The Role and Development of Sprinting Speed in Soccer

Abstract

The overall objective of this review was to investigate the role and development of sprinting speed in soccer. Time motion analyses show that short sprints occur frequently during soccer games. Straight sprinting is the most frequent action prior to goals, both for the scoring and assisting player. Straight line sprinting velocity (both acceleration and maximal sprinting speed), certain agility skills and repeated sprint ability are shown to distinguish groups from different performance levels. Professional players have become faster over time, indicating that sprinting skills are becoming more and more important in modern soccer. In research literature, the majority of soccer related training interventions have provided positive effects on sprinting capabilities, leading to the assumption that all kinds of training can be performed with success. However, most successful intervention studies are time consuming and challenging to incorporate into the overall soccer training program. Even though the principle of specificity is clearly present, several questions remain regarding the optimal training methods within the larger context of the team sport setting. Considering time-efficiency effects, soccer players may benefit more by performing sprint training regimes similar to the progression model used in strength training and by world leading athletics practitioners, compared to the majority of guidelines that traditionally have been presented in research literature.

Full text

The role and development of
1
sprinting speed in soccer
2
3
Haugen T, Tønnessen, E, Hisdal J, Seiler S.
4
Abstract
5
The overall objective of this review was to investigate the role
6
and development of sprinting speed in soccer. Time motion
7
analyses show that short sprints occur frequently during soccer
8
games. Straight sprinting is the most frequent action prior to
9
goals, both for the scoring and assisting player. Straight line
10
sprinting velocity (both acceleration and maximal sprinting
11
speed), certain agility skills and repeated sprint ability are
12
shown to distinguish groups from different performance levels.
13
Professional players have become faster over time, indicating
14
that sprinting skills are becoming more and more important in
15
modern soccer. In research literature, the majority of soccer
16
related training interventions have provided positive effects on
17
sprinting capabilities, leading to the assumption that all kinds of
18
training can be performed with success. However, most
19
successful intervention studies are time consuming and
20
challenging to incorporate into the overall soccer training
21
program. Even though the principle of specificity is clearly
22
present, several questions remain regarding the optimal training
23
methods within the larger context of the team sport setting.
24
Considering time-efficiency effects, soccer players may benefit
25
more by performing sprint training regimes similar to the
26
progression model used in strength training and by world
27
leading athletics practitioners, compared to the majority of
28
guidelines that traditionally have been presented in research
29
literature.
30
31

2
Introduction
32
Performance in soccer depends upon a variety of individual
33
skills and the interaction among different players within the
34
team. Technical and tactical skills are considered to be
35
predominant factors, but physical capabilities must also be well
36
developed in order to become a successful player. During the
37
last decade, the focus in soccer-related research literature has
38
shifted from aerobic to anaerobic demands. Recent studies
39
suggest that elite or professional players have become faster
40
over time, while aerobic capacity has plateaued or decreased
41
slightly.
1-3
While the physiology of soccer has been well
42
explored, several aspects regarding the role and development of
43
sprinting speed remain unclear. The aim of this review is three
44
fold: 1) to synthesize the research that has been undertaken so
45
far regarding the role and development of sprinting speed in
46
professional soccer, 2) identify methodological limitations and
47
concerns associated with these investigations, and 3) outline
48
specific training recommendations. Hopefully, this review can
49
contribute to improve best practice regarding sprint
50
conditioning of soccer players.
51
Literature search
52
The databases of PubMed and SPORTDiscus were used to
53
search for literature. For scientific studies, only peer-reviewed
54
articles written in English were included. The search was
55
conducted in two levels; type of sport and type of athlete.
56
Regarding the first level, the terms “soccer” and “football”
57
were used. In order to narrow the search, studies including the
58
terms “American football”, “Australian football”, “Australian
59
Rules football”, “Gaelic football”, “rugby” and “futsal” were
60
excluded. Secondly, to ensure that the involved players were of
61
a certain playing standard, the search was restricted to > 16 yr
62
athletes categorized as “elite”, “professional”, “high level”,
63
“top class”, “first division”, “upper division”, “top level”, “high
64
class”, “high standard” or “national team”. Only the studies
65
who investigated the role or development of sprinting skills in
66
soccer were included. In addition, the reference lists and
67
citations (Google Scholar) of the identified studies were
68
explored in order to detect further relevant papers. To ensure
69
updated sprinting demands, test results reported before the year
70
2000 were excluded. In order to restrict the total number of
71
references, only the most recent studies were referred when
72
multiple investigations reported identical findings.
73
Sprinting demands during match play
74
A large number of soccer players from the best European
75
soccer leagues have been analyzed according to motion during
76
match play. Data are commonly generated by either
77

3
semiautomatic video analysis systems or global positioning
78
systems (GPS). The analyses show that both male and female
79
outfield soccer players cover 9-12 km during a match.
4-9
Of
80
this, 8-12 % is high intensity running or sprinting.
4,6,8,9
Wide
81
midfielders and external defenders perform more high intensity
82
running and sprinting compared to the other playing positions.
83
5,6
Reported peak sprint velocity values among soccer players
84
are 31-32 km
.
h
-1
.
6,7
Number of sprints in the range 17-81 per
85
game for each player has been reported,
4,5,9
Mean sprint
86
duration is between 2 and 4 s, and the vast majority of sprint
87
displacements are shorter than 20m.
4,8,9
The varying estimates
88
of sprints reported is likely due to varying intensity
89
classifications, as different running velocities (18-30 km
.
h
-1
)
90
have been used to distinguish sprint from high speed running. It
91
is important to note that running speed in the range 20-22
92
km
.
h
-1
is equivalent to the mean velocity in male elite long
93
distance running, and mediocre sprinters run faster than 35
94
km
.
h
-1
. Therefore, definitions based upon absolute velocity are
95
methodologically problematic in terms of validity and
96
reliability, in addition to limiting comparisons across studies.
97
Furthermore, absolute speed values exclude short accelerations
98
from analysis. Players perform 8 times as many accelerations as
99
reported sprints per match, and the vast majority of these
100
accelerations do not cross the high-intensity running
101
threshold.
10
Thus, high intensity running and sprinting
102
undertaken may be underestimated.
10,11
Measuring methods
103
that capture accelerations would markedly strengthen game
104
analyses.
105
To date, no full game analyses have quantified the movement
106
patterns of intense actions across playing level or positions in
107
terms of sharp turns, rotations, change of direction, etc. with
108
and without the ball. However, Faude et al. have used visual
109
inspection to analyze videos of 360 goals in the first German
110
national league.
12
They reported that the scoring player
111
performed straight sprints prior to 45 % of all analyzed goals,
112
mostly without an opponent and without the ball. Frequencies
113
for jumps and change-in-direction sprints were 16 and 6 %,
114
respectively. Straight sprinting was also the most frequent
115
action for the assisting player, mostly conducted with the ball.
116
Sprinting characteristics of soccer players
117
Straight line sprinting skills
118
In research literature, straight line sprinting is commonly
119
categorized as acceleration, maximal running velocity and
120
deceleration. Since game analyses have shown that more than
121
90 % of all sprints in matches are shorter than 20 m,
122
acceleration capabilities are obviously important for soccer
123
players in this context.
9
However, the importance of peak
124
velocity increases when sprints are initiated from a jogging or
125

4
non-stationary condition. Practically all soccer related studies
126
have used testing distances in the range 5-40 m. Since sprint
127
performance differences that separate the excellent from the
128
average are relatively small on an absolute scale, and the
129
effects of training interventions are even smaller, valid and
130
reliable timing and test procedures are critical. Haugen et al.
131
demonstrated that the starting method and timing system used
132
can combine to generate differences in “sprint time” up to 0.7
133
s.
13
Thus, the method of sprint timing used can result in greater
134
differences in sprint time than several years of a conditioning
135
training program. Time differences can be explained by
136
inclusion or exclusion of reaction time, center of gravity
137
placement at time triggering and horizontal center of gravity
138
velocity at time triggering.
13
Furthermore, footwear, running
139
surface, wind speed and altitude can generate further time
140
differences over short sprints.
14-16
A review of published
141
studies monitoring speed performance reveals considerable
142
variation and/or insufficient information regarding timing
143
methods, hardware manufacturers, testing procedures and
144
method of reporting (i.e. best sprint vs. mean sprint time of
145
several trials). It is therefore important to describe the
146
methodological sprint test approach as detailed as possible.
147
Several studies have concluded that mean sprinting velocity
148
(both acceleration and maximum sprint capacity) distinguishes
149
soccer players from different standards of play.
1,17-19
Sprint time
150
comparisons across studies based on available correction
151
factors for time initiating/starting procedures,
13
wind,
16
152
footwear and running surface,
14
indicate that professional
153
players from the best European soccer leagues sprint slightly
154
faster than professional soccer players from lower ranked
155
soccer nations.
1,19,20
We calculate that the fastest soccer players
156
are ~ 0.6 s slower than the world`s fastest sprinters over 40
157
m.
1,21
However, individual test results from recent studies have
158
shown that the very fastest male soccer players may achieve
159
40-m sprint times on par with 60-m sprint finalists from
160
national athletics championships.
1,13,14
161
In practical terms, individual differences in sprinting skills are
162
even more critical than mean differences among groups of
163
players. Database material from the Norwegian Olympic
164
Training Center, including 40-m sprint tests of 628 male and
165
165 female elite players between 1995 and 2010,
1,18
shows that
166
the 75
th
-25
th
percentile difference is 0.13 and 0.16 s over 20 m
167
sprint for male and female players, respectively (Table 1).
168
Based on average velocity over the distance, the fastest quartile
169
is at least 1 m ahead of the slowest quartile over 20 m.
170
Similarly, the 90
th
-10
th
percentile difference over 20 m sprint is
171
equivalent to more than 2 m. Furthermore, the 10 % fastest
172
players run 1 m further than the 10 % slowest players for each
173

5
second during peak sprinting. According to Hopkins et al., the
174
smallest worthwhile performance enhancement/change in team
175
sport is 0.2 of the between-subject standard deviation.
22
Based
176
on the present database material, this corresponds to ~0.02 s
177
over 20-m sprint, which is quite similar to typical variation
178
associated with sprint testing (CV 1-1.5 %).
13,14
In practical
179
settings, a 30-50 cm difference (~0.04-0.06 s over 20m) is
180
probably enough in order to be decisive in one-on-one duels by
181
having body/shoulder in front of the opposing player. Thus, the
182
ability to either create such gaps as an attacker or close those
183
gaps as a defender can be fundamental to success in elite level
184
soccer. The chance of dribbling an opponent out of position, or
185
successfully defending an attack, increases with greater
186
acceleration and sprinting ability.
187
**** Table 1 about here ****
188
While sprint velocity for males peaks in the age range 20-28 yr,
189
with small but significant decreases in velocity thereafter,
190
female soccer players struggle to improve their sprinting skills
191
after their teens.
1,18,23
Increased non-lean body mass might
192
contribute to the failure of continued training to result in
193
improved sprint velocity and power performance among female
194
players.
195
The majority of sprint test results shows that forwards are faster
196
than defenders, midfielders and goalkeepers, respectively.
1,18,24-
197
26
Similar relationships are observed among youths, suggesting
198
selection processes in early junior talent development as a
199
possible explanation for the rank of speed pattern among
200
playing positions.
27
However, sprinting ability can also be seen
201
in relationship to the physical demands of the different
202
positions on the field. Forwards and defenders are perhaps the
203
fastest players because they are involved in most sprint duels
204
during match play.
5,6
Players in different positions should
205
therefore prioritize different physical conditioning regimes in
206
order to solve positional dependent tasks during play.
207
Agility
208
During the last decade, several authors have emphasized the
209
importance of agility skills in soccer. Agility was originally
210
defined by Clarke as “speed in changing body positions or in
211
changing direction”.
28
More recently, Sheppard & Young
212
defined agility as “a rapid whole-body movement with change
213
of velocity or direction in response to a stimulus,” based on the
214
conception that agility has relationships with both physical and
215
cognitive components.
29
The vast majority of agility tests in
216
soccer are designed to evaluate the physical qualities of the
217
players, without cognitive (i.e. choice reaction) challenges. Zig
218
zag runs, 90-180° turns, shuttle runs, sideways, and backwards
219
running with maximal intensity are commonly used drills.
220

6
Agility patterns may vary as a function of playing role, and
221
Sporis et al. suggested different tests for different positions.
30
222
Published agility tests do not reflect the nature of deceleration
223
and turning performed during elite soccer matches. In fact, the
224
vast majority of turning movements are initiated from a
225
stationary or jogging condition, while change-in-direction
226
within sprinting movements rarely occur.
31
227
Marcovic reported a poor relationship between strength and
228
power qualities and agility performance.
32
Little & Williams
229
and Vescovi et al. concluded that straight sprint, agility and
230
vertical jump capabilities are independent locomotor skills.
33,34
231
This is demonstrated on the YouTube video of Christiano
232
Ronaldo racing against the Spanish 100 m champion, Angel
233
David Rodriguez (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hZqEj-
234
Qyg6U). Ronaldo lost by 0.3 s over 25 m straight sprint, but
235
won by 0.5 s when running in a zig zag course over the same
236
distance.
237
Several studies have reported that professionals or elite players
238
have better agility skills compared to players of lower
239
standard.
19,35-37
However, Rösch et al. found no differences
240
across a broad range of playing standard.
38
The literature is
241
equivocal regarding agility performance across playing
242
positions.
24,26,30
Interestingly, midfielders perform relatively
243
better in agility tests compared to linear sprint tests. The
244
literature also suggests that when change-of-direction is
245
preceded by braking from a nearly full sprint, the agility
246
difference across position categories shrinks. In classical
247
mechanics, the kinetic energy of a non-rotating object of mass
248
m travelling at a speed v is ½ mv
2
. Thus, faster players with
249
more body mass must counteract a larger kinetic energy during
250
sharp turns while sprinting. Since midfielders in general have
251
lower body mass and lower peak sprinting speed,
1,25
it is
252
reasonable to expect smaller performance differences in certain
253
agility tests compared to linear sprint tests.
254
Timing of ground reaction forces, body configuration and
255
center of gravity placement are crucial biomechanical elements
256
when changing direction while sprinting. By lowering the
257
center of gravity while changing direction, the involved lower
258
extremity muscles can work under more optimal conditions. By
259
leaning the upper body towards the intended direction during
260
turns, combined with foot placement in the opposite intended
261
running direction away from the vertical center of gravity-line
262
during ground contact, more kinetic energy can be
263
counteracted. Correct technique during change-in-direction
264
movements is also important from an injury prevention
265
perspective.
266

7
Repeated sprint ability
267
Repeated sprint ability (RSA) is the ability to perform repeated
268
sprints with brief recovery intervals.
39
In recent years, this topic
269
has received increasing attention as a central factor in most
270
field-based team sports. Numerous field tests have been
271
developed to evaluate RSA. Sprint distances of 15-40 m x 3-15
272
repetitions have been used in elite or professional soccer, and
273
the vast majority of tests have included 15-30 s recovery
274
periods between sprints (Table 2). Several tests have combined
275
agility and repeated sprints.
49-53
276
**** Table 2 about here ****
277
Primarily two measures have been used in order to evaluate
278
RSA: total time and/or deterioration in performance. Total time
279
or mean sprint time have been used as performance indices, and
280
results from RSA tests have been shown to differentiate
281
professionals from amateur players.
7,43,49,51
Deterioration in
282
performance, calculated as sprint decrement, has generally been
283
used to quantify the ability to resist fatigue during such
284
exercise.
58
Fatigue resistance depends upon a wide range of
285
physiological factors, mostly related to aerobic metabolism,
286
and athletes with a higher VO
2 max
have smaller performance
287
decrements during repeated sprint exercise.
42
This is most
288
likely explained by the linear relationship between PCr
289
resynthesis and mitochondrial capacity within muscle.
59
A full
290
review of the physiological mechanisms related to RSA is
291
beyond the scope of this review, but this topic is well described
292
elsewhere.
60
293
The outcome and usefulness of the repeated sprint tests has
294
been questioned over the years. Insufficient timing information
295
and variations in testing protocols complicate comparisons
296
across studies. Based on the short recovery periods between
297
each sprint, most RSA test protocols simulate the most
298
intensive game periods, leading to a possible overrating of the
299
aerobic demands. Pyne et al. reported that total time in a RSA
300
test was highly correlated with single sprint performance and
301
concluded that RSA was more related to short sprint than
302
endurance capacity.
61
In order to detect the “sprint endurance”
303
component, repeated sprint test protocols with higher total
304
volume is perhaps required. According to Balsom et al., it is
305
more difficult to detect detrimental effects with shorts sprints
306
(15 m) compared to slightly longer sprints (30-40 m).
62
Medical
307
data derived from American football indicate that extensive
308
sprint testing/training without prior gradual progression
309
increases the risk of hamstring injuries.
63
This is perhaps why
310
most repeated sprint test protocols are designed with a
311
relatively small total volume of sprinting.
312
313

8
Training to improve sprint performance
314
Soccer related intervention studies
315
In research literature, the majority of interventions involving
316
soccer players have provided positive effects, leading to the
317
assumption that all kinds of training can be performed with
318
success. A plausible explanation is that the majority of studies
319
have been performed on young players (16-18 yr). Less
320
experience with physical conditioning provides more potential
321
for stimulating positive effects. A well-trained professional
322
soccer player can be considered untrained in terms of sprint
323
training. When evaluating research literature, it is important to
324
keep in mind that successful interventions vary in terms of
325
training time investment, and time consuming interventions
326
will probably be rejected by team coaches. A great deal of
327
knowledge can be gathered from non-successful conditioning
328
programs as well, which so far are underrepresented in research
329
journals. With these considerations in mind, we have tried to
330
identify criterions for success in order to improve soccer related
331
sprinting skills. Future research regarding dosing strategies
332
should be designed to validate these recommendations.
333
Principles of sprint training in soccer
334
Specificity: A review of published sprint intervention studies on
335
soccer players confirms the principle of specificity. Short sprint
336
training (sprinting distance ≤ 30 m) improves short sprint
337
ability,
64
while longer sprints (~ 40 m) improves maximal
338
sprint velocity.
55
Prolonged sprints (≥30 s) have limited effects
339
on acceleration or peak velocity.
65
Linear sprint training does
340
not improve performance in sprints with changes of
341
direction.
56,66
Agility training improves the specific agility task
342
performed during practice.
56
Repeated sprinting improves
343
RSA.
50,55,67
The superiority of resisted or assisted sprint training
344
compared to normal sprinting has so far not been clearly
345
established.
64,68
346
Several “less specific” training forms have also been explored
347
in order to improve sprinting skills of soccer players. Contrast
348
training (combination of strength, power and sport specific
349
drills) has provided positive effects on soccer-specific sprint
350
performance,
69,70
but twice weekly training sessions do not
351
seem to be more beneficial than one weekly session.
71
352
Plyometric training interventions have so far provided limited
353
effects on soccer players` sprint performance.
72-74
Furthermore,
354
strength training with heavy weights does not consistently
355
improve sprinting capabilities.
75-77
Sedano et al. stated that
356
improved explosive strength can be transferred to acceleration
357
capacity, but a certain time is required for the players in order
358
to transfer these improvements.
73
Kristensen et al. recommend
359
normal sprinting over other training forms in order to obtain
360

9
short distance sprinting improvement in a short period of
361
time.
78
362
Several authors have reported that a combination of high-
363
intensive interval training and heavy strength training have
364
enhanced sprinting performance in soccer players.
54,79,80
These
365
interventions are extensive and time consuming, as they include
366
at least 4 weekly training sessions. Some authors recommend
367
high-intensive aerobic interval training (80-90 % of VO
2 max
) in
368
addition to repeated sprint in order improve RSA.
20,60,81
369
However, Ferrari Bravo et al. demonstrated that repeated sprint
370
training was superior to high-intensity aerobic interval training
371
in terms of aerobic and soccer specific training adaptations.
50
372
Tønnessen et al. showed that elite soccer players were able to
373
complete repeated sprints with intensity closer to maximum
374
capacity after repeated sprint training once a week, without
375
additional high-intensive intervals.
55
Even though the principle
376
of specificity is clearly present, sprinting skills in soccer may
377
be improved in several ways.
378
Individualization: Unfortunately, most interventions in sport
379
science are limited to answering typical one-dimensional
380
questions, more specifically whether certain types of training
381
are more effective than others. In practice, however, coaches
382
are concerned with three dimensions; 1) what kind of training
383
should be performed, 2) by which individuals, 3) at what time
384
point in the season. Similar to medical consultations, a broad
385
range of performance factors should be tested and evaluated
386
before necessary treatment is prescribed. Capacity profiles are
387
essential in order to diagnose each individual and develop
388
training interventions that target the major limiting factors. We
389
were somewhat surprised by the relatively small differences in
390
physical skills across playing positions in Norwegian
391
professional soccer, as goalkeepers and midfielders showed
392
practically identical values for vertical jump performance (~ 2
393
cm difference) and VO
2 max
(only ~ 5 ml difference).
1,2
394
Logistically, individualized training of physical capacity is
395
demanding to organize in a team sport setting. This is probably
396
a greater problem in high-level female and youth soccer, where
397
team staff is smaller compared to male professional teams. In
398
such cases, most soccer coaches perform similar training for all
399
outfield players within the team, despite large individual
400
differences in capacity profiles. However, it is unlikely that
401
similar training doses lead to similar responses for players
402
belonging to opposing extremes. Surprisingly, there has been
403
little research about how individual capacity profiles can be
404
developed in team sports. The data presented in table 1 can
405
form a basis for capacity profiles for linear sprinting skills, but
406
similar profiles should also be developed for agility, RSA and
407
other soccer related capabilities.
408

10
Familiarization, progression and periodization: Sprinting is the
409
most frequent mechanism associated with hamstring injuries,
410
and age/previous injuries are the most important risk factors.
82
411
About 17 % of all injuries in soccer are hamstring injuries, and
412
more than 15 % of all hamstring injuries are reported as re-
413
injuries.
82
Players that have not been fully rehabilitated
414
following sprint-related injury, or who have had such injuries
415
during the previous weeks, should be particularly cautious.
416
Many hamstring injuries occur during the short pre-season
417
period because of the relative deconditioning that occurs in the
418
off-season.
63
Thus, during the initial weeks of a sprint training
419
program there should be a gradual familiarization, both in terms
420
of intensity and the number of sprint repetitions. Somewhat
421
surprisingly, we have not identified progression or
422
periodization models regarding sprint training in the research
423
literature. In contrast, a classic linear model of periodization is
424
well established in strength training research. This is
425
characterized by high initial training volume and low intensity.
426
During the training cycle, volume gradually decreases and
427
intensity increases.
83,84
This periodization model is similar to
428
the sprint training philosophy developed by athletic sprint
429
pioneer coach Carlo Vittori in the mid-1970s.
85
Pre season
430
conditioning for his athletes was initiated with short sprints at
431
low intensity. As training progressed, the intensity and/or total
432
volume gradually increased in order to improve alactic
433
capacity. To the author`s knowledge, Vittori first published the
434
repeated sprint training-method (at that time termed “speed
435
endurance training”). He was national team sprint coach and
436
personal coach to Pietro Mennea, Olympic gold medalist in
437
1980 and former world record holder for the 200 meter.
438
Recently, we have performed sprint training interventions with
439
a similar progression model.
55,67
These studies have provided
440
positive and time-efficient effects on soccer-related sprinting
441
skills. Further studies are warranted in order to establish
442
progression and periodization models for sprint development.
443
444
Integration of sprint training: According to acknowledged
445
practitioners in soccer, physical conditioning of players must be
446
integrated with the remaining soccer-specific training.
86
It is
447
important to keep in mind that playing soccer is an important
448
contribution to the overall fitness level of the players. Sporis et
449
al. reported that starters developed sprinting skills to a higher
450
level compared to non-starters.
87
Successful off-field
451
interventions will not automatically be accepted by the soccer
452
coaches. It is therefore essential that the small amount of time
453
available for physical training is used effectively. Hoff et al.
454
demonstrated how aerobic endurance training can be integrated
455
into soccer specific training,
88
and a similar approach should
456
also be used in order to improve sprinting skills.
457

11
Physical coaching expertise: Research has highlighted the
458
importance of direct supervision in order to obtain optimal
459
training outcomes.
89
Coaching centers to a larger degree on
460
continually evaluating and making adjustments to the training
461
process. In research related intervention studies, such
462
opportunities are limited due to issues of standardization and
463
validation. However, sprinting skills are heavily dependent
464
upon technical elements, increasing the needs of feedback
465
during practice. Continuous presence of a physical conditioning
466
expert probably increases the odds for a more successful
467
outcome in soccer.
468
Essential loading factors
469
Intensity: To the authors` knowledge, the vast majority of
470
soccer studies make no other recommendations than that sprint
471
velocity should be maximal throughout. However, recent
472
studies of soccer players and track & field athletes have shown
473
that 40 m linear sprint performance is significantly reduced
474
already after 3-4 maximal repetitions.
13,14
Thus, the intensity
475
(calculated as percentage of maximal sprint velocity) should
476
perhaps be reduced in order to complete a higher number of
477
repetitions during practice. The lowest effective sprinting
478
intensity for stimulating adaptation is so far not established in
479
research literature. Successful sprint coaches have performed
480
sprint training sessions with an intensity as low as 90 % during
481
the initial pre-season conditioning.
85
Recent successful
482
intervention studies have revealed that most soccer players
483
through gradual progression are capable of completing at least
484
twenty 40-m sprint repetitions with intensity >95 %.
55,67
Future
485
randomized controlled trial studies should explore the impact of
486
different sprinting intensities. In strength training literature,
487
greater loading/intensity is needed for 1RM improvements as
488
one progresses from untrained to more advanced levels of
489
training.
90,91
490
Recoveries: Recovery duration between repetitions and sets is
491
one of the most important variables in manipulating the training
492
intensity. Shorter recovery time forces lower intensity per
493
sprint repetition. The longer the recoveries, the more repetitions
494
can be completed at a high intensity. Balsom et al. found that
495
when soccer players ran 15x40 m at maximal intensity,
496
separated by 30 s recovery, the performance drop-off was 10
497
%. However, when the same training was performed with either
498
60 or 120 s recovery, the performance drop-off was reduced to
499
3 and 2 %, respectively.
62
To date, no studies have investigated
500
the effect of recovery duration during sprint training on soccer
501
related sprinting skills. In strength training research, long-term
502
studies have shown greater maximal strength improvements
503
with long (2-3 min) versus short (30-40 s) recovery periods
504
between sets.
92,93
505

12
Sprint training frequency: Recent sprint training regimes
506
conducted on elite soccer players have shown positive effects
507
following sprint training as little as once a week.
55,67
The
508
question remains whether even greater effects would have
509
occurred with more frequent training sessions. No studies have
510
so far compared the effects of different sprint training
511
frequencies. If a greater number of sprint training sessions per
512
week results in only marginally better training effects, it is
513
likely that the majority of soccer coaches would choose to
514
implement only one session per week. This is in order to reduce
515
the risk of injury, in addition to allowing more time for soccer-
516
specific training.
517
Season time considerations: Dupont et al. reported positive
518
training effects after repeated sprint training in-season.
20
Other
519
studies suggest that the largest effects are seen when sprint
520
training is conducted in the off-season or early pre-
521
season.
55,56,67
Soccer specific training contributes to
522
maintaining RSA gained during pre-season training. Sprinting
523
ability depends to a large degree on the athlete being well
524
rested and is therefore difficult to combine with other forms of
525
training. This is particularly relevant in soccer, which is driven
526
primarily by aerobic metabolism. Recently, we had to abort an
527
intervention study performed at the end of pre-season and
528
season start due to drop-out issues caused by injuries. Future
529
intervention studies should report the number of injuries
530
sustained during the intervention period, along-side any
531
potential training effects, as this is equally important in soccer.
532
In summary, sprinting ability in soccer is regulated by a
533
complex interaction of multiple factors. Our understanding of
534
this interaction is far from complete, a reality that is likely part
535
of the reason that intuition, experience and tradition carry so
536
much weight in the training and coaching of elite athletes.
537
Conditioning programs should be ideally be focused on closing
538
the gap between the positional demands of play and actual
539
individual capacity. Several questions remain regarding
540
optimization of training methods, and it is reasonable to believe
541
that there is a gap between science and best practice regarding
542
sprint development of soccer players. We believe that future
543
studies regarding this topic should be based upon progression
544
models and program design recommendations from scientific
545
strength training literature, as this research field is much more
546
developed per se.
547

13
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883

20
TABLES
884
885
Table 1: Percentiles (PCTL) of split times, peak velocity (PV)
886
and countermovement jump (CMJ) for male professionals and
887
female elite soccer players
888
889
Table 2: Repeated sprint field test protocols [sets x (repetitions
890
x distance)] used on elite or professional soccer players >16 yrs
891
ranged according to total sprinting distance (TSD) during the
892
test. Recovery is reported as time between each sprint.
893
894

Table 1. Percentiles (PCTL) of split times, peak velocity (PV) and countermovement
jump (CMJ) for male professionals and female elite soccer players.
PCTL
Males (n=628/411 for sprint/CMJ)
Females (n=165/165 for sprint/CMJ)
10m
(s)
20m
(s)
30m
(s)
40m
(s)
PV
(m
.
s
-1
)
CMJ
(cm)
10m
(s)
20m
(s)
30m
(s)
40m
(s)
PV
(m
.
s
-1
)
CMJ
(cm)
99
1.40
2.58
3.65
4.69
9.71
52.1
1.55
2.86
4.10
5.30
8.55
41.0
95
1.42
2.61
3.70
4.77
9.43
47.0
1.57
2.90
4.13
5.34
8.33
37.3
90
1.44
2.64
3.75
4.84
9.30
45.2
1.59
2.93
4.15
5.41
8.20
35.4
75
1.48
2.70
3.82
4.92
9.10
42.0
1.64
3.00
4.29
5.54
7.94
32.7
50
1.52
2.76
3.91
5.04
8.81
38.7
1.69
3.08
4.37
5.69
7.65
29.4
25
1.56
2.83
4.00
5.17
8.55
35.7
1.72
3.16
4.53
5.86
7.40
26.8
10
1.60
2.89
4.08
5.26
8.36
33.3
1.79
3.23
4.64
6.02
7.19
24.5
Note: For the sprint tests, a floor pod placed on the start line was used for time initiation.

22
Table 2: Repeated sprint field test protocols [sets x (repetitions x distance)] used on
elite or professional soccer players >16 yrs ranged according to total sprinting
distance (TSD) during the test. Recovery is reported as time between each sprint.
Study
Test protocol
TSD (m)
Recovery (s)
Krustrup et al.
40
1x(3x30m)
90
25
Gabbett
41
1x(6x20m)
120
< 15
Aziz et al.
42
1x(6x20m)
120
20
Aziz et al.
43
1x(8x20m)
160
20
Mujika et al.
44
1x(6x30m)
180
30
Dellall et al.
45
1x(10x20m)
200
25
Dupont et al.
46
1x(7x30m)
210
20
Chaouachi et al.
47
1x(7x30m)
210
25
Meckel et al.
48
1x(6x40m)
240
~ 25
Meckel et al.
48
1x(12x20m)
240
~ 17
Impellizzeri et al.
49-51
1x(6x20+20m)
240
20
Bangsbo et al.
52,53
1x(7x34.2m)
240
20-25
Wong et al.
54
1x(9x30m)
270
25
Tønnessen et al.
55,56
1x(10x40m)
400
60
Dupont et al.
20
1x(15x40m)
600
25
Little & Williams
57
1x(15x40m)
600
~ 8-12
Little & Williams
57
1x(40x15m)
600
~ 20-30