiemeyer (2004) showed that participants had higher self-efficacy scores and improved
movement over yoked controls.
Wages, Grunvogel and Grutzmacher (2004) argue that realism and believability may not be
positively correlated, and that striving for higher realism results in more technical problems
and potentially greater awareness by the user of the artificiality of the environment.

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Frames of reference are important in terms of the physical dimensions (e.g., size and
location), psychological perspectives (e.g., walking in another person's shoes), and self-
monitoring (e.g., see ourselves as others see us). For example, at the Canadian Space Agency,
astronauts' performances can be recorded as they manipulate the space arm. The astronauts
can then go into the virtual environment and observe their performance as though they were a
third person monitoring the activity. Alternatively, virtual reality with the use of haptic
devices, can allow a participant to replay, observe, and even experience the performance of
another person such as an expert.
Enabling technologies such as haptic devices are supposed to create a feeling of touch, sight,
or movement (Salisbury, Brock, Massie, Swarup, & Zilles, 1995). They provide basic
impacts, pushes, and pulls that are associated with object manipulation, and this must happen
with realistic force. Sliding a coffee cup across a table should require about 300 g of force,
not 10 or 5000. It is this sense that allows the remote manipulation of objects. Presently, a lot
of work is being conducted in the area of remote control surgery (Sutherland, 2005) and,
without a very accurate sense of the forces being applied, the results could be catastrophic.
The other aspect of haptic devices is touch and texture. Most people can slide a finger across
a surface and obtain useful information such as smoothness, bumpiness, or stickiness. Touch
is used for many control tasks including grasping and catching.
In general, texture is more difficult to replicate than force, and requires devices of greater
complexity. Touch transmitters are often placed in gloves worn by users that impart multiple,
small touch sensations to the hands. Touch can be enhanced by sound; for example, a
suctioning noise during surgery may have a characteristic sound that hearing it, together with
“feeling” the pressure, may impart vital information to the surgeon.
Audio, another enabling technology, is a critical aspect of the emotional impact of most
environments but is frequently neglected in the development of games and virtual
environments (Parker, 2005). Sound is a key indicator of motion, activity, and affective
content. A fundamental aspect of sound is that one can both hear and feel it, especially at
very low frequencies.
Computer games and virtual reality systems use sound for three basic things:
1. Music, which provides a great deal of emotional content.
2. Sound effects, including ambient sound (e.g., car crashes, audience reactions,
running water, surf, wind, skate blades on ice).
3. Speech. Many games tell a story by allowing one to listen to conversations, or
even participate in them. However, there are problems with speech recognition
and speech understanding that need to be addressed.
In general, sounds reflect the environment (e.g., echoes are expected in large buildings but
not in woods). Location is important, as sounds should appear to originate from particular
points in space, particularly if the source of the sound is visible. All of these characteristics of
sounds must be represented in virtual environments if they are to be convincing
representations of real ones. Unless a very large set of audio data is available, synthesis may
be the only way to display realistic sounds for VR purposes. In the real world, very few
events create exactly the same sound twice. Every bounce of a basketball sounds just a bit
different from the previous one, and the slapshot from the blue line in ice hockey has a sound
that varies depending on the stick, player, swing, ice temperature, and precise distance from
the net. Since the traditional way to use sound in a VR system is to play a recorded file, the
user quickly becomes familiar with the files that are available. Furthermore, they may not be

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the correct sounds for the situation. Sound-based tracking technology that is robust and
inexpensive is needed for sports environments (Ishii, Wisneski, Orbanes, Chun, & Paradiso,
1999). Correct positional audio is essential to provide accurate audio feedback. Most real
sounds appear to have a specific source and, in some cases, this can be critical for decision-
making. For example, when playing a game, it may be important to identify accurately
sources of “yells” in order to receive passes or avoid collisions.
Other enabling technologies such as gesture recognition (using two or more cameras to track
body position in 3D), eye tracking, and voice recognition have been used with varying
degrees of success.
The designer has to be able to visualize abstract concepts including: dynamic relationships in
the system; visualize and quantify multiple viewpoints in the environment; understand the
interactions with potential events that may be unavailable or impractical due to distance,
time, or safety; and, organize all the related objects. For example, trees and rocks, which are
obstacles to motion in a skiing simulation, can be manipulated and have an effect on other
objects in the virtual world.
Examples of graphic environments that apply some of these principles include Distributed
Interactive Virtual Environments (DIVE) and Massively Multiplayer Online Role Playing
Games (MMORPG). DIVE is an internet-based multi-user VR system where participants
navigate in 3D space and see, meet, and interact with other users and applications. The first
DIVE version appeared in 1991 (www.sics.se/dive). MMORPG’s are massive multiplayer
online role-playing games. In a MMORPG, thousands of players are able to play in an
evolving virtual world simultaneously over the Internet (www.answers.com/topic/mmorpg).
The users are represented within this environment by a graphical entity (their avatar), they
can manipulate objects though the avatar, and they can communicate with other participants.
Interactive scripting for nonplayer characters are referred to as mobile objects (MOBS) and
there are even aspects of artificial intelligence with players and environments (e.g., calling for
help). These systems operate 24 hours a day, 365 days a year, with some games having over
20 million players with multiple languages and cultures. The systems allow for teamwork,
problem solving, and the development of friendships. Many players invest considerable effort
in creating avatars and their actions. Their identities are symbolized by their avatar. The
simulated, or virtual, environment is represented in 3D with high quality positional sound,
and players must keep track of multiple factors in real time. Both MMORPG and DIVE
programs have found wide international followings. Ironically, in the World of Warcraft
MMORPG, a recent, mysterious, unplanned, program-induced plague accidentally caused
many thousands of the virtual players to die (Strohmeyer, 2005).
Some of the design principles from these programs are applicable to sport and fitness oriented
VR programs even though design considerations in sport are potentially more complex.
When working with athletes, the geometry of the graphical presentation must be accurate.
Many times a judgment is made based on the apparent speed and relative position of the user.
For instance, in a baseball simulation the velocity of the ball must not appear to change after
the pitch is made. In addition, the trajectory must be realistic. In order for these things to be
true, there must be an accurate model of the physics of the real world underlying the graphics
software.
Can VR environments improve performance in sport and wellness?

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Ijsselsteijn, de Kort, Westerink, de Jager and Bonants (2004) used exercise bikes in a virtual
home video computer environment to demonstrate the impact of the immersion level and the
advice of a virtual coach. The researchers were interested in participant motivation,
biofeedback (heart rate and velocity), and the sense of presence or immersion (i.e., of being
in the environment). Results indicated that: "…a more immersive environment in which the
user feels present heightens the fun the user is having, and thus has a beneficial effect on the
user's motivation. In the highly immersive environment, where the presence experience was
stronger, participants reported more interest and enjoyment, more perceived competence and
control and … they cycled faster!" (p. 56). While the virtual coach seemed to lower perceived
pressure and tension, the virtual coach did not influence cycling speed.
Comparing virtual handball throwers with real handball throwers, Bideau, Kulpa, Ménardais,
Fradet, Multon, Delamarche, and Arnaldi B. (2003) and Bideau, Multon, Kulpa, Fradet, and
Arnaldi (2004) found that goalkeepers react similarly to both types of throwers. The motions
of the real throwers were captured in order to create avatars for the virtual environment.
Goalkeeper gestures were consistent with both throwers. The researchers concluded that the
virtual environment offered sufficient realism to elicit natural gestures, and there was a high
level of interest in further participation by the goalkeepers.
Over 500 people participated in a virtual swimming interface created by Fels, Yohanan,
Takahashi, Kinoshita, Funahashi, Takama, and Tzu-Pei Chen (2005). The authors suspended
participants by harnesses in the air using pulleys and swimming apparatus (headgear) with
computer controlled visuals and sound. Issues of user size, experience, and swimmer control
revolved around the fidelity of the environment and the "one-size-fits-all" harness. Since the
program was part of an open exhibit, the roles of the audiences were also addressed. Almost
all participants enjoyed the experience and were able to "swim" using simple strokes or by
simply floating.
Yang and Jounghyun Kim (2002) created a virtual reality motion training system that
produced a first-person viewpoint "ghost" martial arts trainer that the trainee could follow as
closely as possible in order to learn a motion sequence. The graphic ghost master was
superimposed onto the user's body so that it appeared that he was emerging from it thus,
giving the user a first-person or egocentric view. To achieve this effect, a head-mounted
display was required. The trainee then emulated the movements of the master. Technical
issues with regard to the speed of movement, degree of freedom, and impact of the head-
mounted display were discussed. However, results suggested that the participants in the VR
environment followed the motions at least as well as those learning in a real environment and,
in some cases, better, especially in the X, Z axis.
Virtual reality games have been designed to provide interactions in various environments
such as snowboarding (www.irexonline.com/software.htm). These programs can build a
player's range of motion, balance, mobility, stepping, and ambulation skills. You, Jang, Kim,
Hallett, Ahn, Kwon, Kim, and Lee (2005) used some of these virtual games with stroke
patients to see if the patients could improve motor recovery. The preliminary results with 10
stroke patients were very promising with significant recovery of locomotor functioning when
compared to control patients.
At the Sport Technology Research Laboratory at the University of Calgary, the authors have
experimented with virtual environments using 2D versus 3D images, interactivity with small
screen versus large screens, and visualization as a means of preparing athletes for competition
(Morey Sorrentino, Levy, Katz, & Peng, 2005). The results, like those of the studies

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described above, are promising, but fidelity and equipment issues are still being addressed
and sample sizes remain relatively small. Further investigations need to be undertaken before
firm conclusions can be reached.
Are VR environments in sport and wellness cost effective?
Virtual reality is here to stay. Simple systems already exist and experienced consumers at a
games arcade can attest to the sophistication of many of the interactive systems that test their
ability to fight, dance, or snowboard. However, these systems are limited with regard to their
potential impact on sport and wellness. Developing specialized systems that can make a
meaningful difference in performance or enhancement of skills is still very expensive,
especially if intricate haptic devices are required, and so, researchers continue to apply for
grants to explore their visions and theories. Finding that elusive, revolutionary application for
virtual reality in sport and wellness is key. Until then, costs will still be prohibitive for
practical purposes.
Will coaches, athletes and rehabilitation specialist use the VR technology?
Developments in digital technology makes it possible for coaches and athletes to gather
information efficiently and effectively, analyze and integrate it, and apply resources in order
to improve teaching and training. As technology evolves, it offers new and creative
applications. However, in order for technological innovations to be used by coaches, the latter
need the technological background and appropriate attitude towards technology. In many
cases, however, there is a wide gap between changes and innovations that technology brings
and the human capacity to adapt to it (Katz, 2001).
Today, computer-based technology influences many sport-related areas such as equipment
design, performance evaluation, game statistics, measurements, and computerized training.
While coaches report using computer tools such as word processors and the Internet, few
report actively using technology that has been specially designed to enhance the training
experience (Liebermann, Katz, & Morey Sorrentino, 2005). The adoption and
implementation of an innovation is a multifaceted process that is affected by many factors. A
complex interaction of social, economic, organizational, and individual factors can influence
the adoption of a technology, as well as the way a technology is used after adoption (Park,
2003).
Raz-Liebermann (2005) studied the impact of a new coaching tool introduced to veteran
coaches in a series of workshops. All the coaches reported being highly impressed by the
technology and its ease-of-use, and almost all of them indicated that they would use the
software (which was provided gratis to each participant) as part of their coaching routine.
However, when the researcher followed up with the coaches months later, only a few of the
coaches had used the program. Raz-Liebermann (2005) analyzed the factors influencing the
intention to adopt a technology and identified self-efficacy, previous experience with
technology, and personal and professional innovativeness as key factors. Interestingly, the
more experienced coaches were less likely to consider adopting new technological
approaches.
Thus, it would appear that even if sophisticated VR systems were developed and shown to be
effective and cost efficient, persuading coaches, athletes, and rehabilitation specialists to use
the systems may require a concerted effort.

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The Vision
For human performance in sports and wellness, the vision is to create environments that are
so compelling, enjoyable, transparent, and easy to engage others, that athletes at all levels
will use them to improve their skills and participation in sports. Moreover, exercise and
fitness will increase in the general community, resulting in higher levels of population
wellness, with benefits in health, productivity, and the economy.
Figure 3 provides a visual representation of the program envisioned by the authors. In order
to be successful, the program requires commitment from academic, industrial and
sport/performance resources funded through the private sector, and government agencies. If
effective, these initiatives should generate major business opportunities.
Figure 3. An integrated program for VR in Sport and Wellness.
The technology exists to create innovative 3D environments and preliminary research shows
that EVE’s are highly effective. While developing truly immersive experiences requires
expensive, highly trained, multidisciplinary professionals with sophisticated equipment,
ultimately the technology will be accessible, cost effective, and readily available to end-users.
The idea is to create artificial realities in which rendering, perception, immersion, presence,
feedback, visualization, and interaction with others are combined to give the user experiences
that approximate and go beyond what is physically possible.
The vision has two major objectives:
1. Development of enabling technologies – hardware and software necessary to
create representative, realistic virtual environments.
2. Creation of applications to accelerate learning, training, and ultimately,
performance through use of collaborative virtual environments.

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Research Goals
The research goals of the authors are to develop collaborative virtual worlds, explore virtual
worlds in sport, fitness and rehabilitation, and study their effectiveness. These worlds would
provide adaptive feedback and have scalability for many skill levels. Skills learned in these
environments would be transferable to real-life situations and could be distributable over
distance. Interactions and learning could be individual or collaborative (see Figure 4). The
specific areas of interest include mental preparation, decision-training, improved reaction
time, performance enhancement, and rehabilitation.
Final Thoughts
The technology required to create effective virtual environments is complex and requires
distinct methods for each human sense. Most systems employ graphics for the visual sense
and audio for the sense of hearing. Haptic or touch technology is less well advanced, and
research into systems for emulating smell, even less so. It appears that no attempt has yet
been made to represent taste. Balance and proprioception are important considerations in
sports, rehabilitation, and fitness. Unfortunately, issues such as motion sickness and
disorientation have still not been successfully addressed, and research and development in
these areas lags behind the vision. Simple, effective virtual environments exist and can be
developed for commercial and educational benefit, but elaborate, multidimensional systems
are still either imaginary or restricted to elite users and researchers. Design considerations are
extensive and costs for the more elaborate environments remain prohibitive. Yet, the
technology offers the opportunity to individualize learning, apply cutting-edge learning
principles, maximize performance, mimic intricate patterns, and create realistic and
convincing environments that can be collaborative and interactive. For the moment, the
commercial arena has been left to the users who are prepared to pay for “suspect” thrills such
as hunting (www.live-shot.com) and virtual video games. Ultimately, the users will decide
what survives.
Figure 4. Research Goals for Effective Virtual Environments.

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