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Managing strategic change in a mature business
Abstract
The article draws on the experience of four sectors of the U.K. economy to suggest what the competetive conditions of the next decade might look like. The distinction is made between barries to entry and barries to success. Strategic management in the more successful companies appears to involve the common ability to sustain strategic flexibility. The majority of the piece indicates how this quality has been fashioned and how the process of its creation and maintenance has been managed in the companies concerned. Evidence from the four sectors is used to speculate on some of the key determinants of strategic flexibility in the 1990s.
... Strategic flexibility as a reactive ability only (includes responsiveness and adaptation to changes in the business environment) Eppink (1978); Aaker and Mascarenhas (1984); TenDam (1987); Whipp et al. (1989); Das and Elango (1995); Sanchez (1995); Bierly and Chakrabarti (1996); Lau (1996); Sanchez and Mahoney (1996); Winfrey et al. (1996); Wright and Snell (1998); Beach et al. (2000); Combe and Greenley (2004); Shimizu and Hitt (2004); Fredericks (2005); Nadkarni and Narayanan (2007); Rudd et al. (2008); Tan and Zeng (2009);Tamayo-Torres et al. (2010); Zhou and Wu (2010); Escrig-Tena et al. (2011);Fernández-Pérez et al. (2012); Gylling et al. (2012); Hamlin et al. (2012); Kouropalatis et al. (2012); Pauwels and Matthyssens (2004); Santos-Vijande et al. (2012); Schön (2012); Wu et al. (2012); Fernández-Pérez and ; Kurt and Hulland (2013); Sushil (2014) Strategic flexibility as a proactive ability as well TenDam (1987); de Leeuw and Volberda (1996); Volberda (1996); Hitt et al. (1998);Young-Ybarra and Wiersema (1999), Grewal and Tansuhaj (2001); Abbott and Banerji (2003); Zhang (2005,2006); Roca-Puig et al. (2005); Celuch et al. (2007); Li et al. (2008); Zahra et al. (2008); Roberts and Stockport (2009);Engau et al. (2011);Feletto et al. (2011);Bock et al. (2012); Combe et al. (2012); Kandemir and Acur (2012); Santos-Vijande et al. (2012); Ling-Yee and Ogunmokun (2013); Singh et al. (2013b); Ouakouak and Ammar (2015); Sushil (2015) Strategic flexibility as a fast, swift, quick, prompt, timely response Aaker and Mascarenhas (1984); Das and Elango (1995); Wright and Snell (1998); Englehardt and Simmons (2002); Shimizu and Hitt (2004); Verdú-Jover et al. (2006); Nadkarni and Narayanan (2007); Escrig-Tena et al. (2011);Bock et al. (2012); Gylling et al. (2012); Kouropalatis et al. (2012); Santos-Vijande et al. (2012); ; Kurt and Hulland (2013); Ouakouak and Ammar (2015) Time aspect (short, medium or long term) Carlsson (1989); Evans (1991); Wright and Snell (1998); see also Golden and Powell (2000) The choice of an appropriate strategic option Carlsson (1989); Evans (1991); Das and Elango (1995); Sanchez (1995Sanchez ( , 1997; Price et al. (1998); Phillips and Tuladhar (2000); Fredericks (2005) Intention Evans (1991); Johnson et al. (2003); Matthyssens et al. (2005); Ling-Yee and Ogunmokun, (2013); see also Golden and Powell (2000); ...
... Predictable and unpredictable changes Eppink (1978); Young-Ybarra and Wiersema (1999); de Haan et al. (2011);Férnandez-Pérez and Gutiérrez (2013) Continuous changes and disturbances de Haan et al. (2011) Opportunities and threats Matusik and Hill (1998); Chattopadhyay et al. (2001); Grewal and Tansuhaj (2001); Li et al. (2008); Zahra et al. (2008); Roberts and Stockport (2009);Hamlin et al. (2012); Perez-Valls et al. (2015) Internally induced vs. externally induced changes Fredericks (2005); Schön (2012) Types of triggers Articles Uncertainties Lau (1996); Hitt et al. (2003); Fredericks (2005); Ivens (2005); Hatum and Pettigrew (2006); Li et al. (2008); Engau et al. (2011); Kazozcu (2011) Competitive forces Whipp et al. (1989); Das and Elango (1995); Goodstein et al. (1996);Hitt et al. (1998); Fisscher and de Weerd-Nederhof (2001); Zhang (2005); Combe (2012); Fernández-Pérez et al. (2012); Kurt and Hulland (2013) Economic and political risks Grewal and Tansuhaj (2001); Roberts and Stockport (2009) ...
... Management and leadership, also in terms of their competency, cognition, and social networks Evans (1991); Bettis and Hitt (1995), Goodstein et al. (1996); Volberda (1996Volberda ( , 1998; Filatotchev and Toms (2003); Hitt et al. (2003); Combe and Greenley (2004); Hatum and Pettigrew (2006) Ulrich and Wiersema (1989); Sanchez (1995Sanchez ( , 1997; Hitt et al. (1998); Petersen et al. (2000); Phillips and Tuladhar (2000); Englehardt and Simmons (2002); Combe and Greenley (2004); Nadkarni and Narayanan (2007) (2015) Organizational structure Carlsson (1989); Ulrich and Wiersema (1989); Whipp et al. (1989); Das and Elango (1995); Lei et al. (1996); Sanchez and Mahoney (1996); Volberda (1996Volberda ( , 1998; Winfrey et al. (1996); Hitt et al. (1998) Modularity: Das and Elango (1995); Sanchez (1995Sanchez ( , 1997Sanchez ( , 2004; Sanchez and Mahoney (1996) Winfrey et al. (1996); Hitt et al. (1998); Hatum and Pettigrew (2006); Engau et al. (2011) Employees, human resources, HR management Whipp et al. (1989); Das and Elango (1995); Winfrey et al. (1996); Hitt et al. (1998); Matusik and Hill (1998) ...
Previous literature reviews of strategic flexibility have a number of shortcomings: they lack a specific focus in the field, provide an excessive definitional focus or lack a clear empirical overview of research in the field. To overcome these shortcomings, this paper aims to systematically analyse the literature on strategic flexibility by identifying its main characteristics, linking the different aspects together in a new conceptual framework, and considering the means to measure it. This comprehensive analytical model analyses various aspects of strategic flexibility in the relevant literature (156 contributions). Thus, the systematic and critical approach of this paper offers a novel perspective in understanding strategic flexibility, and contributes to the field by providing a consolidation of the literature and indicating future research avenues. © 2016 British Academy of Management and John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
... The need to manage change became clear during the 1990s, not only due to changes in the competitive environment, but also due to changes in information technology. This challenge is well described in the example presented by Whipp (2003): ...
... Ansoff & McDonnell (1990, pp. 3-11), Beck & Cowan (1996), Capodagly et al. (2001), Chandler et al. (1999, p.1), Pictkethly (2003, Whipp (2003), Volberda (2003). 178 For example, all research based on Porters' theories. ...
... Consequently, dynamics change in the competitive environment and demand continuous reformulation of business strategies in order to survive 181 . In order to understand the characteristics of the changing environment, Ansoff & McDonnell (1990, p.9), Pictkethly (2003, Whipp (2003), Volberda (2003). 180 See i.e. ...
... Among others, describe a theoretical framework to analyze servitization knowledge based on 'change'. Based upon previous researches of Pettigrew (1988), Whipp et al. (1989) and Pye & Pettigrew (2005), this approach provides six higher level questions that provide context and rationale for change. ...
... All firms will therefore have different starting points, although in general the process begins with a strategic decision made by senior management. This is in line with much of the change literature (Pettigrew, 1988;Whipp et al., 1989;Pye & Pettigrew, 2005) that states that there is no one 'right way' to deliver a change program. ...
Purpose: The objective of this paper is to provide empirical examples from in depth interviews of how business leaders have overcome the barriers to servitization. This builds upon earlier studies by West and Gaiardelli (2017) and West et al. (2018).
Design/Methodology/Approach: Using a prior survey as a starting point, 20 in-depth one-on-one interviews were carried out. The interviews used a semi-structured approach to identify the current practices used by firms to overcome the barriers to servitization. The results emerging from the interviews were organized according to the seven categories of servitization barriers defined by Hou & Neely (2013) and analyzed using a framework developed by Baines et al. (2016).
Findings: The research underlines that the servitization process is not only a complicated cultural change process, but also rather resource and time intensive (West & Gaiardelli, 2017). While the major challenges that manufacturing firms face essentially fall into the seven categories defined by Hou & Neely (2013), unique challenges for each of the analyzed firms emerge in terms of internal approaches, external barriers and reactions to change management altogether.
Originality/Value: This paper provides a full perspective on how servitization change management can be successfully achieved.
KEYWORDS: servitization challenges, change management, case studies.
... Establishing a disciplined (Gamota 2020;Denning 2021), entrepreneurial process with conducive internal environments (Amo 2010;Bierwerth et al. 2015), cultural shifts, and commitment of resources serves as a vital foundation for effective AWB implementation. Conflicts arising from a lack of alignment between leadership expectations and employee capabilities highlight the need for cohesive strategies that promote innovation that aligns with organizational goals (Whipp, Rosenfeld, and Pettigrew 1989). Successful implementation of the AWB approach necessitates a paradigm shift towards customer-driven innovation, methodical processes, and a supportive internal ecosystem (Adner 2017), enabling organizations to drive ICV. ...
... Thus, undertaking servitisation as a strategic move could be viewed as change, representing "a difference in form, quality, or state over time" (Van de Ven and Poole, 1995, p. 512). In this vein, organisational change theorists emphasise exploring what, how, where and when firms change (Meyer, 2007) and further propose an integrated theoretical framework encompassing context/conditions, mechanisms/processes and content/outcomes (Pawson and Tilley, 1997;Pettigrew, 1988;Whipp et al., 1989;Pye and Pettigrew, 2005). Adopting this generic framework would allow the examination of possible triggers, mechanisms, and outcomes of sustainable servitisation on an organisational level and thus contribute to a comprehensive understanding of the phenomenon as a process. ...
... In support of the vertical alignment delineation: Whipp et al. (1989), while discussing the strategies of managing change in the 80s and the prospects for the next decade, posited that one of the aspects that made firms more successful in sustaining growth during the 80s was having an internal coherence between strategic and operational changes. Moreover, Smith and Reece (1999, pp. ...
Researchers have long focused their attention on organizational culture, leadership and organizational alignment as elements that are necessary for an organization’s success. Relying on Bojadziev et al.’s (2011) definitions of leadership as “leaders’ values” and organizational culture as “the values of the organizations’ members”, this thesis set out to measure these building blocks of organizational alignment in public institutions in the Republic of North Macedonia. After qualitatively exploring the theory of organizational culture and alignment as well as extensively researching about the various existing instruments that are used to measure them, a quantitative analysis was done using the Vox Organizationis 2.0 model by Bojadjiev (2019). Analyzing the data of 102 respondents (managers and non-managers) working in two public institutions in North Macedonia, the results showed that the organizational culture is predominantly an “entrepreneurial democracy” and that the dominant leadership style is “Jack Welch-like”. There is a significant level of alignment between the opinions of the leaders and the other employees, with the leaders scoring slightly higher on all dimensions. This thesis proves the validity of the revised Vox Organizationis 2.0 model and offers some recommendations for maintaining the already existing alignment between the leaders and other employees, as well as suggestions for further research.
... Cândido & Santos, 2015;Kaplan & Norton, 2001;Kiechel III, 1982;Nutt, 1999). Distinguishing strategy formulation from strategy implementation led to problematizing the successful realisation of a strategy as having to bridge the implementation gap (Martin, 2010;Whipp, 2003). Successfully executing a strategic plan appears to be as elusive as it ever was (Bourgeois III & Brodwin, 1984). ...
This chapter develops strategic management from a strong process point of view to postulate how strategy implementation can be understood. We will do that by basing ourselves on Theodore Schatzki’s Theory of Practice. This allows us to understand strategic management as a continuous implementation process that generates both persistence and change. Consequently, strategy formulation then becomes another implementation activity, instead of it being seen as something separate preceding strategy implementation. Strategic management then refers to all activities that direct and channel the process that is continuously going on anyway into a desired pattern.
... There is now a growing literature focusing on the internal dynamics of the attempts to change public organisations radically {eg Famham and Horton, 1996;Hoggett, 1996;Greenwood and Hinings, 1996;Whipp, 2002). Part of these radical reforms in the public sector, commercialisation has been seen as one of the ways of reinventing public sector entities to make them more competitive in the commercial market. ...
p>The introduction of market mechanisms within the remit of public organisations in the United Kingdom has provided these organisations with the opportunity to operate and compete commercially, whilst the Government retained ownership. However, the commercialisation of public sector agencies has also given rise to a new set of dualities and antagonisms within which these organisations have to operate: existing neither in the strictly public realm of state action nor in the strictly private realm of commercial relationships; being expected to function like businesses -efficient, customer driven, and client oriented - yet having to perform tasks that are inherently public; fulfilling their strategic role as government agencies, yet providing high- quality services to their customers, citizens and users in a dynamic marketplace; capitalising on their commercial and operating freedoms, whilst safeguarding the shareholders interests and ensuring the continuous provision of quality services. Current models of HRM suggest that expectations about the roles HR departments should play are changing as organisations are striving to make their HR functions leaner and more 'strategic'. However, the unique characteristics and the specific context within which commercialising public sector organisations operate may add different constraints to developing such a strategic HR agenda. There is thus a need to develop a more tailored approach to the analysis of strategic HRM in the public sector by taking into consideration what is distinctive about public sector transformation in terms of the strategic priorities and demands it creates, and the kind of responses it elicits firom HR functions. Drawing on qualitative, longitudinal case-study research carried out between 2001 and 2005, this thesis explores the changing role of the HR function within two contrasting British public sector organisations responding to the 'commercialisation' agenda. The study also addresses the contextual factors that influence the role played by the HR function and reveals the way in which critical differences in organisational and HR micro-processes can serve to facilitate or constrain the contribution of the HR function. Longitudinal data were collected & om four main sources: interview data; documentary and archival data; notes taken from informal conversations; and observational data gathered at management meetings. the The contribution of this research is both and present study is a comparative case analysis of the role of the HR function in strategic change in two commercialising public sector organisations informed by the perspectives of role theory and the concept of negotiated order. The study presents an alternate conceptual famework that a /eveZ, At ii</p
... All efforts for change need to consider the context, especially if the change is aimed at managerial or organizational structures. 56 LHSs is a sociotechnical concept that encompasses fundamental aspects of both organizational structure, culture, and technology and, hence, the existing organization must be carefully considered. A thorough understanding of current perspectives of different stakeholders, and cultures for how learning and development occurs, is necessary to design interventions and motivate people for change. ...
Introduction
Departing from a practical problem of how to use digitalization to improve care quality and efficiency, this paper investigates how the concept of Learning Health Systems (LHSs) can be applied to an existing organization. LHSs offer a vision for how healthcare can accelerate both scale‐up of innovations and quality improvements at all levels. However, aligning stakeholders at different levels to convergent development is challenging and translation and adaptation of the LHS concept to fit with the existing organization is essential.
Methods
A one‐year longitudinal action research (AR) study was conducted within five psychiatric departments at the Sahlgrenska University Hospital in Gothenburg, Sweden. Translation of the LHS concept to the local circumstances within the organization was set as the aim, to both improve practice and further scientific understanding. An AR group led the practical and scholarly work and holistic data were collected, including field notes, documents, recordings, and workshops. Data were analyzed by an insider‐outsider approach.
Results
The one‐year study is described to provide insights into the process of designing a locally adapted LHS using an AR approach. Practical needs were identified and iteratively matched with theory to form a local LHS model. A conflict between top‐down and bottom‐up views on development emerged, where higher‐level management tended to prioritize uniform solutions and developers local learning. An adapted solution to balance these approaches was negotiated, consisting of a technical and an organizational part.
Conclusions
The conflict between top‐down and bottom‐up approaches for how to implement LHSs needs to be considered both in practical work to transform care organizations and in scientific studies of LHSs. The approach to translate, rather than instrumentally implement, LHSs to real‐world settings is suggested as advantageous. Furthermore, designing such endeavors as AR projects can provide excellent conditions to create LHSs that work in practice.
... In an organisational collaboration, all employees are exposed to direct interactions (Whipp, Rosenfeld, and Pettigrew, 1989) − formal or informal with electronic or face-to-face (Davenport and Prusak, 1998). Indeed, informal knowledge networks may be faster than formal knowledge networks (Macdonald, 1996). ...
This paper attempts to explore the views of key ICT stakeholders on the role of technology parks in promoting innovation via knowledge transfer. Many developed and developing countries use technology parks as an instrument to promote knowledge transfer and innovation. Policy makers incor-porate this idea into public policy for science and technology. The study observes that Malaysia's technology parks have played a little role in promoting knowledge transfer and innovation because ICT enterprises located thereon operate on a different premise. The study suggests the government to review the policy on technology parks with the objective to intensify innovation in Malaysia's ICT industry.
... Indeed, firms will have different starting points, although in general the process begins with a strategic decision made by senior management. This is in line with much of the change literature (Pettigrew, 1988;Pye & Pettigrew, 2005;Whipp et al., 1989) that states there is no one "right way" to deliver a change program. The motivation can come from a strategic choice to move into services (Baines et al., 2009;Gebauer, 2007, Mathieu, 2001b, from a change in the market, or from an acquisition process. ...
The delivery of services creates major disruptive change to a business and involves a change management process at different levels of the service chain, thus really representing a journey for the firm and its partners. Strategically, management teams like the idea of developing service business because customers require after-sales services and margins are generally higher than in the traditional product sales business. But considering moving into service just “a good move” without first understanding the underlying barriers risks failure. This chapter provides a conceptual guideline that supports firms and practitioners to understand the change management aspects of servitization. The guideline is based on conceptual literature, combined with empirical data from a major study based on survey and interview data from 150 firms. It aids middle managers in developing an agile roadmap to allow them to take actions that support their strategic vision around servitization.
... Indeed, firms will have different starting points, although in general the process begins with a strategic decision made by senior management. This is in line with much of the change literature (Pettigrew, 1988;Pye & Pettigrew, 2005;Whipp et al., 1989) that states there is no one "right way" to deliver a change program. The motivation can come from a strategic choice to move into services Gebauer, 2007, Mathieu, 2001b, from a change in the market, or from an acquisition process. ...
... Most education institutions had to change their education modes, and thus there was a need for rethinking their existing strategies and applying new ones (Fenech et al., 2020). Navarro & Gallardo (2003) proposed a model of generating dynamic capabilities based on the theory of resources and capabilities, institutional theories and analysis of strategic change literature provided by various scholars (Ruiz-Navarro, 1998;Elfring et al., 1997;Ashkenas et al., 2015;Miles et al., 1995;Baden-Fuller and Stopford, 1994;Whipp et al., 1989, cited in Navarro & Gallardo, 2003. This three-pillar model portrays the picture of a generation of dynamic capabilities in large organizations. ...
Dynamic capabilities are directed at generating, acquiring, integrating, and disseminating knowledge for reconfiguring processes. The purpose of this study is to investigate and develop a model of the way teaching strategies are shaped, in times of crisis, by dynamic capabilities. The contribution of this study to apply the theoretical framework of dynamic capabilities to the field of higher education and to develop a model which demonstrates the role of dynamic capabilities in developing teaching strategies in times of crisis. This model can then be applied to the world of education. The data is from 16 academics in this qualitative research study who participated in focus groups. The data is analysed using content analysis and inter-rater reliability. The main finding is an empirically proven model showing the adoption of new teaching strategies through dynamic capabilities, namely agility, sensing, shaping, seizing and reconfiguring opportunities and threats. Dynamic capabilities shape new teaching strategies in a context of organisational support, learning, reflection, experience and students feedback. This study provides a number of practical recommendations for academics and higher education management.
... Most education institutions had to change their education modes, and thus there was a need for rethinking their existing strategies and applying new ones (Fenech et al., 2020). Navarro & Gallardo (2003) proposed a model of generating dynamic capabilities based on the theory of resources and capabilities, institutional theories and analysis of strategic change literature provided by various scholars (Ruiz-Navarro, 1998;Elfring et al., 1997;Ashkenas et al., 2015;Miles et al., 1995;Baden-Fuller and Stopford, 1994;Whipp et al., 1989, cited in Navarro & Gallardo, 2003. This three-pillar model portrays the picture of a generation of dynamic capabilities in large organizations. ...
Dynamic capabilities are directed at generating, acquiring, integrating, and disseminating knowledge for reconfiguring processes. The purpose of this study is to investigate and develop a model of the way teaching strategies are shaped, in times of crisis, by dynamic capabilities. The contribution of this study to apply the theoretical framework of dynamic capabilities to the field of higher education and to develop a model which demonstrates the role of dynamic capabilities in developing teaching strategies in times of crisis. This model can then be applied to the world of education. The data is from 16 academics in this qualitative research study who participated in focus groups. The data is analysed using content analysis and inter-rater reliability. The main finding is an empirically proven model showing the adoption of new teaching strategies through dynamic capabilities, namely agility, sensing, shaping, seizing and reconfiguring opportunities and threats. Dynamic capabilities shape new teaching strategies in a context of organisational support, learning, reflection, experience and students feedback. This study provides a number of practical recommendations for academics and higher education management.
... We screened the reference lists of the articles for frequently cited books and chapters. In this stage, we added five books (Galbraith and Nathanson (1978), Galbraith & Kazanjian (1986); Hrebiniak and Joyce (1984), Kaplan and Norton (1996); Morgan et al., (2007) and three book chapters (Chakravarthy and White (2006), Hrebiniak and Joyce (2001); MacMillan and Guth (1985), Whipp (2006). Together, this resulted in 119 core empirical and conceptual contributions to the SI literature that form the foundation for this paper. ...
Strategy implementation (SI) is a significant managerial, and organizational challenge as many practitioners struggle to make strategies actionable and to achieve intended results. Moreover, there is no unified body of research on SI. This is problematic for academics aiming to contribute to a research-based body of knowledge on implementation. To remedy this problem, we draw on the strategy-as-practice perspective and conceptualize SI as a particular type of ‘strategy work’, manifest in the activities, actors, and tools through which strategy is executed. This conceptual framework allows us to synthesize the fragmented literature into five implementation practices: structure and process matching, resource matching, monitoring, framing, and negotiating. We show how these implementation activities operate at different levels and involve different actors and tools. With its emphasis on what managers (and other people) do within specific structural, temporal, and material arrangements, the strategy-as-practice perspective offers exciting opportunities for future implementation research.
... Nath and Sudharshan (1994) urged researchers to examine the relationship between a firm's environment, organizational structure, business strategy and the coherence or fit between a firm's business strategy and its functional strategies. Whipp et al. (1989) found that alignment between strategic and operational aspects is more "visible" in successful firms. This is in concert with Day (1984) who suggested that business strategy should be integrated with functional strategies to achieve a sustainable competitive advantage. ...
In theory, strategic priorities at the functional level align with and support business level strategies. Alignment of priorities is presumed to contribute to enhanced organizational performance, just as misalignment is expected to undermine performance. This study further develops and tests these theoretical conventions by examining the perceptions of general managers and manufacturing managers regarding manufacturing priorities of their business units. Based on a sample of matched pairs of manufacturing managers and general managers from 98 manufacturing plants, the hypotheses regarding the alignment–performance relationship are tested. Specifically, we tested whether the performance of the manufacturing unit is enhanced when general managers and manufacturing managers agree on strategic priorities. Furthermore, the influence of organizational factors on the relationship between alignment and performance of the manufacturing unit is studied. Results support our hypotheses that certain organizational variables moderate the relationship between alignment of priorities and manufacturing performance.
... Given that our chosen definition of servitization focuses on manufacturing organisations, and the innovation of these organisations to offer advanced services, then in this context, transformation is concerned with the processes of organisational change. Organisational change occurs as an interplay between the context, process and content (Pettigrew, 1988, Whipp et al., 1989, Pye and Pettigrew, 2005. Context deals with the circumstances of change (internal and external to organisations), while process deals with how change takes place, and content deals with the actual decisions reached. ...
The concept of servitization is well established in the literature, and yet the processes of organisational change that manufacturers undergo to compete through services have received much less attention. Therefore, this paper develops a model that enables a description of the servitization processes, the principal stages of organisational change, and the forces impacting these processes. It is based on a series of 14 case studies of the process of servitization over time in multinational manufacturers. Evidence and analysis from these cases are used to establish that manufacturers undergo four stages of organisational maturity (Exploration, Engagement, Expansion and Exploitation), through which an organisation progresses according to the pressures of five principal forces (customer pull, technology push, value network positioning, organisational readiness, and organisational commitment). This progression can be characterised as a business growth model with multiple crises or tipping points. This research contributes to our understanding of the process of servitization and proposes a model which can be used to explain progression. It also forms the basis to better prepare manufacturers as to what to expect as they embark on a servitization journey.
... The reason in offering the previous observations is to draw attention to the intertwined nature of opportunity formation and exploitation and the integral aspect of enrolling stakeholders and their contributions to the process. The "processes" in this article focus on the role of the entrepreneur, in combination with stakeholders, in the opportunity emergence process, utilizing an in-depth case study spanning several years (e.g., Rajagopalan & Spreitzer, 1996;Webb & Dawson, 1991;Whipp, Rosenfeld, & Pettigrew, 1989). This article examines the entrepreneurial actions of Lowell Wakefield, the founder of Wakefield Seafoods, during the formation of the king crab opportunity while he enrolls the founding team, financial stakeholders, and customers. ...
There is growing interest in the processes by which entrepreneurial opportunities are cocreated between entrepreneurs and their stakeholders. The longitudinal case study of de novo firm Wakefield Seafoods seeks to understand the underlying dynamics of phenomena that play out over time as stakeholders emerge and their contributions become essential to the opportunity formation process. The king crab data show that under conditions of uncertainty, characterized by incomplete or missing knowledge, entrepreneurial processes of experimentation, failure, and learning were effective in forming and exploiting an opportunity. Moreover, contrary to existing literature that either emphasizes heroic entrepreneurs or downplays their value, this article shows that both the vision of the entrepreneur and the stakeholder contributions are critical. This detailed examination of process data shows that the cumulative actions made by entrepreneurs in concert with their stakeholders formed an opportunity that coalesced into a new market.
... Keep in best performance, market orientation and managing changes in mature business. [12,13,14]. ...
... SCRM strategy alignment refers to the alignment and integration of SCRM strategies with the supply chain and the firms' strategies (Juttner, 2005;Manuj and Mentzer, 2008a;Pfohl et al., 2010). The literature has highlighted the importance of alignment between a firm's functional and business strategies for sustaining competitive advantage (Nath and Sudharshan, 1994;Whipp et al., 1989). Specifically, the literature on SCRM has recognized that SCRM strategies need to be developed and aligned with firms' supply chain and business strategies (Manuj and Mentzer, 2008a;Juttner, 2005;Tang, 2006b;Zsidisin and Ritchie, 2008). ...
... Only a handful organisational change models draw together content, context, and process variables simultaneously. Prominent among them is a framework proposed by Pettigrew (1988), and later by Whipp et al. (1989) and Pye and Pettigrew (2005). Focusing on the organisation, the framework can be used to understand why change occurs (through analysis of outer and inner contexts), how changes take place (through analysis of processes), and subsequent effects on people, processes, and organisations (through analysis of content). ...
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to consolidate the servitization knowledge base from an organizational change perspective, identifying developed, developing and undeveloped topics to provide a platform that directs future research.
Design/methodology/approach
This paper addresses three objectives: it comprehensively examines organizational change management literature for selection of a theoretical framework; it classifies extant studies within the framework through a systemic literature review; and it analyses 232 selected papers and proposes a research agenda.
Findings
Analysis suggests increasing global awareness of the importance of services to manufacturers. However, some topics, especially related to servitization transformation, remain undeveloped.
Research limitations/implications
Although the authors tried to include all publications relevant to servitization, some might not have been captured. Evaluation and interpretation relied on the research team and subsequent research workshops.
Practical implications
One of the most significant challenges for practitioners of servitization is how to transform a manufacturing organization to exploit the opportunity. This paper consolidates literature regarding servitization, identifying progress concerning key research topics and contributing a platform for future research. The goal is to inform research to result eventually in a roadmap for practitioners seeking to servitize.
Originality/value
Although extant reviews of servitization identify themes that are examined well, they struggle to identify unanswered questions. This paper addresses this gap by focusing on servitization as a process of organizational change.
... Only a handful organisational change models draw together content, context, and process variables simultaneously. Prominent among them is a framework proposed by Pettigrew (1988), and later by Whipp et al. (1989) and Pye and Pettigrew (2005). Focusing on the organisation, the framework can be used to understand why change occurs (through analysis of outer and inner contexts), how changes take place (through analysis of processes), and subsequent effects on people, processes, and organisations (through analysis of content). ...
In recent years, the servitization of manufacturing has become a topic of interest to both academics and practitioners. Indeed, companies are realising that servitization is a way to enhance their competitive advantage and get closer to their customers. Several empirical studies have attempted to explain why and how to servitize. They provide important insights to better understand the processes of servitization. The connection between academia and business practices is decisive in the foundation of this research topic. This foundation will allow continuing with its development, contributing in turn to improve the implementation in companies. Hence, this special issue aims to contribute to the theoretical and practical aspects of servitization.
... Such shifts may result from changes in either the macroenvironment (e.g., new regulations, social forces, demographic changes, etc.) or the industry environment (e.g., new competitors, changes in competitor strategies, etc.). Changes in competition and technology necessitate a change in the knowledge base within the organization if it is to survive (Whipp, Rosenfeld, & Pettigrew, 1989). According to the population ecology perspective (Hannan & Freeman, 1977~Ulrich, 1987, the environment determines which organizations will survive and which ones will not. ...
Most empirical studies examining strategic planning effectiveness have focused on its impact on financial performance. However, solid empirically-based conclusions concerning the usefulness of strategic planning have not yet emerged. The present study takes an alternative perspective, examining two dimensions of executive satisfaction with strategic planning. Results support a link between seven strategic planning characteristics and planning satisfaction among small firms.
... In diesem Prozess siehtKunz (2003) sogar die Notwendigkeit von Feedback.Gomez/Probst (1999) bezeichnen es als qualitatives Controlling-Instrument. Feedback soil dabei die Selbstwahrnehmung erhohen, die eigene Rolle im Prozess reflektieren, um daraus zu lemen. Zusatzlich soil so eine weitere Basis fur Offenheit, Ehrlichkeit und Vertrauen geschaffen werden(Whipp, 2003).Nicht aufter Acht darf hierbei die Verbindung zur Beurteiiung der Mitarbeiter gelassen werden. Feedback ist hier Teil mitarbeiterorientierter Beurteiiung, wobei, abhangig von der Unternehmenskultur, zwischen monetaren und nicht-monetaren Anreizen ausgewahlt werden muss. ...
Der Megatrend "Gesundheit" hat Einzug in alle Lebensbereiche gehalten. So gibt es inzwischen auch zum Thema "Gesundheit im Unternehmen" eine große Anzahl an Büchern, Managementseminaren, Trainings und Dienstleistungen. Die Effekte betrieblicher Gesundheitsförderung lassen aber bisher oft nur eine geringe Reichweite erkennen, da die Maßnahmen in erster Linie den Informationsstand der einzelnen Mitarbeiter verändern, aber nur selten langfristige Verhaltensänderungen herbei führen. Die betrieblichen Strukturen und Prozesse bleiben dabei häufig unverändert.
Die Beiträge dieses Bandes gehen aus einer selbstgesteuerten Lernfirma im Rahmen eines Seminars an der Universität Linz hervor. Sie geben einen ersten Überblick über die gesundheitsorientierten Unternehmensführung und zeigen detailliert die einzelnen Handlungsfelder ihrer Verankerung in der Unternehmenskultur auf. Die Autoren dokumentieren, dass die Wandlung von einzelnen gesundheitsfördernden Maßnahmen hin zu einer nachhaltigen Implementierung des Wertes Gesundheit im Unternehmen einen umfassenden Prozess darstellt, für den sie abschließend Erfolgskriterien definieren.
... The short answer is a relatively elaborate model (see figure 2). It depicts a pattern of activity that characterises higher-performing firms Whipp 1991, 1993;Whipp et al. 1989a;Whipp, Rosenfeld, and Pettigrew 1989b). Process variability in terms of five interrelated factors is linked to outcome variability in terms of realised competitiveness and performance. ...
This paper assesses Andrew Pettigrew's contribution to management scholarship. This review addresses the process, content, and context of his research career. Chronologically, the process will be subdivided into three distinct phases: the period leading up to the establishment of the Centre for Corporate Strategy and Change, Pettigrew's time with the Centre, and Pettigrew's research since leaving the Centre. The content of Pettigrew's research focussed on big problems and emerging phenomena such as decision-making, organisational culture, organisation development, strategic change, human resource management, competitiveness, new public management, boards of directors, innovative forms of organising, high-performing research teams, and business schools. His contextualist methodology for process research will be explicated. Pettigrew's contribution will be contextualised by comparing it with contemporary research. The paper concludes that there is still a need not only to examine big problems and emerging phenomena but also to provide a processual understanding of management reality. There is a need to further develop process research methodologies such as Pettigrew's contextualism, especially with respect to process research methods.
... En efecto, la gran heterogeneidad presente en la empresa: diversos niveles de complejidad en las tareas, subentornos distintos para departamentos distintos, diferentes tipos de recursos humanos (esenciales o periféricos), etc., obliga a relativizar cualquier afirmación de carácter general y simplista, como la realizada en el párrafo del texto principal. 28 Respecto a la primera, existe evidencia empírica que demuestra la tendencia iniciada por las empresas en la década de 1970 hacia la multiprofesionalización de los trabajadores (por ejemplo: National Economic Development Office, 1986;Cross, 1988;y Whipp;Rosenfeld;Pettigrew (1989). En relación con la segunda, el recurso al trabajo flexible, algunas relevantes investigaciones pueden consultarse en National Economic Development Office (1986), Hakim (1990), Casey (1991), Marginson (1991), Penn (1992), O'Reilly (1992), Harrison y Kelley (1993), y Hunter ;McGregor;Maclnnes. ...
Resumen: Ese artículo hace un abordaje de una temática muy desarrollada en el mundo académico que es la flexibilidad de las empresas delante de las variables del entorno. Específicamente es presentada una forma de cuantificación de esa flexibilidad en una pequeña empresa. Considerando los aspectos de los recursos de la empresa, comerciales, producción, financieros y de factor humano fue desarrollado un concepto operativo y cuantitativo de la flexibilidad empresarial. La visión tradicional de la flexibilidad ha sido la más explotada en la literatura sobre management y la que con más asiduidad se encuentra en los textos actuales. Esta visión entronca muy bien con la concepción popular que se tiene del concepto, en la cual, atendiendo a la letra del Diccionario de la Real Academia de la Lengua Española, la flexibilidad significa: "calidad de flexible; disposición que tienen algunas cosas para doblarse fácilmente sin romperse; y disposición del ánimo a ceder y acomodarse fácilmente a un dictamen". Este sentido popular e intuitivo de flexibilidad se ha ido utilizando desde los primeros textos sobre la flexibilidad de la empresa, siendo difícil no encontrar su influencia en la literatura más moderna. La contemplación demasiado simple de la realidad de la flexibilidad ha tenido dos efectos contrarios en la investigación: ha dificultado la construcción de una teoría consistente y global sobre la flexibilidad de las empresas; aunque, ha permitido un estudio pormenorizado y cuantitativo de áreas parciales de la empresa.
... This theoretical assumption is supported by various empirical studies which show that the active involvement of managers is a critical success factor for change projects (Webb & Dawson, 1991;Whipp, Rosenfeld, & Pettigrew, 1989;Zand & Sorensen, 1975). ...
What are the most relevant leadership tasks that drive leadership productivity? Which levels of leadership tasks exist?
Development of the Leadership Task Model with three task levels (Meta- or Me-Level, Makro- or Us-Level and Mikro- or You-Level) and 12 major
leadership tasks (Me-Level: Self-Transparency, Relationship- Transparency, Morale Values and Inclusive Decisions; Us-Level: Strategy Definition, Culture Creation, Change Management and Interface- and Conflict Management; You-Level: Goal Orientation, Support, Motivation and Time Optimization.
... Proponents of the strategic change and flexibility school make four primary arguments. First, a strategy tends to yield superior performance when it fits with the organization's environment; without strategic flexibility, an organization cannot adapt to its changing external environment (Hannan & Freeman, 1977;Parnell, 1997;Ulrich, 1987;Wernerfelt & Karnani, 1987;Whipp, Rosenfeld, & Pettigrew, 1989). Second, flexibility is critical since an organization can seek first mover advantages by entering a new market or developing a new product or service prior to its competitors, whereas an emphasis on strategic consistency can preclude movement into attractive strategic domains (Gannon, Smith & Grimm, 1992;Lieberman & Montgomery, 1988;Mascarenhas, 1992;Petersen & Welch, 2000). ...
Research has demonstrated that strategic planning in small and medium-sized enterprises (SME) enhances performance. Top executives of small and medium-sized enterprises are faced with three ostensible philosophical contradictions when formulating strategies for their companies. Should strategy formulation be viewed as an art or a science, should strategies be flexible or remain consistent, and should the process be top-down or bottom-up? This paper examines top and middle managers' predispositions along these lines. The findings reveal a need for top managers or management teams of SME's to employ a blend of discipline and innovation and a strong preference for either top-down or bottom-up planning, not an integration of the two methodologies. Prospects for future research are also presented. Although arguments can be made for either of two opposing perspectives along each dimension, we contend that effective SME managers should synthesize and balance such extremes when approaching strategic decision-making. Because managers' philosophical perspectives on each issue can greatly influence the role played in strategy formulation, it is argued that the resolution of these concerns should be the result of an established strategic philosophy. The differences in these three dimensions and the reluctance of SME managers to adopt strategic or long range planning, despite evidence that it is strongly and positively related to success, are addressed. The relationship between strategic planning and performance in SME's is a strong, positive one (Peel & Bridge, 1998). However, many top managers of SME's are reluctant to adopt strategic planning processes for their organizations, and those that do are actually involved more in business planning with a time frame of one year rather than strategic or long-term planning (Stonehourse & Pemberton, 2002). Another problem frequently encountered by SME managers is the many barriers to plan implementation (O'regan & Ghobadian, 2002). This paper empirically examines planning philosophies of top and middle managers of all sizes of organizations in an effort to provide SME managers with some insight into the effect of planning philosophy on performance.
... The model proposed for the generation of dynamic capabilities extends to both the contents and the processes in strategies of change. This model is the outcome of a study combining the theory of resources and capabilities and institutional theory, along with the analysis of experiences of strategic change in large organizations (Ruiz Navarro, 1998a, b;Elfring et al., 1997;Ashkenas et al., 1995;Miles et al., 1995;Baden-Fuller and Stopford, 1994;Whipp et al., 1989). From this a 'hybrid' emerges using the two theories to explain a complex phenomenon, a possibility suggested by writers such as Van de Ven and Poole (1995) and Lwendahl and Revang (1998). ...
This paper demonstrates the importance of, and need for, the strategic management of universities in a dynamic, changing environment that requires highly complex organizations, such as universities, to be flexible and to adapt continuously to change.It proposes a model of strategic change that takes into consideration the experience of such change in very large, complex organizations, together with the most recent approaches developed in strategic management.Higher Education Policy (2003) 16, 199–212. doi:10.1057/palgrave.hep.8300016
Strategic change (SC) is widely addressed in the scholarly domain and continues to gain momentum in the rapidly evolving landscape of today's business world. What are the antecedents, processes, outcomes, and who are the actors in SC? We address this question through a systematic review of SC that suggests new avenues for management research and offers important reflections for practice regarding: (i) the main factors responsible for determining SC; (ii) the principal actions and methods adopted to implement SC; (iii) the main effects associated with SC; and (iv) the actors responsible for directing SC. By synthesizing and integrating the extant research, this review develops a framework of types of antecedents (i.e., internal and external), processes (i.e., initiation, implementation, sensemaking, and sensegiving), outcomes (i.e., adaptive and disruptive), and actors (i.e., chief executive officer [CEO], board of directors, top management team [TMT], and collective leadership) of SC. Our review culminates in the development of a series potential avenues for future research.
The question raised was how to develop a process of improving the performance of the Quality of Operations that considers the aspects related to the strategy of the production system, the process of handling of nonconformities and its structure of allocation of resources To meet the objective, the contextualist methodology was adopted with each discipline being studied in isolation and in the final stage consisted of integrating and aligning the structure, process and content. The methodology used to make a diagnosis and propose improvements is the process approach. It mapped process layers through Archimate, explored process with value stream mapping and process mining and used existing data structure to point out the competencies to next periods for Quality of the Operation. As a contribution it is possible to affirm that the research steps are well described and can be replicated in other studies. Relevant is the joint work between the academy and researchers with the operation and practitioners who challenged a complex scenario with an empirical work.Keywordsquality performanceoperations managementprocessintegration
This chapter develops strategic management from a strong process point of view to postulate how strategy implementation can be understood. We will do that by basing ourselves on Theodore Schatzki’s Theory of Practice. This allows us to understand strategic management as a continuous implementation process that generates both persistence and change. Consequently, strategy formulation then becomes another implementation activity, instead of it being seen as something separate preceding strategy implementation. Strategic management then refers to all activities that direct and channel the process that is continuously going on anyway into a desired pattern.
This thesis based on institutional theory, dynamic capabilities and stakeholder theory investigates the relationships among the antecedents of responsive and proactive stakeholder orientation and its consequences in the Spanish public university context. In addition, how university university leaderships react when a public university might implement and disseminate a strategic management approach grounded in the responsive and proactive stakeholder orientation raise the question about the existence of heterogeneity among public university managers so, focusing in those reactions we aim to identify different public profiles of Spanish public university managers. To achieve the objective, several research techniques are used to answer the dissertation questions empirically, such as descriptive analysis, exploratory factor analysis, confirmatory factor analysis, structural equation analysis, multi-sample analysis, and latent class segmentation.
The results obtained mainly stresses that the mimetic effect on copy successful university actions, university top manager's emphasis on both stakeholder orientations and a better communication and relationship between managers of different university structures have positive effects on responsive and proactive stakeholder orientation. Moreover, the results suggested that those universities that are more responsive or/and proactive stakeholder oriented obtain a better organizational performance in terms of beneficiary satisfaction, acquisition of resources and reputation. Furthermore, our findings show that to achieve some specific goals of university performance, as university reputation, a responsive stakeholder orientation is not sufficient, a proactive stakeholder orientation is also needed.
In addition, multi-sample analysis show that there were no significant differences in almost all established paths whereas for those significants differences a set of propositions was raised. Specifically, the results showed that to belong to a certain university size, region, ranking positions and endogamy promotes better performance results from a proactive stakeholder orientation.
Furthermore, we test the heterogeneity among the Spanish public university managers. A total of four segments were identified – Conservatives, Practicals, Disbelievers, and Unconventionals –. Mainly, the “Conservatives” show neutral positions in relation to implement responsive and proactive stakeholder orientations, the “Practicals” are interested in copy successful actions of other similar institutions, while the “Disbelievers” do not encourage any change whereas the “Unconventionals” show a totally opposite perspective.
Finally, this dissertation offers some contributions to research and practice, to university managers, and to policy makers, which could help to provide new insights into university management. Furthermore, some limitations are highlighted and future research lines are discussed.
This chapter positions Andrew Pettigrew as a process scholar. It describes his work of catching “reality in flight” as he investigated the continuity and change, which is involved in subject areas like the politics of organizational decision-making, organizational culture, fundamental strategic change, human resource management, competitiveness, the workings of boards of directors, and new organizational forms. The chapter also describes the research methodology of contextualism that Andrew Pettigrew developed to capture “reality in flight.” It discusses the extent to which Andrew Pettigrew succeeded and how his research program could be developed further.
This chapter positions Andrew Pettigrew as a process scholar. It describes his work of catching “reality in flight” as he investigated the continuity and change, which is involved in subject areas like the politics of organizational decision-making, organizational culture, fundamental strategic change, human resource management, competitiveness, the workings of boards of directors, and new organizational forms. The chapter also describes the research methodology of contextualism that Andrew Pettigrew developed to capture “reality in flight.” It discusses the extent to which Andrew Pettigrew succeeded and how his research program could be developed further.
This chapter positions Andrew Pettigrew as a process scholar. It describes his work of catching “reality in flight” as he investigated the continuity and change, which is involved in subject areas like the politics of organizational decision-making, organizational culture, fundamental strategic change, human resource management, competitiveness, the workings of boards of directors, and new organizational forms. The chapter also describes the research methodology of contextualism that Andrew Pettigrew developed to capture “reality in flight.” It discusses the extent to which Andrew Pettigrew succeeded and how his research program could be developed further.
The 1985 White Paper entitled, ‘Completing the Internal Market’, contains a plan to enact some 300 new rules aimed at dismantling all intra-European trade barriers by the end of 1992. Existing knowledge about the realities of the policy processes at national, never mind supra-national levels suggest there will be a gap between such strategic intentions and their operational implementation. The focus of this chapter therefore is how large firms may respond to the political, economic and industrial changes in Europe in the 1990s. The 1992 initiative is treated as a specific example of that more general executive problem, how to manage processes of strategic change.
The study researched the bank management and strategic planning using 21 banks as the focus. Data were collected through the use of Questionnaire. The population was restricted to banks staffs.. The respondents fully completed the sample unit of 392 from the sample frame and a non-probability technique called Purposive or Judgmental Sampling was used. Data were subjected to a Regression and correlation analyses. The Questionnaires were distributed to staffs of the bank and result that there is no significant relationship between bank management, strategic planning and bank distress meaning that there are others factors which ultimately determine bank distress such as the government economic policies. The Government should consider giving the management of banks suspected of failing more time or ultimatum to turn things around and review the cashless or plastic money policies that the society and economy is not ready for due to poor infrastructure and awareness.
Wie stellen Organisationen sicher, daß sie nicht nur als umweltoffene Systeme in einer turbulenten, oft feindlichen Umwelt überleben, sondern über die Überlebensfähigkeit hinaus Fortschrittsfähigkeit unter Beweis stellen und die Fähigkeit zur Selbsttransformation aufbringen (vgl. dazu in Abbildung 1 die Positionierung des Fortschrittsmodells im Gesamtkontext organisatorischer Sinnmodelle)?
Change is now so commonplace that people no longer talk in terms of the "whitewater epoch". Every sector of the economies of the developed world has experienced huge swathes of change in the last decade of the twentieth century alone. Increased global competition, aided and abetted by technological advances, has led many organizations to seek to re-invent themselves in the hope of being able to survive and thrive. In mature sectors in particular, where the pace of consolidation is accelerating, organizations have had little option but to grow through acquisition or be absorbed. Whether the change is labelled "continuous process improvement", "restructuring", "downsizing" or re-engineering", to employees, change usually brings with it added pressures, job insecurity and a consequent loss of commitment to the organization. Understanding Change: theory, implementation and success argues that strategic change in the new millennium will be geared increasingly to achieving sustainable high performance, rather than just short-term gains. Most theorists now agree that the real challenge of change lies in gaining employees" willingness to commit to the change effort. Change leaders at every level need to be able to understand the elements at work in any change process, and to use judgement about the style of leadership required to give the change effort the best chance of success. Understanding Change: theory, implementation and success provides an overview of change and organizational theory, leading in particular to the author"s definition of the "input" elements of the high performance organisation, based on extensive research into UK and international organisations. It also contains a section looking at the management of change, with case studies illustrating approaches to managing change which are conducive to achieving sustainable high performance. In her companion book, The High Performance Organization- creating dynamic stability, the author explores some of the "how to"s" of building an organizational culture which is supportive of high performance in today"s challenging environment.
In the past 15 years, two international observatories have been intensively studying entrepreneurship using empirical studies with different methodologies: Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) and Panel Study of Entrepreneurial Dynamics (PSED). Both projects have generated a considerable volume of scientific production, and their intellectual structures are worth analyzing. The current work is an exploratory study of the knowledge base of the articles generated by each of these two observatories and published in prestigious journals. The main difference found is that the predominant theoretical frameworks used are the economic approach and institutional theory in GEM, and the demographic and cognitive approaches in PSED. The value added of this work lies in its novel characterization of the intellectual structure of entrepreneurship according to the academic production of these two initiatives. The results may be of interest to the managers and members of these observatories, as well as to academics, researchers, sponsors and policymakers interested in entrepreneurship.
Although there has been a considerable amount of prescriptive research in the strategic management field, top executives are still faced with several key concerns when formulating strategies for their organisations. Three such dimensions – management as an art or science, strategic emphasis on consistency or flexibility and strategy as a top-down or a bottom-up approach – appear to require difficult choices or compromises between polar extremes. This paper reports on the development of scales to test for predispositions along these dimensions. Results suggest that managers do not necessarily view the polar extremes as mutually exclusive. Implications for managers and future research are discussed.
Recognizing and admitting the severity of a firm's decline is a crucial first step for management. In planning intervention, a good manager needs to be aware that delaying recognition and necessary action could result in losing control to external agents during the turnaround phase. An examination of the cases of 22 firms shows that the mode of intervention between decline and turnaround requires delicate orchestration so as to avoid derailing the process of turnaround.
This article prescribes how an organization can be designed to meet social and technological changes and to reap advantage from them. Long-term viability maximizes in a self-designing organization, in which those who perform activities take primary responsibility for learning and for inventing new methods, and in which nonparticipant designers restrict themselves to a catalytic role. Such an organization is formed by putting together processes, the generators of behaviors. Although the complex interactions among processes make designers' forecasts unreliable, serious future problems can be avoided by keeping processes dynamically balanced. The desired balance can be caricatured with six aphorisms: Cooperation requires minimal consensus. Satisfaction rests upon minimal contentment. Wealth arises from minimal affluence. Goals merit minimal faith. Improvement depends on minimal consistency. Wisdom demands minimal rationality.
With the socioeconomic restructuring of the 1970s and 1980s, the idea of a smooth transition to a post-industrial service economy has required significant revision. We outline three such revisions: the ideas of informatization, informalization, and dualism. The first two are reworkings of post-industrial theory so as to emphasize one or other undervalued trend in industrial society, and are in principle quite compatible. The third emphasizes inequalities in power and resources that are plausibly associated with developments seen as benign by the others. Each has distinct implications for democratic development. However, we argue that while elements of all three models are present in current trends, so that the future might be best seen as a compromise between them, in fact all approaches fail to grasp the real significance of socioeconomic and technological restructuring. A more fruitful approach, with distinctive policy implications, is proposed.
Although there is no full consensus that technology will continue to boost unemployment, there are many indications that it may. Despite constantly reduced hours of work, more unnecessary jobs and widespread loafing during work time, both productivity and unemployment are increasing, and the need for human labour continues to diminish. Since the consequences of an almost-workless world would be profound, affecting all the values and structures of contemporary society, planning for such an eventuality, and for the transition period that will be necessary, becomes important, if not urgent.-Journal summary
This 100th issue of Long Range Planning is a useful point to take stock. After two decades and 1000 articles we have a database to enable us to track recurrent themes, new trends and emerging issues which are likely to be important to planners in the 1990s.
Understanding strategic change processes: some preliminary British findings The Management of Strategic Change
- R Whipp
- R Rosenfeld
- A Pettigrew
R. Whipp, R. Rosenfeld and A. Pettigrew, Understanding strategic change processes: some preliminary British findings, in A. Pettigrew (ed.), The Management of Strategic Change. Basil Blackwell, Oxford (1987).
Processes of lnternational-ization: Regeneration and Competitiveness, Centre for Corporate Strategy and Change Working Paper
- Ft
- R Rosenfeld
- A Whipp
- Pettigrew
Ft. Rosenfeld, R. Whipp and A. Pettigrew, Processes of lnternational-ization: Regeneration and Competitiveness, Centre for Corporate Strategy and Change Working Paper, University of Warwick (forthcoming in Economia Aziendale, Italy) (1988).
Why strategy has been put in the hands of line managers
- Lorenz
C. Lorenz, Why strategy has been put in the hands of line managers, Financial Times, p. 20, 18 May (1988).
Uneasy realities behind the post-industrial dream, Financial Times
- P Stephens
P. Stephens, Uneasy realities behind the post-industrial dream, Financial Times, p. 23, 15 October (1986).
Corporate strategies for the 199Os, Fortune
- W Keichel
- Iii
W. Keichel III, Corporate strategies for the 199Os, Fortune, pp. 16-21, 29 February (1988).
Corporate strategies for the 1990s
- Keichel
Uneasy realities behind the post-industrial dream
- Stephens
Understanding strategic change processes: some preliminary British findings
- Whipp