A Review of Medical Emergencies in Dental Practice

Abstract

Background: Medical emergencies in dental practice are those adverse medical events that may present in the course of dental treatment. Each of those events requires a correct diagnosis for effective and safe management. The contemporary dentist must be prepared to manage expeditiously and effectively those few problems that may arise with specific response. Basic life support is all that is required to manage many emergency situations, with the addition of specific drug therapy in some others.
Objectives: The aims of this paper are to provide an overview of medical emergencies that can present in dental practice, highlight the basic emergency medications and equipment that should be available in a dental clinic, outline the prevention and management of such emergencies, describe the specific response to some of the more common medical emergencies that can present in the course of a dental treatment and make recommendation for training and preparedness for handling medical emergencies.
Methodology: Review of available literature on the subject matter via electronic search engines of Google- PubMed and Medline.
Results: Medical emergencies are quite common in dental practice and the most common, from scientific studies and anecdotal evidences, is syncope; and dental surgeons, their staff and offices are usually ill prepared to handle these emergencies.
Conclusion: Medical emergencies may be rare but they are challenging occurrences in the dental clinic, tasking the knowledge, skills and materials available to the practice. Adequate staff training and availability of appropriate drugs and equipment are essential in the management of emergencies that may arise in the dental clinic.
Recommendation: An improvement in the training of dental surgeons including realistic simulation training in the management of medical emergencies, at the undergraduate, post-graduate and the continuing education levels.
Keywords: Essential drugs, specific response, surgeons, training, treatment, management

Full text

Medical Emergencies in Dental Practice Orient Journal of Medicine Jul-Dec 2012Vol 24 [3-4]
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REVIEW ARTICLE
A Review of Medical Emergencies in Dental Practice
Joseph UYAMADU1
Chukuemeka D ODAI2
1 General Hospital Onitsha
Anambra State, NIGERIA
2Department of Maxillofacial
Surgery
University of Benin Teaching
Hospital, Benin City
Edo State, NIGERIA
Author for Correspondence
Joseph UYAMADU
Chief Dental Surgeon
General Hospital Onitsha
Anambra State, NIGERIA
Phone: +234 802 340 7360
Email:juyamadu@yahoo.com
Received: November 14th, 2011
Accepted: October 15th, 2012
ABSTRACT
__________________________________________________________
Background: Medical emergencies in dental practice are those adverse
medical events that may present in the course of dental treatment. Each
of those events requires a correct diagnosis for effective and safe
management. The contemporary dentist must be prepared to manage
expeditiously and effectively those few problems that may arise with
specific response. Basic life support is all that is required to manage
many emergency situations, with the addition of specific drug therapy in
some others.
Objectives: The aims of this paper are to provide an overview of medical
emergencies that can present in dental practice, highlight the basic
emergency medications and equipment that should be available in a
dental clinic, outline the prevention and management of such
emergencies, describe the specific response to some of the more common
medical emergencies that can present in the course of a dental treatment
and make recommendation for training and preparedness for handling
medical emergencies.
Methodology: Review of available literature on the subject matter via
electronic search engines of Google- PubMed and Medline.
Results: Medical emergencies are quite common in dental practice and
the most common, from scientific studies and anecdotal evidences, is
syncope; and dental surgeons, their staff and offices are usually ill
prepared to handle these emergencies.
Conclusion: Medical emergencies may be rare but they are challenging
occurrences in the dental clinic, tasking the knowledge, skills and
materials available to the practice. Adequate staff training and
availability of appropriate drugs and equipment are essential in the
management of emergencies that may arise in the dental clinic.
Recommendation: An improvement in the training of dental surgeons
including realistic simulation training in the management of medical
emergencies, at the undergraduate, post-graduate and the continuing
education levels.
Keywords: Essential drugs, specific response, surgeons, training, treatment,
management
INTRODUCTION
Medical emergencies in dental practice are
those adverse medical events that may
present in the course of dental treatment.
Usually, they are not rare in practice, and
therefore, every dental practitioner needs the
knowledge and skill for the diagnosis and
management of medical emergencies.
Although, most are not life-threatening, they
however do occur with potentially serious

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consequences, and could lead to significant
morbidities.1,2,3,4,5 Their reported incidence is
not clear, with reports of common occurrence
by some while others insist that they are
uncommon or under-reported.1,4,5,6
Medical emergencies occurring in dental
practice can be alarming and the keys to
minimizing these alarms include thorough
history and general examination of the
patient, and having a good working
knowledge of how to manage them, should
they arise.7 Studies show that less than 50% of
practising dentists had previous knowledge
of basic life support (BLS) and/or judged
themselves capable of diagnosing the possible
cause(s) of emergencies during a dental visit.
In fact, available evidence suggests that many
dentists on graduation do not feel competent
in managing medical emergencies, while
some feel insecure in doing so; a problem
requiring an improved undergraduate
training.4,8,9,10,11 The most common
justification given for this lack of knowledge
and/or skill were: lack of training and update
after primary qualification; and lack of
learning and training during the
undergraduate program.6
The emergencies that can occur vary from the
minor conditions such as the common
fainting spell to the life-threatening ones such
as cardiac arrest or anaphylaxis.12These
emergencies are most likely to occur during
and after local anaesthesia, primarily during
tooth extraction and endodontic treatment.
Though most of these complications are mild,
about one-tenths are considered to be serious
and nearly half of the patients are known to
have some underlying disease, the most
common of them being
cardiovascular.13Prevention of these
emergencies and preparation for management
entail an adequate patient evaluation, staff
training and retraining and availability of
appropriate medications and equipment in
the dental clinics.12,14
The aim of this review is to provide an
overview of these emergencies that present in
dental practice, highlight the basic emergency
medications and equipment that should be
present in a dental clinic, outline the
prevention and management of such
emergencies, describe the specific response to
some of the more common ones and make
recommendations for training and
preparedness for handling medical
emergencies.
TYPES OF MEDICAL EMERGENCIES
a) Sudden Loss of Consciousness: This is
usually caused by fainting, acute
hypoglycaemia, myocardial infarction,
cardiac arrest, anaphylactic shock, stroke,
adrenal shock and circulatory collapse
secondary to corticosteroid therapy.
b) Acute Chest Pain: This is usually as a
result of angina pectoris and myocardial
infarction.
c) Difficulty in Breathing: This may be from
acute asthmatic attack, anaphylactic
shock, foreign body obstruction,
bronchospasm, and laryngospasm.
d) Seizure: This could be an isolated event or
from epilepsy and other causes of
impairment of consciousness.
e) Others: Local anaesthetic toxicity
(overdose), haemorrhage, drug
reaction/interaction, trauma, psychiatric
emergencies, thyroid storm, insulin shock
and hyperventilation syndrome.
Anecdotal evidence from general hospitals in
Anambra State suggest that the most
commonly occurring medical emergency is
syncope and this is similar to findings in
Lagos, Nigeria, Fiji Islands, Jerusalem is Israel
and Germany.8,3,15,1It, however, contrasts with
a Brazilian study which found the most
common emergency in dental practice to be
pre-syncope, with syncope rated as the sixth
most common.6 This evidence further
exposed the non-preparedness to handle
medical emergencies similar to findings

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elsewhere, which is unhealthy for the practice
and calls for improvement.4,8,9,10,11
BASIC MEDICATIONS AND EQUIPMENT
The essential drugs which should be part of
the emergency kit in every dental practice in
addition to oral carbohydrates which are
considered essential include:12,13,14,16,17,18,19,20, 21,
22,23,24,25,26
1. Essential Drugs
a) Oxygen
This is indicated for every emergency except
in hyper-ventilation syndrome. Oxygen is
delivered with a clear full face mask for the
spontaneously breathing patient and a bag-
valve-mask device for the apnoeic patient.
Therefore, whenever possible, with the
exception of the patient who is
hyperventilating, oxygen should be
administered. For the management of a
medical emergency it should not be withheld
from the patient with chronic obstructive lung
disease, even though the patient may be
dependent on low oxygen levels to breathe if
they are chronic carbon dioxide retainers.
Short term administration of oxygen to get
them through the emergency should not
depress their drive to breathe.
If the patient is conscious, or unconscious and
still spontaneously breathing, oxygen should
be delivered at a flow rate of 6-10litres per
minute which is appropriate for most adults,
and if the patient is unconscious and apnoeic,
a flow rate of 10-15liters per minute will
suffice. A positive pressure device may be
used in adults, provided that the flow rate
does not exceed 35liters per minute.
b) Adrenaline
This is the drug of choice for the emergency
treatment of anaphylaxis, and also for asthma
which does not respond to the drug of first
choice, albuterol or salbutamol. Adrenaline is
also indicated for the management of cardiac
arrest, but in the dental setting, it may not
likely be given, since intravenous access may
not be available. It has a very rapid onset and
short duration of action, usually 5-10minutes,
when given intravenously. However, it may
be associated with high risks if given to a
patient with ischemic heart disease.
For emergency purposes, it is available in two
formulations: as 1:1,000 which equals 1mg per
ml, for intramuscular, including intralingual,
injections, and 1:10,000, which equals 1 mg
per 10 mL for intravenous injection. Initial
dose for the management of anaphylaxis is 0.3
to 0.5 mg intramuscularly or 0.1 mg
intravenously. These doses should be
repeated as necessary until resolution of the
event. Similar doses should be considered in
asthmatic bronchospasm which is
unresponsive to a beta-2 agonist, such as
albuterol or salbutamol. The dose in cardiac
arrest is 1mg intravenously.
c) Nitroglycerin
This drug is indicated in acute angina or
myocardial infarction. It is characterized by a
rapid onset of action. For emergency
purposes it is available as sublingual tablets
or a sublingual spray.
d) Antihistamines
An antihistamine is indicated for the
management of allergic reactions. Whereas
mild non-life threatening allergic reactions
may be managed by oral administration, life-
threatening reactions necessitate parenteral
administration of either diphenhydramine or
chlorpheniramine.
e) Salbutamol
This is a selective beta-2 agonist. Salbutamol
is the first choice drug for bronchospasm. By
inhalation it provides selective
bronchodilation with minimal systemic
cardiovascular effects. It has peak effect in 30-
60minutesandduration of 4-6hours.
f) Aspirin
Aspirin is a more newly recognized life-
saving drug. It has been shown to reduce
overall mortality from acute myocardial
infarction. The purpose of its administration

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during an acute myocardial infarction is to
prevent the progression from cardiac
ischemic injury to infarction.
g) Oral Carbohydrate
An oral carbohydrate source, such as fruit
juice or non-diet soft-drink, should be readily
available. Whereas this is not a drug, and
probably should not be included in this list, it
should be considered essential. If this sugar
source is kept in a refrigerator it may not be
appreciated that it is a key part of the
emergency armamentarium. It is indicated in
the management of hypoglycemia in
conscious patients.
2. Other Drugs
In addition to the essential drugs a number of
other drugs should be considered as part of
an emergency pack, in a dental practice.
These include:
i) Glucagon: For intramuscular management
of hypoglycemia.
ii) Atropine: This anti-muscarinic, anti-
cholinergic drug is indicated for the
management of hypotension, which is
accompanied by bradycardia.
iii) Ephedrine: This drug is a vasopressor
agent which may be used to manage
significant hypotension. It has similar
cardiovascular actions as adrenaline,
except that ephedrine is less potent and
has a prolonged duration of action, lasting
60-90minutes.
iv) Corticosteroids: Corticosteroids such as
hydrocortisone may be indicated in the
prevention of recurrent anaphylaxis.
Hydrocortisone may also play a role in
the management of an adrenal crisis. The
notable drawback in their use in
emergencies is the slow onset of action,
which approaches one hour.
v) Morphine: This is indicated in the
management of severe pains such as
occurring myocardial infarction, being
listed in recommendations for advanced
cardiac life support as the analgesic of
choice for this purpose.
vi) Naloxone: In situations which include
morphine in the emergency pack, or
where opioids are used as part of a
sedation regimen, naloxone should also be
present for the emergency management of
inadvertent overdose. Doses should
ideally be titrated slowly in 0.1mg
increments to effect.
vii) Nitrous Oxide: This is a reasonable
second choice if morphine is not available
to manage pain from a myocardial
infarction. For management of pain
associated with a myocardial infarction, it
should be administered with oxygen, in a
concentration approximating 35%, or
titrated to effect.
viii) Benzodiazepines: The management of
seizures which are prolonged or
recurrent, also known as status
epilepticus, may require administration of
a benzodiazepine. In most dental
practices, it would not be realistic to
assume that the dentist could achieve
venipuncture in a patient having an active
seizure, and so, the need arises for a water-
soluble agent such as midazolam or lorazepam
as the drug of choice for status epilepticus and
can be administered intramuscularly.
Otherwise, the drug of choice is intravenous
diazepam.
ix) Flumazenil: The benzodiazepine
antagonist flumazenil should be part of
the emergency pack for an effective use of
benzodiazepines. Dosage is 0.1-0.2mg
intravenously, incrementally.
Finally, in addition to having the above drugs
available, a small amount of basic equipment
should be readily available viz. stethoscope,
sphygmomanometer, oxygen delivery
system, intravenous fluids/lines, syringes
and needles. Dentists should also consider
having an automated external defibrillator
(AED), for the emergency treatment of cardiac
arrest. Usage of this latter piece of equipment
is easily learned and only requires strong
knowledge of basic Cardio-Pulmonary

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Resuscitation (CPR) with a small amount of
additional training.16,24,25
PREVENTION OF MEDICAL EMERGENCIES
Most practicing dentists have faced a medical
emergency in their practice but often overlook
effective preventive measures. The proper
and accurate assessment of a patient,
including an evaluation of history and
physical examination of the patient, patient's
previous medical and surgical history, in
order to make informed decisions about
treatment options, are all essential and
paramount in the prevention of
emergencies.27
Secondly, all staff in dental practice should
have appropriate training: dental
practitioners, dental surgery assistants,
receptionists and other cadres,, inclusive. A
team approach to the management of medical
emergencies should be developed. Protocols
should be put in place so that all members of
staff know their roles in the management of
emergency situations. The dental team should
regularly practice drills within the dental
practice setting.14 All dentists should be
competent in basic life support (BLS)
resuscitation. That is, they should be able to
assess breathing and circulation and to carry
out effective expired air resuscitation (EAR)
and Cardio-pulmonary resuscitation (CPR) if
required. They should also encourage their
staff to attend courses on basic resuscitation
and run practice drills with surgery staff. A
wall poster can assist in retention of learnt
techniques.12
MANAGEMENT OF MEDICAL
EMERGENCIES12,14,26,28,29
A) General Response
When an emergency is immediately life-
threatening such as complete laryngeal
obstruction, cardiac arrest associated with
acute myocardial infarction, or bronchospasm
associated with anaphylaxis, there is no time
to delay; an immediate diagnosis must be
made and definitive treatment initiated. It is
recommended that the DRSABC basic
sequential steps for all emergency situations
be invoked. These steps are to ensure an
adequate delivery of oxygenated blood to the
brain prior to the delivery of definitive care
(DRSABC):12,14
i. D = Check for Danger.
Ensure your safety and then safety of
patient. The patient/victim may need to
be moved.
ii. R = Assess Responsiveness
The most important assessment that
decides much of your following actions is
a simple tap or shake and a command
“Are you okay?” This will quickly tell you
whether the person’s life is in immediate
danger. A casualty who can respond with
a few words has an airway, can breath
and has a circulation. A person who is
unresponsive may have none and is at
risk of aspiration and airway obstruction.
Keep in mind a simple assessment of level
of consciousness (AVPU)
A-alert
V-response to verbal stimulus
P-response to pain
U-unresponsive
iii. S= Send or Shout for Help
Shout for or send an assistant for help
(colleague, nearby hospital, Airtel medical
helpline, 911). Ask them to seek, then
return and confirm that help is on the
way.
iv. A = Check the Airway for Obstruction
Open the airway by head tilt and chin lift.
If the casualty is a victim of trauma, then
the cervical spine may need to be
protected so, use jaw thrust to open the
airway and hold the head to keep the
head and neck still and in alignment with
the rest of the body and apply a rigid neck
collar or an improvised one, whichever is
available. Finger sweep may clear airway
of blood clot, denture or other causes of
obstruction.

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v. B = Assess Breathing
The breathing must be assessed quickly. If
there is no breathing, start rescue
breathing. Consider intubation to protect
the airway, and if the breathing is
inadequate, the rescuer may need to give
assisted rescue breathing.
C = Assess Circulation
Quickly assess circulation, and if there is
no circulation, chest compressions /
cardiac massage must be started
immediately. If there is bleeding, use
direct compression to stop further blood
loss. Once DRSABC have been assessed
and secured, give consideration to other
aspects of emergency care and positioning
of the patient/victim. Some patients may
deteriorate after the initial assessment. It
is, therefore, best to consider DRS-ABC as
a cycle, performed regularly while
awaiting the help sent for.
The procedures are basically the same
however it must be noted that whereas in
adults the focus is on early defibrillation, in
children the focus is on early ventilation.14
B) Specific Responses
i. Syncope (Common fainting)
This is defined as a transient loss of
consciousness due to cerebral ischaemia
caused by a reduction in blood supply to
the brain. Vasodilatation causes pooling
of blood in the peripheral circulation,
while vagal stimulation causes slowing of
the heart, leading to a dramatic fall in
blood pressure and a fainting spell. It
presents with feeling of light headedness
or dizziness and patients may possibly be
nauseated, uncomfortable or agitated and
will appear pale and sweaty with a
thready slow pulse and hypotension.
Management
• Vasovagal syncope in a fit, healthy
young patient:
Lay the patient flat. Relieve any
compression on the neck and maintain an
airway. Raise patient’s legs. Supplemental
oxygen is indicated. Once pulse and blood
pressure recover, slowly raise patient to
seated position.
• In patients with significant medical
problems, or when syncope is prolonged
or complicated by seizure activity:
In addition to the above, the patient
should be transferred to a hospital
environment for further assessment as
indicated.
ii. Anaphylaxis
This is a potentially life-threatening
hypersensitivity reaction to foreign
material. It presents with urticarial rash,
angioedema, hypotension, tachycardia
and bronchospasm.
Management
Assess the degree of cardiovascular
collapse (pulse and blood pressure) and
airway obstruction (upper – angioedema;
lower – bronchospasm), and stop further
administration of the offending
drug(s)/agent(s). Give oxygen and
monitor consciousness, airway, breathing,
circulation, pulse, blood pressure. If in
shock, angioedema or bronchospasm,
then raise legs if blood pressure is low.
Give adrenaline and repeat every five
minutes while waiting for
help/ambulance.
Paediatric doses of adrenaline
Children over 12years: 500mcg (0.5ml).
Children 6-12years: 300mcg (0.3ml).
Children less than 6years: 150mcg
(0.15ml). Repeat in 5 minutes if no
improvement. Reduce dose to 300mcg
(0.3ml) for small 12-18year olds.
iii. Acute Chest Pain (Myocardial Infarction)
Victims usually have varying degrees of
atheromatous coronary occlusion.
Myocardial infarction (MI) is usually
initiated by rupture or erosion of a thin
cap which overlies these atheromatous
plaques. It presents with persisting central
chest pain, with possible radiation to the

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left or right arms, jaw, or neck. There may
be nausea or vomiting, a sense of
impending doom, restlessness and
shortness of breath, pallor with cold
sweaty skin. Associated pump failure
leads to hypotension, raised venous
pressure, tachycardia and possibly,
pulmonary oedema.
Management
Reassure the victim, keep warm, sit up if
breathless, but lay flat if faint. Give
glyceryl trinitrate tablets to chew or spray,
under the tongue, and repeat in 5minutes;
if pain is unrelieved, activate emergency
medical service. Give high flow oxygen by
face mask, and 300mg aspirin chewed or
sucked if there is no allergy.
iv. Cardiac Arrest
This usually presents with a collapse, and
there is no respiration or pulse.
Management
Commence CPR and activate avenues to
get help. In the first instance begin with
Basic Life Support until AED arrives then
move to the AED algorithm.
v. Foreign Body – Upper Airway
Obstruction
Severe or complete upper airway
obstruction due to a foreign body rapidly
progresses to unconsciousness and
cardiac arrest within minutes and
presents with distress, choking, coughing
and cessation of breathing.
Management
Partial obstruction: Encourage the patient
to cough up or spit out. If there is poor air
entry, increasing high pitched stridor or
respiratory distress, manage as for
complete airway obstruction.
Complete obstruction: The victim cannot
speak, breathe or cough. If he is in the
dental chair sit him up, turn patient side
on in chair. Support the chest with one
hand and deliver five sharp back blows
between the shoulder blades with the heel
of the other hand. If back blows fail, five
abdominal thrusts (Heimlich) should be
done.
Unconscious obstruction: Commence
CPR with finger sweep between each
cycle. It is important to consider
cricothryoidotomy if there is no air entry
at all.
vi. Epilepsy
In a major seizure there is a sudden spasm
of muscles producing rigidity (tonic
phase). Jerking movements of the head,
arms and legs may occur (clonic), then
unconsciousness, with noisy or spasmodic
breathing, excessive salivation and
urinary incontinence. Status epilepticus
occurs when a convulsion lasts longer
than 30minutes or when a tonic-clonic
seizure occurs repeatedly.
Management
Remove dangerous objects from the
mouth and around the patient e.g. dental
cart. Loosen tight clothing, avoid
restraining the patient or forcing open the
mouth and do not insert any object into
the mouth. Turn the victim into a stable
side position (recovery position) as soon
as the seizure stops, open and maintain a
clear airway and avoid aspiration. Check
for breathing and if absent, follow the
guidelines for collapse. Allow the victim
to sleep under supervision at the end of
the seizure and on recovery, reassure.
Paraldehyde or diazepam injections could
be administered to break the seizures.
 Transfer to hospital under the following
conditions:
a)First fit b) tonic phase lasts longer than
5minutes c) repeat seizure d) any post-
seizure respiratory difficulty e) patient
has suffered an injury and f) post-seizure
confusion greater than 5minutes.
vii. Hyperventilation
Prolonged rapid deep breathing often in
very anxious patients can lead to
profound metabolic changes that may

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result in loss of consciousness. A fall in
arterial CO2 concentration causes cerebral
vasoconstriction and respiratory alkalosis.
The patient may notice tingling of the
fingers or lips, tetanic spasm of the
peripheries and dizziness, eventually,
becoming unconscious due to cerebral
hypoxia. The patient is apnoeic for a
period due to reduced respiratory drive
with low arterial carbon dioxide
concentration. As the arterial carbon
dioxide level rises and cerebral
vasoconstriction reverses, the patient
starts breathing and regains
consciousness. Hyperventilation
recommences and the cycle continues
with further loss of consciousness.
Management
Reassure the patient if conscious, then, re-
breathe into paper bag to increase
inspired carbon dioxide. In the
unconscious patient, maintain airway
until patient regains consciousness.
viii. Diabetic Emergencies
The most common diabetic emergencies
are: low blood sugar – hypoglycaemia in
patients on anti-diabetic medications and
high blood sugar – hyperglycaemia,
particularly diabetic ketoacidosis.
Hyperglycaemia: Clinical symptoms
include thirst, increased urine output and
dehydration, and also, there may be
hypotension, progressive reduction in
level of consciousness, coma or cessation
of urinary output in severe cases.
Management
Primary assessment and resuscitation
(DRS-ABC) is to secure the airway,
breathing and circulation. Then transport
to a hospital facility.
Hypoglycaemia: Clinical symptoms of
hypoglycaemia include sweating, hunger,
tremor, agitation, with progressive
drowsiness, confusion and coma. Assume
any diabetic with impaired consciousness
has hypoglycaemia until proven
otherwise.
Management
Conscious patients can usually be treated
with rapid acting oral carbohydrates, e.g.
fruit juice, packets of granulated sugar,
glucose powder dissolved in water. After
10minutes this short acting carbohydrate
should be followed up with food which
contains longer acting carbohydrate. The
victim should not be left alone until all the
dangers of hypoglycaemia are resolved. If
the patient is unconscious, attend to the
airway, breathing and circulation. Protect
the victim from more injury and activate
the EMS.
It is recommended that any victim of medical
emergencies who suffers loss of
consciousness be discharged to the care of a
reasonable adult, and never be allowed to go
home, unaccompanied.
CONCLUSION
Medical emergencies may be rare but
challenging occurrences in the dental clinic,
tasking the knowledge, skills and materials
available. Prevention, by ensuring good
history and physical examination, is better
and cheaper than embarking on therapeutic
measures. Adequate staff training and
availability of appropriate drugs and
equipment are all essential to the
management of emergencies that may arise in
the dental clinic.
RECOMMENDATION
We recommend an improvement in the
training of dental surgeons with realistic
simulation training in the management of
medical emergencies, at the undergraduate,
post-graduate and continuing education
levels. We also recommend availability of
emergency drugs and equipment as well as
regular safety drills in dental clinics.
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