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Human Dimensions of Wildlife: An
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Conservation Benefits of Interpretation
on Marine Wildlife Tours
Heather Zeppel
a
& Sue Muloin
b
a
Tourism Program , School of Business, James Cook University
Cairns , Cairns, Queensland, Australia
b
Equity Officer , James Cook University Cairns , Cairns, Queensland,
Australia
Published online: 09 Jul 2008.
To cite this article: Heather Zeppel & Sue Muloin (2008) Conservation Benefits of Interpretation on
Marine Wildlife Tours, Human Dimensions of Wildlife: An International Journal, 13:4, 280-294, DOI:
10.1080/10871200802187105
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280
Human Dimensions of Wildlife, 13:280–294, 2008
Copyright © Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
ISSN: 1087-1209 print / 1533-158X online
DOI: 10.1080/10871200802187105
UHDW1087-12091533-158XHuman Dimensions of Wildlife, Vol. 13, No. 4, May 2008: pp. 1–31Human Dimensions of Wildlife
Conservation Benefits of Interpretation on Marine
Wildlife Tours
Conservation Be nefits of Marine Wildlife ToursH. Zeppel and S. Muloin
HEATHER ZEPPEL
1
AND SUE MULOIN
2
1
Tourism Program, School of Business, James Cook University Cairns, Cairns,
Queensland, Australia
2
Equity Officer, James Cook University Cairns, Cairns, Queensland, Australia
Marine wildlife tours provide a range of education and conservation benefits for visitors.
These benefits derive from interpretation programs and close personal encounters with
marine wildlife. Interpretive information covers the biology, ecology and behaviors of
marine species, best practice guidelines, and human threats to marine life. There has
been limited assessment of interpretation on marine wildlife tours to identify whether
these increase tourist knowledge and promote changes in environmental attitudes. This
article reviews the educational benefits of guided marine wildlife experiences with dol-
phins, whales, and marine turtles using Oram’s (1999) framework of outcome indica-
tors to manage marine tourism. The key indicators assessed in this article are
education/learning and attitude/belief changes in visitors that benefit marine wildlife.
This analysis found tourist learning during mediated encounters with marine wildlife
contributes to pro-environmental attitudes and on-site behavior changes, with some
longer-term intentions to support and engage in marine conservation actions. Areas of
research are suggested to examine the causal links between wildlife interpretation and
pro-environmental outcomes.
Keywords marine wildlife tours, interpretation, education benefits, environmental
attitudes, conservation actions
Marine wildlife tours provide a range of personal, education, and conservation benefits.
The educational benefits of marine wildlife tours include visitor learning and knowledge
from information presented about marine species and ocean environments. The conserva-
tion benefits include increased protection of marine species and habitats. This article eval-
uates the educational benefits of marine wildlife tourism experiences to identify
interpretive programs that increase tourist knowledge, promoting attitude shifts that aid
marine conservation and help to conserve marine wildlife. It reviews the education bene-
fits of guided marine wildlife experiences with dolphins, whales, and marine turtles using
Oram’s (1999) framework of outcome indicators to manage marine tourism. The key indi-
cators for tourists assessed in this article are education/learning and attitude/belief changes
that benefit marine species along with allied indicators of positive conservation outcomes
for the marine environment. This article analyzes whether tourist learning during mediated
encounters with marine wildlife contributes to pro-environmental attitudes and behavior
changes. Case studies focus on tourist experiences of whale- and dolphin-watching tours
in Australia and New Zealand, whale watching in the United States and marine turtle
encounters in Australia.
Address correspondence to Dr. Heather Zeppel, School of Business, James Cook University,
P.O. Box 6811, Cairns, Queensland, 4870 Australia. E-mail: heather.zeppel@jcu.edu.au
Downloaded by [University of Southern Queensland] at 16:31 24 February 2014
Conservation Benefits of Marine Wildlife Tours 281
Marine Wildlife Tours
Marine wildlife tourism is defined as “any tourist activity with the primary purpose of
watching, studying or enjoying marine wildlife” (Masters, 1998). It includes marine wild-
life watching holidays; wildlife boat trips in marine or estuarine areas; guided island or
coastal walks; observing marine life from land viewpoints; visiting marine or coastal
nature reserves; participating in a marine life study tour or conservation holiday; and visit-
ing marine wildlife visitor centers and marine aquaria. This article focuses on mobile free-
ranging marine animals such as whales, dolphins, sea turtles, and penguins. Marine mam-
mals, in particular, are a key tourism attraction (Beasley, 1997; Birtles, Valentine, &
Curnock, 2001; Stokes, Dobbs & Recchia, 2002; Duffus & Dearden, 1993; Higham &
Lusseau, 2004; Orams, 2003, 2005; Muloin, 1998; Samuels et al., 2003; Valentine et al.,
2004). Popular marine mammals include dolphins (Orams, 1997a, 1997b), whales and
porpoise (i.e., cetaceans); dugong and manatee (Sorice, Shafer, & Ditton, 2006); and seals
and sea lions (i.e., pinnipeds) (Barton et al., 1998; Booth, 1998; Kirkwood et al., 2003;
Scarpaci, Nugegoda, & Corkeron, 2005). Other marine wildlife of tourist interest includes
whale sharks and other shark species (Birtles et al., 1996; Davis et al., 1997; Davis et al.,
2000; Dobson, 2006); fish and rays (Lewis & Newsome, 2003); sea turtles (Macgregor,
2006; Tisdell & Wilson, 2001a, 2001b; Wilson & Tisdell, 2001); and penguins, albatross,
gannet, and other seabirds. Worldwide, 500,000 divers a year now feed, photograph, and
swim with sharks (Topelko & Dearden, 2005). Nesting or rookery areas for seabirds and
marine turtles (Higham, 1998, 2001; Schanzel & McIntosh, 2000; Tisdell & Wilson,
2002) and haul-out areas for seals and sea lions (Orsini & Newsome, 2005) also attract
visitors. In Australia in 1999, there were over 70 marine species targeted for marine tour-
ism, from whales (e.g., humpback, southern right, and dwarf minke), dolphins, turtles, sea
lions and seals, to penguins, fish, sharks (e.g., reef, grey nurse, great white, and whale
sharks), rays, sea dragons, and cuttlefish (Birtles et al., 2001). A survey of 376 marine
tourism operators in New Zealand found viewing marine wildlife was a key attraction,
focusing on marine mammals (44%, with 22% on dolphins), sea birds (42%), fish (30%),
penguins (18%), and other marine wildlife (16%) (McKegg, Probert, Baird, & Bell, 1998).
Interpretation on Marine Wildlife Tours
Environmental interpretation is often promoted as a key element of sustainable visitor inter-
actions with wildlife (Blanchard, 1995; Foxlee, 2001; Moscardo, 1998; Orams, 1994, 1995a,
1995b, 1996a; Orams & Hill, 1998; Ham & Weiler, 2002; Moscardo, Woods, & Saltzer,
2004, Russell & Hobson, 2002; Schaenzel, 1998; Woods & Moscardo, 2003). Interpretation
activities or education programs in marine areas involve talks by tour guides, interpreters,
and rangers onboard boats or at shorelines, along with visitor centers, displays, signs, and
brochures. This information covers the biology, ecology, and behaviors of marine species,
best practice guidelines, and threats to marine life. Visitor benefits from interpretation of
marine wildlife tourism experiences can include enhanced educational and conservation out-
comes (Andersen & Miller, 2006; Ballantyne, Packer, & Hughes, 2006; Finkler & Higham,
2004; Heckel, 2001; Higham, 1998; Hughes & Saunders, 2005; Luck, 2003; Madin &
Fenton, 2004; Mayes, Dyer, & Richins, 2004; Muloin, 1998; Orams, 2000; Schanzel &
McIntosh, 2000; Tisdell & Wilson, 2005; Townsend, 2008). The personal benefits of view-
ing and learning about wildlife are the basis for conservation actions (Manfredo & Driver,
2002). On-site benefits of increased understanding or emotional responses to marine wildlife
encounters (Schanzel, 2004) may also lead to off-site benefits such as greater environmental
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282 H. Zeppel and S. Muloin
awareness, supporting nature conservation work, and protecting endangered species
(Amante-Helweg, 1996; Gralton, Sinclair, & Purnell, 2004; Orams, 1997b; Wilson &
Tisdell, 2003). This article explores the links between interpretation programs and educa-
tional benefits for visitors on selected marine wildlife tours. The impacts of wildlife interpre-
tation on the environmental attitudes and conservation actions of visitors are also examined.
Framework for Managing Marine Wildlife Tourism Experiences
This article follows the framework devised by Orams (1995c, 1999) that measures posi-
tive changes in both tourists and the marine environment for effective management of
marine tourism (Table 1). Indicators of tourist benefits from marine animal encounters
include enjoyment and learning contributing to pro-environmental attitude and behavior
changes, along with conservation benefits for marine environments and marine wildlife.
Indicators of conservation benefits include tourists reducing wildlife disturbance, protect-
ing habitats, and aiding the viability of marine ecosystems. The framework by Orams
(1999) was based on a previous model of experiential education in whale watching ecot-
ourism programs in Hawaii (Forestell, 1993; Forestell & Kauffman, 1990). This model
focused on the cognitive states or learning of visitors using interpretation in marine
settings to reduce impacts and promote pro-environmental behaviors on whale-watching
tours. Luck (2003) evaluated the key role of interpretation on swim with dolphin tours in
New Zealand, based on models by Forestell and Kaufmann (1990) and Orams (1997b).
Orams (1999) extended the three-step experiential education sequence of Forestell (1993)
into a four-stage sequence of desirable tourist outcomes from marine education programs
(Table 1). Mayes, Dyer, and Richins (2004) also adopt a model based on changing atti-
tudes, beliefs, behaviors, and actions through wildlife interaction and interpretation with
benefits for animals, the environment, and visitors. This article applies Oram’s (1999) key
outcome indicators of education/learning and attitude/belief change in visitors to review
the educational and conservation benefits of interpretation on marine wildlife tours.
Educational Benefits of Marine Wildlife Tours
The educational benefits of marine wildlife tours include visitor learning, knowledge, and
new information presented about marine species and marine or coastal environments. Positive
Table 1
Indicators for managing marine wildlife tourism
experiences
Tourist
1) Satisfaction/enjoyment
2) Education/learning
3) Attitude/belief change
4) Behavior/lifestyle change
Marine environment
1) Minimize disturbance
2) Improve habitat protection
Contribute to long-term health & viability of ecosystem
Source: Orams (1995c, 1999).
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Conservation Benefits of Marine Wildlife Tours 283
visitor interactions with wildlife lead to mindful, satisfied, and conservation-oriented visitors
(Moscardo, Woods, & Greenwood, 2001; Moscardo et al., 2004; Woods & Moscardo, 2003;
Zeppel & Muloin, 2008). A survey of 5,000 visitors at 15 wildlife sites in Australia and New
Zealand found a knowledgeable guide (19%) and wildlife information (18%) were strong
supporting factors to the close viewing of unique wildlife species behaving naturally in natu-
ral areas (Moscardo & Saltzer, 2004). A survey of 96 wildlife tour operators in Australia
found half (53%) considered education an important factor in protecting wildlife, with 36%
relying on information from scientists (Rodger, Moore, & Newsome, 2007).
Education and Learning Changes
Educational experiences were important for visitors on dwarf minke whale tours in the
northern Great Barrier Reef; at the Mon Repos turtle rookery in central Queensland; and
on swim with dolphin tours in New Zealand (Table 2). On the dwarf minke whale tours,
14% of visitors stated that learning about dwarf minke whales and marine life on the Great
Barrier Reef, the educational experience and research conducted about these whales were
highlights (Birtles et al., 2002). At Mon Repos, visitors learned about sea turtles at a visi-
tor center display and during interpretive talks on the beach about turtle egg laying or
turtle hatchlings. This included knowledge about the life cycle of turtles, their need for
protection and current threats to sea turtles (Tisdell & Wilson, 2002, 2005). Luck (2003)
found that, whereas most visitors on swim with dolphin tours increased their knowledge of
dolphins and wildlife (66–69%), both in general and from tour staff, only 29% strongly
agreed the dolphin tour was an educational experience. One dolphin operator did not have
a guide onboard and most visitors required more interpretation about dolphins, the marine
environment, and threats to wildlife (Luck, 2003). Visitors on whale watch tours in
Hervey Bay, Queensland, also wanted more information about the marine environment
(Foxlee, 2001). Interpreters or scientists educate visitors about cetacean biology and
marine conservation issues onboard many whale and dolphin watching boats (Andersen &
Miller, 2006; Birtles et al., 2002; Muloin, 1998; Russell & Hobson, 2002).
On wild dolphin feeding talks in Queensland, Australia, visitor knowledge about dolphins
increased by 81% at Tangalooma Resort on Moreton Island and by 47% at the small seaside
town of Tin Can Bay (Mayes et al., 2004). The educational benefits for visitors of the dolphin
interpretation and feeding interaction program at Tangalooma Resort have been well docu-
mented by Orams (1994, 1995b, 1996b, 1997a,b, 1999; Orams & Hill, 1998). The site
includes a Dolphin Education Center and a ranger giving nightly talks about dolphin biology
and behavior to both dolphin feeders and observers. Learning about the dolphins at Tanga-
looma motivated Australian tourists, whereas Japanese tourists wanted to touch and physically
interact with dolphins. Language barriers also impeded the Japanese visitors from understand-
ing the dolphin-feeding program or from adopting more environmentally responsible behav-
iors (Takei, 1998). Beasley (1997) found visitors on dolphin tours in Akaroa (New Zealand)
had short-term increases in their knowledge of marine mammals and ocean ecosystems. Some
55% of tourists swimming with wild dolphins at Bunbury, Western Australia, agreed that the
required pre-tour educational talk reduced inappropriate behaviors such as trying to touch or
follow the dolphins (O’Neill, Barnard, & Lee, 2004). On Penguin Island (Western Australia),
visitors learned about penguins, sea lions, and the marine ecology of the area from information
on signs, displays, pamphlets, and talks by rangers at a visitor center that houses orphaned or
injured little penguins. Rangers feed the penguins and give scheduled talks about their biology
and behavior. All tourists increased their knowledge of penguins after visiting this centre from
55% (pre-visit) to between 69% and 74% (post-visit) (Hughes & Saunders, 2005).
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284 H. Zeppel and S. Muloin
Table 2
Educational experiences and visitor learning on marine wildlife tours
Educational experiences
Total
themes*
%
Response
D
warf minke whale tours QLD (Birtles et al., 2002)*
More informed about minke whales 21 4.5
More informed about Reef (GBR) and marine life 15 3.2
Increased interest in info on (minke) whales—want to
learn more
91.9
A learning/educational experience (non specific) 9 1.9
More informed about/by research 8 1.7
Increased interest in info on marine life—want to learn more 4 0.9
Interested in recent discovery of species 1 0.2
Learned/understood whale watching guidelines 1 0.2
Total-YES-Educational 68 14.6
M
on Repos Conservation Park QLD (Tisdell & Wilson, 2002)^
Sea turtle viewing informative and educational 514 99
Sea turtle visitor center display 93
Interpretive talks (turtle hatchling behavior) 90
Interpretive talks (egg-laying process) 87
Life cycles of sea turtles 85
Need to protect sea turtles 82
Information on current threats to sea turtles
#
78
Amphitheatre 76
Visitor awareness of threats to sea turtles—additional
information
282 54
Visitor awareness of threats to sea turtles—first time 163 31
Swim with dolphin tours NZ (Luck, 2003)
+
Teach school courses on conservation of natural resources 72
Dolphin tour staff had good knowledge of dolphins 69
Learn new things/increase my knowledge (general) 66
Learn as much as we can about wildlife 66
Enjoy learning about wildlife on holidays 46
Dolphin tour was an educational experience 29
Learned a lot about dolphins on this tour 17
Learned a lot about other marine life 5
Notes: *Represents total coded themes or elements, not numbers of respondents. Total number of
coded themes/elements = 466.
^Reason to visit Mon Repos: Watch sea turtles (78%), study sea turtles (11%), entertain visitors
(9%), other (2%).
+
Responses to “Strongly agree” only; n = 733 questionnaires from 3 swim with dolphin tour oper-
ators (New Zealand).
#
Subscribe to a newsletter with updates on sea turtle conservation work, form a ‘friends of sea
turtles’ group, more access to (translated) material on sea turtles, current threats and conservation
measure, ban photography.
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Conservation Benefits of Marine Wildlife Tours 285
Attitude and Belief Changes
Several studies suggest that marine wildlife tours with a strong educational focus can
change the pro-environmental attitudes and beliefs of visitors (Christensen, Rowe, &
Needham, 2007; Finkler & Higham, 2004; Luck, 2003; Muloin, 1998; Tisdell & Wilson,
2002). Table 3 summarizes the changes in the environmental attitudes of visitors on whale
and dolphin tours. On swim with dwarf minke whale tours on the Great Barrier Reef, 27%
of tourists changed their attitudes to conservation, displaying a greater awareness of
whales, marine life, whaling, and other human impacts (Birtles et al., 2002). In the United
States, land-based whale watchers were more concerned than boat tourists about the
impacts of noise, boats and kayaks on killer whales (Finkler & Higham, 2004). Tourists’
desire for close encounters, then, was matched by awareness of their impacts on whales. A
survey of 229 land-based whale watchers in Oregon, USA, found that visitors who spoke
with volunteer whale interpreters at key coastal viewing points expressed stronger agree-
ment with protecting whales and awareness that human actions affected whales and
marine areas (Christensen et al., 2007). A survey of 236 whale watchers in Scotland found
a high level of environmental awareness, with 83% recycling items, 46% were members
of environmental or animal organizations, and 27% did voluntary environmental work
(Rawles & Parsons, 2005).
Visitors on wild dolphin feeding tours at Tin Can Bay and Tangalooma Resort felt
more strongly about conservation (81%), the state of marine areas (66%), and helping out
with conservation programs (52%) after their dolphin experience (Mayes et al., 2004).
They also disagreed with dolphins in captivity (59%) and indigenous people hunting
dolphins (68% of Australians) whereas 9% also disagreed with the practice of feeding
wild dolphins (Mayes et al., 2004). At the Penguin Experience visitor center (WA), rang-
ers feed orphaned or injured little penguins and give scheduled interpretive talks about
their biology. All visitors had more pro-environmental attitudes after this experience.
Exploration-focused visitors held an attitude of responsible conservation based on intrin-
sic natural values of the area, while recreation-focused visitors moved toward attitudes
that valued nature based on its usefulness to humans (Hughes & Saunders, 2005). A sur-
vey of 1,617 whale watch visitors at three locations around Vancouver Island, Canada,
found that “novice-generalist” visitors required interpretation about whale ecology and
marine habitat issues, whereas “expert-specialist” visitors were more receptive to
broader marine conservation messages (Malcolm & Duffus, 2002). Education, then, is a
key element of managing tourist-wildlife interactions, with the positive outcomes of
changing environmental attitudes and the potential to reduce visitor impacts on wildlife
(Higginbottom & Tribe, 2004; Higham & Carr, 2003; Orams, 1995b; O’Neill et al.,
2004; Schaenzel, 1998).
Discussion
This article identified a range of education and conservation benefits for visitors on
marine wildlife tours. The on-site benefits of increased understanding or emotional
responses to marine wildlife encounters can lead to off-site benefits such as greater
environmental awareness, supporting nature conservation work and protecting endan-
gered species. Empirical studies about the effect of interpretation on marine wildlife
tourism experiences were assessed against the framework devised by Orams (1995c,
1999) measuring positive changes in both tourists and the marine environment. Tourist
benefits from marine animal encounters include enjoyment and learning contributing to
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286 H. Zeppel and S. Muloin
Table 3
Changes in environmental/conservation attitudes on whale and dolphin tours
Environmental/conservation attitudes
Total
themes* % Response
D
warf minke whale tours QLD (Birtles et al., 2002)*
Greater awareness/concern/appreciation of
(marine) life/nature
48 10.3
Increased/reinforced conservation awareness 28 6.0
Greater awareness/concern/appreciation of whales 27 5.8
Greater awareness of whaling issues 9 1.9
Increased awareness of human impacts on marine
life/nature
61.3
Greater awareness of need for whale watching
guidelines
30.6
Greater awareness of need for sustainable ecotour-
ism
20.4
Greater awareness/appreciation of impacts of
humans on whales
20.4
Aware that wildlife needn’t be touched/fed to be
enjoyed
20.4
Increased awareness of effects of human coastal
development
10.2
Greater awareness of natural resource exploitation 1 0.2
Total – YES – Conservation Attitudes 129 27.7
Killer whale watching USA (Finkler & Higham, 2004) (land-based/boat-based)
Effects of noise on whales 74/54
Power boats placed in the path of whales 73/56
Disturbance of whales by (other) power boats 69/52
Impacts of kayaks approaching whales 27/18
D
olphin feeding QLD (Mayes, Dyer, & Richins, 2004)
+
Felt more strongly about conservation of the
environment generally
81
Felt they could make more of a difference to the
state of the (marine) environment
66–67
Felt more confident in assisting with conservation
programs
52
Disagreed with indigenous people hunting
dolphins (International visitors/Australians)
30/68
Disagreed with keeping dolphins in aquariums 59
Disagreed with feeding wild dolphins 9
Notes: *Represents total coded themes or elements, not numbers of respondents. Total number of
coded themes/elements = 466.
*Total: Yes—Conservation Attitudes (27.7%), Yes—Educational (14.6%), Yes—Personal
Experience (10.1%), Yes—Other (14.4%), No (33.3%). Questionnaires n=527 from 52 trips on 5
live-aboard dive boats in 1999/2000.
+
n = 105 questionnaires (54 Tangalooma, 51 Tin Can Bay) for visitors feeding wild dolphins.
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Conservation Benefits of Marine Wildlife Tours 287
pro-environmental attitude and behavior changes, and the longer-term intention to
engage in conservation actions that benefit marine wildlife and environments. Marine
wildlife tours with a strong educational focus and interpretation program can create atti-
tude, behavior, or lifestyle changes in visitors (Ballantyne, Packer, & Bond, 2007). This
review of visitor benefits from guided encounters with marine wildlife supports the
framework developed by Orams (1999) for managing marine tourism experiences and
the experiential education sequence model in marine ecotourism programs (Forestell,
1993). The learning benefits obtained from information about marine wildlife rein-
forced the emotional benefits of directly experiencing marine animals in their natural
habitats. There is some evidence that education benefits and visitor satisfaction differ
according to gender, level of previous experience (Neil, Orams, & Baglioni, 1996;
Muloin, 1998) and type of wildlife encounter such as boat, land-based, or in-water
activities with marine life (Birtles et al., 2002; Finkler & Higham, 2004). The level of
recreational involvement or specialization, intensity, and emotional aspects of marine
experiences can also influence environmental behaviors (Thapa, Graefe, & Meyer,
2005, 2006) and receptiveness to marine conservation messages (Malcolm & Duffus,
2002). Whale watch visitors with a strong biocentric orientation may already be more
inclined to participate in interpretation programs to learn about marine wildlife issues
(Christensen et al., 2007).
Quality educational experiences are important for visitors to increase their short-
term knowledge of marine species. Marine wildlife tours with a strong educational
focus changed the pro-environmental attitudes, beliefs, and behavior of visitors. On
whale and dolphin tours, tourists changed their attitudes to conservation, displaying a
greater knowledge of cetaceans and awareness of threats to marine life (Christensen
et al., 2007; Finkler & Higham, 2004; Luck, 2003; Mayes et al., 2004; Muloin, 1998).
Other changes in the personal behavior of visitors on a guided tour of turtle nesting
beaches at Jurabi included better overall adherence to minimal impact guidelines during
the Jurabi turtle experience (Smith, 2006). On-site signs at the turtle nesting beaches in
Jurabi Coastal Park and a brochure also outlined tourist behavior near turtles. Observa-
tions of 96 groups of unguided tourists over three months at Jurabi Park found 77% of
visitors breached at least one component in the turtle code of conduct such as shining
torches, not saying behind or being within three meters of a nesting turtle and walking
below the high tide mark (Waayers, Newsome, & Lee, 2006). In contrast, the structured
interpretive programs for visitors interacting with sea turtles at Mon Repos and dolphins
at Tangalooma Resort in Queensland reduced wildlife disturbance and influenced par-
ticipants to adopt short-term pro-environmental behaviors (up to 4 months later) such as
cleaning up beaches, recycling, and donating money to wildlife groups (Mayes et al.,
2004; Tisdell & Wilson, 2002, 2005). Other conservation benefits were enhanced appre-
ciation of marine wildlife and engaging in actions to reduce human threats or impacts on
wildlife (Howard, 2000). A post-visit survey of 140 visitors at Mon Repos 6 months
later also found support for behaviors supporting wildlife conservation (18%) and spe-
cific actions such as donating money and taking about conservation matters (9%)
(Ballantyne, Packer, Hughes, & Dierking, 2007). Close proximity to marine wildlife
during in-water encounters, near nesting turtles or shore-based feeding interactions with
dolphins magnified these environmental and personal benefits. The level or intensity of
the encounter with marine wildlife needed to change tourist attitudes was linked to
direct, close contact with animals more so than passive viewing from a boat or on land.
The quality of marine wildlife interpretation also influenced conservation outcomes and
other environmentally responsible behaviors as reported by visitors. Therefore, visitor
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288 H. Zeppel and S. Muloin
interactions with marine wildlife on guided tours increased environmental awareness,
changed attitudes, and modified on-site and some longer-term beneficial conservation
behaviors.
These personal, educational, and conservation benefits for visitors, however, depend on
sound management of marine animal encounters and interpretation programs that integrate
knowledge with the emotional aspects of observing marine wildlife. The level of visitors’
commitment to marine wildlife conservation related to impacts on their knowledge, atti-
tudes, and then behaviors. The personal impact of viewing marine turtles on nesting
beaches at Mon Repos and caring about their conservation related to knowledge and interest
(75–100%), understanding and attitude toward turtles (70–74%), general attitudes toward
wildlife and nature conservation (52–67%) and personal beliefs (34%) (Ballantyne et al.,
2007). The benefits for participants on marine wildlife tours are realized when the affec-
tive (emotional) benefits and excitement of seeing unique marine life are integrated with
the cognitive (education) benefits of learning new facts about marine wildlife. Thus, edu-
cational entertainment in marine life interpretation needs to include both cognitive and
affective aspects of experiential learning (Howard, 2000; Schanzel, 2004). Visitor learn-
ing for fun and enjoyment during leisure activities is an important part of tourism experi-
ences (Packer, 2006). Hence, marine wildlife interactions that involve making personal
connections with marine animals in a learning context can provide a range of conservation
and educational benefits. Marine wildlife tourism experiences that increase both environ-
mental awareness and positive feelings in visitors are more likely to generate environmen-
tal actions resulting in conservation benefits for marine wildlife.
Further Research
Further research is required on the causal links between marine interpretation programs
and the conservation benefits deriving from guided marine wildlife experiences. Much of
the research on marine wildlife tourism is site or species specific, focused on biological
impacts, and is limited to one type of encounter. Visitors at aquariums and seaworld parks
need to be surveyed about the conservation and education benefits of marine wildlife
encounters at these captive sites (Adelman, Falk, & James, 2000; Ballantyne, 2007;
Ballantyne et al., 2007; Evans, 1997; Saltzer, 2001; Spotte & Clark, 2004). The environmen-
tal attitudes of marine visitors in regard to whale watching and commercial or subsistence
whaling also require further investigation (Higham & Lusseau, 2007a,b; Orams, 2001),
along with cross-cultural attitudes to wildlife conservation in marine tourism settings
(Kellert, 1991; Takei, 1998; Teel, Manfredo, & Stinchfield, 2007). The conservation
attitudes and behavior of staff and operators of marine wildlife tours also need further
examination (Evans, 1997; Groff, Lockhart, Ogden, & Dierking, 2005), in addition to the
key role of scientists in providing information to tour operators and monitoring wildlife
(Rodgers et al., 2007). The content and effectiveness of marine conservation messages for
novice and specialist marine wildlife tourists needs to be assessed at different sites
(Christensen et al., 2007; Malcom & Duffus, 2002). Developing a standard set of mea-
surements to assess the impact of interpretive programs on visitors would extend the
application of Oram’s (1999) framework. These could identify which interpretive tech-
niques lead visitors from knowledge/learning to attitude/belief changes that affect conserva-
tion awareness and pro-environmental behaviors. Standard indicators are the basis of
environmental management planning tools to sustainably manage visitor impacts (Wight,
1998). Longer-term studies also need to measure ongoing actual conservation actions of
visitors one to five years after marine wildlife interactions, beyond self-reported intentions
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Conservation Benefits of Marine Wildlife Tours 289
to act environmentally. The wildlife experience itself in a scenic natural area may heighten
visitor concern and appreciation for marine wildlife but behavioral changes may not always
ensue. This more in-depth evaluation of educational programs in marine wildlife tourism
experiences will reinforce the types of interpretive experiences and settings that increase
tourist knowledge, change environmental attitudes, and aid conservation actions.
Conclusions
Close personal encounters with selected marine wildlife, especially marine mammals, pro-
vide a range of personal, educational, and conservation benefits for visitors. Marine wild-
life interpretation programs that highlight species biology and human impacts can also
influence visitor attitudes, beliefs, and conservation outcomes. These mediated encounters
on marine wildlife tours motivate visitors to respect marine life; foster environmentally
responsible attitudes and behaviors; and benefit marine conservation. Linking affective
and cognitive responses to marine wildlife increases environmental awareness; changes
visitor attitudes, modifies intentions to act pro-environmentally; and fosters conservation
appreciation and actions by tourists. Personal benefits for visitors also depend on the
intensity and frequency of tourist encounters with marine wildlife and the type of learning
experience provided. Visitors differ in their desired mix of personal, educational, and con-
servation benefits. Therefore, visitor benefits of interpretation, and the overall structure of
wildlife encounters, need to be considered by the managers and operators of marine wild-
life tourism experiences. Effective marine interpretation programs need to engage visitors
and deliver conservation messages about marine animals and ecosystems while also man-
aging the visitor desire for close interaction with marine wildlife. The causal links
between interpretation and environmental outcomes require further investigation.
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