Prehistoric lifestyles on gotland – diachronic and synchronic perspectives
Abstract
The prehistoric period of Gotland Island covers around 8000 years of human occupation. In this paper we will concentrate on the period from the initial coloniza-tion to the end of the Bronze Age, a period of c. 7000 years. The prehistory of the people, who populated the Island of Gotland during this time, is diversified and reflects a variety of activities and lifestyles, which are influenced and interact with different regions around the Baltic Sea. The cultural traits seen in the material culture point to various contacts spheres over time. So far we do not have any conclusive evidences if the initial Mesolithic groups, whom were the pioneers to Gotland, settled here on a permanent basis and could be considered as the original ancestors of the Gotlan-dic people. This is something that was suggested by Österholm (1989). It seems more likely that various groups of settlers have arrived in Gotland at different times and/or that it has been a constant flow of goods and genes both from the Scandinavian and Baltic areas during the investigated time span. Throughout these 7000 years this region has also experienced dramatic environmental changes, which have affected the living conditions and patterns of subsistence for the groups of people living here. In this paper we will discuss dif-ferent prehistoric lifestyles and the question of origin of the people living on Gotland. This is done in the light of our new research where we are compiling and re-analyzing old data as well as working with some specific case studies carrying out new excavations. ThE PIonEER sETTLEMEnTs on goTLAnd Gotland was first populated by humans around 9400 years ago. The initial traces of human activity are found on the Lime Stone Rock Island Stora Karlsö in the large open mouth cave Stora Förvar (Lindqvist and Possnert, 1999). Here traces of activities of human oc-cupation and human skeletal remains have been found. The remains indicate subsistence based on seal hunting and fishing. Since human skeletal remains are found in the cave deposits and the distribution of seals hunt-ed at various seasons are indicated (Storå, 2001) the bones has been interpreted as intentional burials and that there could have been an around the year occupa-tion (Lindqvist and Possnert, 1999). Another possibil-ity is that Stora Karlsö and the cave of Stora förvar (great storage place) (Fig.1) was a special site used occasionally, but around the year by groups from some of the mainland areas surrounding the central Baltic Sea. However, the pioneers who reach the island in the late boreal period had to adapt to an unfamiliar environment and had to change subsistence strategies from hunting big game to rely on marine resources as fish and seal. The earliest sites on the "mainland" of Gotland range between Early-Mid Mesolithic and ended c. 7400 years ago when what appears to be a 1000 year hiatus is indicate in the available radiocar-bon record. These sites have generally been difficult to find since it is likely that the main bulk of them was situated by the coast at the time of occupation and thus subsequent covered by the Litorina maximum transgression which appeared in close proximity in time with the abandonment of the sites. The changes in the Baltic Sea is not as dramatic during the Early Holocene as during the Late Pleistocene but environ-mental changes probably affected the success of the first colonisation phase. When the first people arrived at the end-phase of the Ancylus fresh water lake, the water level slowly increased and transformed the Baltic basin into the transitional Mastogloria stage (Lindquist and Possnert, 1999). Veski et al., 2004, p. 83) have estimated that cyclonic activities increased in the Bal-tic Sea around 8200 years ago, which was caused by climatic changes in the North Atlantic Region. This might have affected the lifestyles of the pioneer set-tlers to this Island environment. When it concerns the ISSN 1392-6748
142
The prehistoric period of Gotland Island covers around
8000 years of human occupation. In this paper we will
concentrate on the period from the initial coloniza-
tion to the end of the Bronze Age, a period of c. 7000
years. The prehistory of the people, who populated the
Island of Gotland during this time, is diversied and
reects a variety of activities and lifestyles, which are
inuenced and interact with different regions around
the Baltic Sea. The cultural traits seen in the material
culture point to various contacts spheres over time.
So far we do not have any conclusive evidences if the
initial Mesolithic groups, whom were the pioneers to
Gotland, settled here on a permanent basis and could
be considered as the original ancestors of the Gotlan-
dic people. This is something that was suggested by
Österholm (1989). It seems more likely that various
groups of settlers have arrived in Gotland at different
times and/or that it has been a constant ow of goods
and genes both from the Scandinavian and Baltic areas
during the investigated time span. Throughout these
7000 years this region has also experienced dramatic
environmental changes, which have affected the living
conditions and patterns of subsistence for the groups
of people living here. In this paper we will discuss dif-
ferent prehistoric lifestyles and the question of origin
of the people living on Gotland. This is done in the
light of our new research where we are compiling and
re-analyzing old data as well as working with some
specic case studies carrying out new excavations.
THE PIONEER SETTLEMENTS ON GOTLAND
Gotland was rst populated by humans around 9400
years ago. The initial traces of human activity are
found on the Lime Stone Rock Island Stora Karlsö in
the large open mouth cave Stora Förvar (Lindqvist and
Possnert, 1999). Here traces of activities of human oc-
cupation and human skeletal remains have been found.
Prehistoric lifestyles on Gotland –
Diachronic and Synchronic perspectives
Helene Martinsson-Wallin, Paul Wallin and Jan Apel
The remains indicate subsistence based on seal hunting
and shing. Since human skeletal remains are found in
the cave deposits and the distribution of seals hunt-
ed at various seasons are indicated (Storå, 2001) the
bones has been interpreted as intentional burials and
that there could have been an around the year occupa-
tion (Lindqvist and Possnert, 1999). Another possibil-
ity is that Stora Karlsö and the cave of Stora förvar
(great storage place) (Fig.1) was a special site used
occasionally, but around the year by groups from some
of the mainland areas surrounding the central Baltic
Sea. However, the pioneers who reach the island in
the late boreal period had to adapt to an unfamiliar
environment and had to change subsistence strategies
from hunting big game to rely on marine resources
as sh and seal. The earliest sites on the “mainland”
of Gotland range between Early- Mid Mesolithic and
ended c. 7400 years ago when what appears to be a
1000 year hiatus is indicate in the available radiocar-
bon record. These sites have generally been difcult
to nd since it is likely that the main bulk of them
was situated by the coast at the time of occupation and
thus subsequent covered by the Litorina maximum
transgression which appeared in close proximity in
time with the abandonment of the sites. The changes
in the Baltic Sea is not as dramatic during the Early
Holocene as during the Late Pleistocene but environ-
mental changes probably affected the success of the
rst colonisation phase. When the rst people arrived
at the end-phase of the Ancylus fresh water lake, the
water level slowly increased and transformed the Baltic
basin into the transitional Mastogloria stage (Lindquist
and Possnert, 1999). Veski et al., 2004, p. 83) have
estimated that cyclonic activities increased in the Bal-
tic Sea around 8200 years ago, which was caused by
climatic changes in the North Atlantic Region. This
might have affected the lifestyles of the pioneer set-
tlers to this Island environment. When it concerns the
ISSN 1392-6748
143
Prehistoric lifestyles on Gotland – Diachronic and Synchronic perspectives
lithic techno-complexes, the pecked and ground axes
found on Gotland during this early settlement phase,
are among the earliest examples in the Baltic region
and could indicate contact with Easter central Swe-
den an maybe to Finland and the Baltic countries and
the area of the Petrosavodek axe-manufacturing site
in Onega, Russia (Clark, 1976). The blade technology
on the other hand have parallels in the southern Scan-
dinavian Maglemosian techno complex (Sörensen,
2006 a and 2006 b) but also sites in Estonian Pärnu
Bay (Kriska et al., in press). Further detailed stud-
ies regarding this will be carried out by Jan Apel. An
aDNA-analysis of the Mesolithic hare (Lepus timidus)
found in excavated deposits is currently carried out by
Hans Ahlgren (Stockholm university). The aim of this
study is to discuss their origin and genetic relationship
of the contemporary hare-population in the area. Fur-
thermore is the marine mammal hunting of seals under
investigation both concerning possible techniques and
a discussion on the uctuation of the seal population
and adaption of hunting strategies due to environmen-
tal changes and human impact. These strategies will
be compared to the subsequent strategies used by the
sub-Neolithic Pitted ware groups on Gotland. Since
Gotland never have been attached to the mainland and
emerged from the Baltic Ice Lake it provides an op-
portunity to study the impact of human behavior on
the environment and the lifestyles and strategies used.
The earliest dated burial found on the mainland
is a man from Kams in Lummelunda Parish north of
Visby (Fig. 2). He was buried together with a stone
axe in sitting-hocker position and has been dated to
c. 7000 BC. Two other burials, possibly from the same
time were recovered at the same site but have not been
Fig. 1. The Cave “Stora förvar” at the raised limestone
island Stora Karlsö, West of Gotland Mainland.
1 pav. Urvas „Stora förvar“ kalkakmenio saloje Stora
Karlsö, Vakarų Gotlandas
Fig. 2. Map of Stone Age Sites on Gotland mentioned in
the text.
2 pav. Tekste minėtų Gotlando akmens amžiaus paminklų
žemėlapis
144
Helene Martinsson-Wallin, Paul Wallin and Jan Apel
dated (Larsson, 1982). At this site, further investiga-
tions are planned in order to nd additional burials. At
Stora Bjers I Stenkyrka Parish, a couple of km north
of Kams (Fig. 2) another Late Boreal burial was re-
covered in 1955. It was a man, 35–40 years old, who
had died from wound caused by crush injury on the
left chin and a composite projectile point that had been
shot into his hip (Arwidsson, 1979). He was buried in
hocker position and one of the gifts in the grave is an
antler from red deer (Arwidsson, 1979). This indicates
contacts with the main land since red deer antler were
an exotic item to Gotland where no large terrestrial
animals were present in the boreal and early Atlantic
periods. The nds of burials are usually a sign of sed-
entary settlement but it is not conclusive in this case.
Case Studies of Mesolithic settlements
The earliest sites and the origin of the people and their
adaption to the Island environment are currently under
investigation by Jan Apel (Gotland University) and
Jan Storå (Stockholm University) in a project called
the Pioneer Settlements of Gotland. Initial investiga-
tion of already excavated material of the sites of Gis-
slause in Lärbro Parish, Strå in Bunge Parish, Sval-
ings in Gothems Parish and Visborgs Kungsladugård
in Visby Parish (Fig. 2) have been carried out with the
aim to obtain a more secure dating sequence and in-
vestigate the stone technology used by these early set-
tlers. The latter could possible provide a “ngerprint“
as to cultural afliation. New excavations carried
out on Gisslause have among other things produced
an interesting faunal material that shed new light on
the economy of Gotlands earliest inhabitants (Apel &
Vala in prep.).
NEOLITHIC LIFESTYLES ON GOTLAND
Transitions from late Mesolithic to early Neolithic
The transition phase from Mesolithic hunters to the in-
troduction of farming and use of domesticated animals
are quite unclear and poorly investigated on the island.
There are indications of so called “axe settlements”
or places that show agglomerations of axes and pre-
forms of axes made from green stone. These sites are
on Gotland generally dated to the late Mesolithic. The
abundance of axes is explained in relation to clearing
of the land and the introduction of more sedentary set-
tlements (Österholm, 1989, p. 191).
Indications of early Neolithic Funnel Beaker settle-
ments are found at c. 10 sites around the Island, mainly
at inland locations on sandy soils which are favorable
for early farming. Only a few of these sites have been
investigated in some detail. At Mölner and Gräne sites
in Väte Parish, ceramics (see Fig. 2) and stone tools
were recovered, but no bone materials due to the poor
preservation conditions in the sandy soil. The settle-
ments were dated by four radiocarbon samples. Two
of the Mölner dates and a single date from Gräne came
out as Mesolithic, and can be tied to the Mesolithic ac-
tivities indicated at the bottom layers at the sites. One
additional charcoal sample from the Mölner site was
dated to just before 4000 BC (Cal 2 sigma), which indi-
cate an early Neolithic date (however uncertain since
it is a single date) (Österholm, 1989, p. 82). There are
imprints of grains (wheat) found in the ceramics that
also have been characterised as early TRB ceramics,
similar to continental pottery, and might therefore be
one of the earliest TRB sites in Sweden (Althin, 1967,
p. 39; Österholm, 1989, p. 82–84). Flint axe deposits
made of imported south Scandinavian int also indi-
cate early contacts in this direction. The cave site at
Stora Förvar on the small island Stora Karlsö just out-
side the SW coast of Gotland include bones of domes-
ticated animals that date to the Early Neolithic, which
indicate that these animals were brought to the island
at this time. Cattle and sheep/goat also exist in two
other funnel beaker locations on the mainland (Stora
Domnerarvet II in Hablingbo Parish and Överstek-
varn in Lummelunda Parish) (Lindqvist and Possnert,
1997, p. 73).
One dolmen of late early Neolithic type (Fig. 3),
dened as a rectangular dolmen, has been found at An-
sarve, Tofta Parish (Bägerfeldt, 1992; Wallin, 2010 a;
Martinsson-Wallin and Wallin, 2010). Excavations of
the monument revealed human bones, stone axes, int
(both local and South Scandinavian), and fragments of
amber. Three AMS-dates from three human mandibles
all indicated an age of the grave to c. 3400–3000 BC
(Cal. 2 sigma). The
13
C value of the dated individuals
showed a terrestrial food intake among the buried indi-
viduals. This indicates that the subsistence was based
on farming and possibly the existence of domesticated
145
Prehistoric lifestyles on Gotland – Diachronic and Synchronic perspectives
animals (Lindqvist, 1997, p. 365). The osteological
analysis of the bone remains showed that c. 30 indi-
viduals were buried and that they were adult males and
females, as well as, children (Wallin and Martinsson-
Wallin, 1997, p. 25).
The mid-Neolithic marine choice
A completely different or perhaps “old fashioned”
lifestyle, was selected around 3000 BC, when moving
into the mid-Neolithic era. The subsistence strategy
favoring seal hunting and shing dominated the scene
and the groups of people making this choice have been
called the Pitted Ware groups, after the characteristic
pits that occur on their ceramics. The settlements from
this period are distributed all around the coasts of the
island. At several of these locations there are large
burial grounds found including c. 50–85 graves. These
are (with few exceptions) single inhumations buried
under at ground. Males, females and children are
found and all age groups are present, from infant to
senile. The time span when these burial grounds were
used is set between c. 3000–2400 BC, a use period of
c. 500 years (Wallin, 2010 a). On these Pitted Ware
sites large quantities of ceramics, animal bones and
artefacts of bone and stone are recovered (Fig. 4a of
ceramics and Fig. 4b of artefacts). The
13
C values re-
ported from human bones indicate a clear marine diet
in line with what is indicated in the bone remains from
seals, sh and sea birds observed in the cultural layers.
However, small quantities of sheep/goat and cattle are
also present. The pigs, which have been introduced to
the island, however possibly run wild, were of some
importance, at least at certain events, for example at
burial practices and feasting occasions. New studies of
the burial grounds on the Gotlandic Pitted Ware sites
show a complex pattern of practice. Several ways of
burial treatment can be distinguished. The ideal burial
seems to be that the body was placed on back with
the head towards north, but other directions and body
postures exists as well. In many cases the skeleton has
been manipulated, heads removed, and sometimes the
bones are deposited in something that may be dened
as a package (Larsson, 2009; Norderäng, 2007; Wallin,
2010 b; Fahlander, 2003). The burial rituals as a mirror
of social group dynamics have been studied recently
by Wallin, and there are indications that important so-
cial indicators were constructed locally when it comes
to gender and regionally determined when tied to age
(Wallin, 2010 b, p. 73). (Fig. 5 of burial).
Besides the Pitted Ware culture there are indica-
tions of contacts with the so called Battle Axe culture.
This is seen in the nd material (Battle Axes, bone
ornaments and multi-surfaced grinding stones) some-
times found in some of the graves at the Pitted Ware
Fig. 3. The Megalith at Ansarve.
3 pav. Ansarve megalitas
146
Helene Martinsson-Wallin, Paul Wallin and Jan Apel
Fig. 4a. Pottery from a Pitted Ware site on Gotland.
4a pav. Keramika iš duobinės keramikos kultūros paminklo Gotlande
Fig. 4b. Artifacts from
a Pitted Ware site on
Gotland.
4b pav. Dirbiniai iš
duobinės keramikos
kultūros paminklo
Gotlande
147
Prehistoric lifestyles on Gotland – Diachronic and Synchronic perspectives
burial grounds as well as Battle Axes found as stray
nds around the island. However, no settlements of
Battle Axe culture type are found and the existence of
these nds may just reect contacts with this group on
the mainland (Lindkvist, 1993).
The late Neolithic stone cists
During the late Neolithic a new burial custom was es-
tablished. Now the grave was built of quite large lime-
stone slabs visible above ground. It took the shape of
a stone cist surrounded by concentric granite stone cir-
cles, occasionally covered by a stone setting (Fig. 6).
These burials sometimes contain up to c. 20 individu-
als, which again show a mixture of males, females and
children. However, at times the cists only include a
single individual. The size of the cist also varies from
c. 1–3 meters in length and around 0, 5–1,5 meters
in width. This variation in size and amount of buried
individuals cannot be tied to a chronological explana-
tion, since the nd material of daggers etc. seems more
or less to be the same within the different cist shapes.
The explanation may instead be found in social differ-
entiations and distinctions in genealogies, senior and
junior branches, and experts within the society given
different treatments (Wallin, 2010 a).
The settlement pattern from the late Neolithic is
unclear, and no settlements with house foundations
and distinct cultural layers have been found. The dis-
tribution of the stone cists is concentrated to the coast-
al areas, and this pattern is the same as indicated for
the Pitted Ware sites and the dolmen. In other words,
the graves have always been tied to the coastal area.
Contrary to this the stray nds of late Neolithic simple
shaft-hole axes show a distribution spread all around
the island (Österholm, 1989, p. 70).
In the Early Bronze age around 1800 BC the same
burial pattern tied to the coastal areas is continued, and
at that time it is sometimes seen that some of the late
Neolithic stone cists were covered by a monumental
stone cairn, and additional burials were added outside
the stone cist (Burenhult, 1986, p. 344–351; Stensköld,
2004, p. 155–157). This act protected the old genea-
logical burial place and possibly tied these earlier gen-
erations to the followers, as well as, the cairns became
clearly visible monuments in the landscape. The cairns
became the new statement indicating more complex
social formations and distinctions that already started
in the late Neolithic. The Neolithization with control
over land resources and extensive use of domesticated
animals was a long struggle during a time period of c.
2000 years that nally around 1800 BC could be put in
practice and developed further during the Bronze Age.
MOVING FROM THE NEOLITHIC
TO THE BRONZE AGE
One obvious change which probably indicates the es-
tablishment of far reaching contacts is the introduction
of metal. Copper started to appear in graves during the
late Neolithic and int daggers, which imitated dag-
gers of metal, is a very common nd in graves from
this time as well. Recent studies of copper in bronze
artefacts indicate that southern west Europe is a likely
source of origin, and it is almost certain that this alloy
found its way to Gotland through bartering/trade.
Fig. 5. Burial from Ajvide Pitted Ware Site.
5 pav. Kapas iš Ajvide duobinės keramikos kultūros paminklo
148
Helene Martinsson-Wallin, Paul Wallin and Jan Apel
Fig. 6. Late Neolithic grave with concentric circles.
6 pav. Vėlyvojo neolito kapas su koncentriniais vainikais
The material culture that constitutes the Bronze
Age on Gotland is the alloy bronze, large cairns,
stone ship settings, rock carvings, cup mark-sites, re
cracked stone mounds and pits. There are according to
the Swedish National Site Survey over thousand cairns
on Gotland belonging to the Bronze Age. Around two
hundred of these are large ones, over 20 meters in dia-
meter (Fig.7). There are only a few measuring over 30
meter in diameter and the largest one, is Uggarderojr
cairn on the South East of Gotland, which is 50 meter
in diameter and seven meters high. There are so far
around two hundred radiocarbon dates carried out on
samples from Bronze Age contexts on Gotland. The
majority of the radiocarbon dates are charcoal samples
from hearts, re cracked stone mounds or pits with re
cracked stones and cultural layer contexts. Very few
large cairns have been investigated but the ones that
have been excavated show multiple burials and re-use
and internal structures in the form of concentric cir-
cles (Stenberger, 1941, 1942; Nylén, 1959; Hallström,
1971, 1973; Lindquist, 1976, 1977; Burenhult, 1986).
One feature that is prevalent are the so called “south
constructions” which are erected stones and stone-
settings often with re cracked stones, located south
or south west of the large cairn (Nylén, 1959; Mar-
tinsson-Wallin, 2010). According to Hansson (1927)
Fig. 7. The distribution of Bronze Age Cairns with a
diameter over 20 meter.
7 pav. Žalvario amžiaus krūsnių, kurių skersmuo daugiau
kaip 20 m, paplitimas
Number of cairns
= 0
= 1
= 2–5
= 6–10
= 11–20
149
Prehistoric lifestyles on Gotland – Diachronic and Synchronic perspectives
the bronze nds on Gotland show local character in
the ornamentation already in period I (Montelius pe-
riod system) but with close resemblance with nds
from areas to the South West and South East. Finds
of so called Mälardal axes show connections to the
East but also ties to the East Swedish area. During the
late Bronze Age the connections with the East Nordic
area are stronger than contacts with South Scandina-
via according to Hansson (1927, p. 100p). Eriksson
(2010xx) who have studied pottery from the Bronze
and Iron Age contexts in East Sweden suggests that
Gotland show a mixed nd material and contacts from
several areas around the Baltic Sea are indicated. In an
extensive study of the spatial distribution of the cairns,
Nilsson (1986) have suggested that it is possible to in-
dicate ve chiefdom groups according to social mod-
els developed by Renfrew (1973). Hallin (2002, p. 20)
on the other hand stress that the large cairns probably
have a long history and are added on over time and
that Nilsson’s model is a simplied way of discussing
social relations on Gotland during the Bronze Age.
Settlement and eld systems
It has been difcult to locate distinct settlement ar-
eas from the Bronze Age (Hallin, 2002, p. 64), but in
areas as Vinarve in Rone (Lindquist, 1974), Liffride
in Alskog (Hallin, 2002), Ekeskogs in Kräklingbo
(Carlsson, 1992), Bönde in Lau (Carlsson, 1979) and
Terra Nova close to Visby (Wickman-Nydolf, 1980),
eld systems have been found, which have indicated
Bronze Age dates (Fig. 8). Lindquist (1974, p. 30) sug-
gests that evidences point to the fact that Gotland dur-
ing the end of the Bronze Age was organised in units
that were larger than the extended family level with a
possible division of labor into farmers, herdsmen, and
craftsmen. During this time was an extensive farm-
ing and herding method used. According to Lindquist
(Ibid) the land-use changed into intensication of ag-
riculture with arable meadows and grazing in smaller
“privatised” established areas with a fencing system,
during the pre-Roman Iron Age. These types of small-
er irregular farming units are also found in Estonia.
Lang (1996) calls these “Baltic elds” and according
to him they reect the boundaries of clearing of the
arable soil and centered on clearing cairns. Thus they
diverge from the larger regular Celtic elds, which
reect a conscious land-division and land ownership.
Hallin (2002, p. 34) suggest that the Baltic eld type is
found on Gotland as well.
Settlement activities in the form of post holes, re
cracked stone, cooking pits dated to the Bronze Age
have in addition to the areas with the eld systems men-
tioned above been found at various locations on the Is-
land as Stora Bjers in Stenkyrka (Silvén, 1954), Stora
Vikers in Lärbro (Gräslund, 1967; Rydh, 1967), Gard-
arfe in Fardhem (Schönbäck, 1977), Burs in Norr landa
(Wickman-Nydolf, 2001) and Gudings in Alva (Carls-
son, 1979) (Fig. 8). A few middle Neolithic sites as for
example Ajvide have also indicated to have been utilised
during the Bronze Age (Österholm, 1989) and some
dated samples from henge sites have shown Bronze
Fig. 8. Map showing settlement and eld systems
which indicated Bronze Age dates and the wall at
Gothemshammar and the large cairns at Uggarderojr.
8 pav. Žemėlapis, kuriame pažymėtos gyvenvietės ir laukai
datuojami žalvario amžiumi bei pylimas Gothemshammar ir
didelės krūsnys Uggarderojr
150
Helene Martinsson-Wallin, Paul Wallin and Jan Apel
Age dates, especially this case have been secured at the
recently investigated stone wall site at Gothemshammar
(Fig. 8) (Wallin, 2010, p. 49–52; Wehlin, 2010, p. 98,
100–101).
Case studies of Cairns and south constructions
When studying the spatial distribution of the largest
Bronze Age Cairns on Gotland, they are located main-
ly by the coast and/or close to wetlands. Larger cairns
could of course have been built in the inland area and
subsequently destroyed by farming activities as sug-
gested by Hallin (2002). However, it is not very likely
that subsequent prehistoric farmers have moved large
cairns for developing farming, but the idea that the
cairns are placed in the boundary between the arable
land and non arable land as proposed by Lang (1996)
is more likely. We also see that smaller cairns do exist
in the inland areas usually in positions on non arable
land or bordering to these areas. One factor to consider
is of course the building of the over 1,800 long houses
with stone walls during the Early Iron Age when build-
ing material from the cairns could have been utilized,
but it is more probable that the house walls were built
by stones which were removed from arable land in the
vicinity. The carful study of historical maps would
indicate if large cairns have been destroyed by modern
farming, but so far this pattern is not indicated to a
major extent. In previous studies by Hallin (2002) and
Nilsson (1986) they have estimated that large cairns
are the ones over 10 meter in diameter, which accord-
ing to Hallin (2002, p. 19) comprise of 405 cairns
but she think that the number must have been higher
due to subsequent destruction of sites. According to
her (2002, p. 19) the largest cairn was 57 meter in
diameter and 6 meter high and called Storerör by
Hilfelings who visited this place in the late 1800’s
(Gislestam, 1994). This is interpreted as the Båticke
cairn in Anga parish, which is a crater cairn with a
strange arrow like construction to the south. However,
Second World War military activity is indicated here
and the cairn could have been altered around dur-
ing this time. Otherwise the largest and most intact
cairn on Gotland is, Uggarderojr located close to the
coast on South East Gotland in Rone parish (Fig. 8).
This is also surrounded by ve other extensive cairns
(Martinsson-Wallin and Wehlin, 2010). There is only
a handful excavated large cairns on Gotland, they all
indicate re-use and to house multiple burials, some
show to be utilised for burials from the late Neolithic
until the Early Iron Age. This indicates that the graves
have been added on over time and their more extreme
monumental expression and size could very likely
be a last stage in a building process. Some structures
could have been utilised during the whole Bronze Age
period. Some areas have in one way or another prob-
ably been more important, and show agglomerations
of large cairns. This could indicate powerful families
with strong genealogies and also closeness to areas
with extensive eld systems. The large Uggarderojr
site with several large cairns is for example located
no more than 2 km from Vinarve eld system and the
large Digerrojr site is located 3 km from the Bönde
site in Lau.
The cairns have been interpreted mainly as buri-
al grounds but Nylén (1959) observed that many of
them had up-right stones or stone-settings close by in
a south or south west location in relation to the cairn.
He coined the concept of “south constructions” and
this indicated that the cairns and area around them
probably was used for ceremonies and ritual activi-
ties in addition to be a burial ground. This makes both
the macro pattern of spatial distribution of the cairns
on Gotland, and the investigation of the micro area
around them important to study. These studies could
say something about the socio cultural relations outside
of Gotland during the Bronze Age and also about the
lifestyles and relationships among the various groups
on the island. In 2008, new research on cairn milieu on
Gotland was initiated by Martinsson-Wallin. The re-
search focus has been set on understanding more about
the social, cultural and natural environment around the
largest cairns on Gotland. Also the internal structure,
mortuary practices and various investigations of the
skeletal remains are going to be carried out. An in-
vestigation of south constructions at the large Uggar-
derojr cairn was carried out in 2009, which resulted
in the excavation of a stone setting and a re cracked
stone mound (Martinsson-Wallin and Wehlin, 2010;
Martinsson-Wallin, 2010). In this excavation and sub-
sequent excavations of a south stone construction at
Digerrojr cairn in Garde (Martinsson-Wallin and Weh-
lin, 2011) indicated that activities including extensive
151
Prehistoric lifestyles on Gotland – Diachronic and Synchronic perspectives
res including stones have been part of some kind of
ritual carried out at the large cairns. Further investiga-
tions of south constructions will show if this pattern
is conrmed elsewhere. The stone setting excavated
next to Uggarderojr cairn gave dates as would be inter-
preted as contemporary with the initially constructed
large cairn. The stone setting included selected stones,
and stones with cup marks, as well as, aking of int
which could be interpreted as a ritual activity. Subse-
quently, during the late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age
un-cremated and cremated human and animal bones
and additional stones was placed on to this structure
(Martinsson-Wallin and Wehlin, 2010). A recent micro
analysis of the previously totally excavated cairn of
Kauparve on the north of Gotland has indicated that
two of the skeletal remains buried in one of the two
cist, who earlier was determined to be a man and a
woman and dated by a spiral pin to Montelius period II
by Stenberger (1942), instead after re-analysis indicat-
ed two women, and new radiocarbon dates show that
the skeletons are not contemporary. The older woman
was buried in the mid-Bronze Age (period III) and the
younger in succession to that. An older man is buried
in another stone cists and an artifact in the form of
a bronze bula indicate that he also is buried here in
the mid-Bronze Age (Oldeberg, 1974). This show that
Kauparve cairn has been re-used during the Bronze
Age, and it is very likely a family grave of genealogical
importance. aDNA and isotopic analyses of the skel-
etal remains would be of importance to evaluate the
internal and external contact and lifestyle approaches
of these buried people. Equivalents to the spiral pin
found at Kauparve have been found in two other con-
texts on Gotland and this type have also been found in
Lithuania (personal communication with professor Al-
gimantas Merkevičius) and in one instance in Poland
(personal communication with MA student Dominika
Kofel). The
13
C values of the buried women indicate
that they have a terrestrial diet. Natural environmen-
tal changes during the Bronze Age, which affected the
landscape is the isostatic uplift and shore line displace-
ment. Gotland has risen more rapidly in the North and
it is tilted from West to East. Hansson (1927) indicated
some areas that could have been utilised for settlement
and farming/herding activities but subsequent research
show that these areas are extended. The correlation be-
tween areas with large cairns and areas for settlement
and eld systems is a focus for further research.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
Österholm (1989) suggested that it was the same pop-
ulation group who inhabit Gotland territory from the
Mesolithic until the Bronze Age. She is of the opinion
that the dramatic environmental changes were the de-
cisive factor of the various lifestyle approaches and
settlement patterns seen over time, a period of 7000
years. New research and diachronic and synchronic
perspectives show that these patterns are not so simple
and straight forward. Interactivity between changes in
natural, social and cultural milieu are all driving forces
at play in the lifestyle approaches, settlement patterns,
social formations and external inuences indicated on
Gotland in prehistoric times.
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PRIEŠISTORINĖ GYVENSENA GOTLANDE DIACHRONINĖ IR SINCHRONINĖ PERSPEKTYVA
Helene Matinsson-Wallin, Paul Wallin ir Jan Apel
Santrauka
Österholm (1989) daro prielaidą, kad Gotlando teritorija nuo
pat mezolito iki žalvario amžiaus buvo apgyvendinta tos
pačios grupės gyventojų. Ši mokslininkė laikosi nuomonės,
kad dramatiški aplinkos pokyčiai nulėmė įvairią gyvenseną
ir apgyvendinimo struktūrą istoriniu 7000 metų laikotarpiu.
Nauji tyrimai bei diachroninės ir sinchroninės perspektyvos
rodo, kad šios struktūros nėra nei paprastos, nei primityvios.
Priešistorinio Gotlando gyvensenos pobūdį, apgyvendinimo
struktūrą, socialinius darinius ir išorinę įtaką nulėmė įvairių
gamtinės, socialinės bei kultūrinės aplinkos pokyčių sąveika.
Iš anglų kalbos vertė Auksė Pūraitė-Kuokštienė
Įteikta 2011 m. spalio mėn.
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- ReferencesReferences27
- [Show abstract] [Hide abstract] ABSTRACT: In this paper, we discuss variations seen in the ornamentation and modes of manufacturing pottery from the end of the mid-Neolithic 4600–4300 BP on the Island of Gotland in the Baltic Sea. The Pitted Ware cultural groups have been discussed as a western influence from the Swedish mainland, but the aDNA on skeletal remains point to eastern influences. We analyse and discuss pottery from the well-investigated Ajvide Pitted Ware site and what these variations mean in term of intra- and inter-island relationships, ethnicity and change, and we suggest the development of what could be described as a hybrid culture.
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