Content uploaded by Vlad Tarko
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Vlad Tarko on Jun 07, 2019
Content may be subject to copyright.
The Future of the Commons
The Future of the Commons
Beyond Market Failure and
Government Regulation
ELINOR OSTROM
with contributions from
CHRISTINA CHANG
MARK PENNINGTON
VLAD TARKO
The Institute of Economic Affairs
First published in Great Britain in 2012 by
The Institute of Economic Affairs
2 Lord North Street
Westminster
London sw1p 3lb
in association with Profile Books Ltd
The mission of the Institute of Economic Affairs is to improve public
understanding of the fundamental institutions of a free society, with particular
reference to the role of markets in solving economic and social problems.
Copyright © The Institute of Economic Affairs 2012
The moral right of the author has been asserted.
All rights reserved. Without limiting the rights under copyright reserved above,
no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored or introduced into a
retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means (electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise), without the prior written
permission of both the copyright owner and the publisher of this book.
A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
ISBN 978 0 255 36653 3
eISBN 978 0 255 36681 6
Many IEA publications are translated into languages other than English or
are reprinted. Permission to translate or to reprint should be sought from the
Director General at the address above.
Typeset in Stone by MacGuru Ltd
info@macguru.org.uk
Printed and bound in Britain by Hobbs the Printers
The authors 7
Acknowledgement 9
Foreword 10
Summary 14
List of figures and table 17
1 Elinor Ostrom, common-pool resources and
the classical liberal tradition 21
Mark Pennington
Introduction 21
Ostrom on incentives and the management of
common-pool resources 22
Ostrom and the classical liberal tradition 38
Conclusion: Ostrom and the need for a new economics 44
References 46
2 Elinor Ostrom’s life and work 48
Vlad Tarko
The life of Elinor Ostrom 48
Elinor Ostrom’s intellectual contributions 49
Understanding public goods and common-pool resources 57
Polycentricity 60
Fisheries: an application of Ostrom’s work 61
CONTENTS
5
7
Conclusion 64
References 64
3 The future of the commons: beyond market
failure and government regulation 68
Elinor Ostrom
Introduction 68
Challenges in achieving sustainability 69
The importance of second-tier variables 72
Questions that can be addressed in our research
framework 75
Design principles for the management of natural resource
systems 77
What have we learned? 79
The relationship between larger and smaller units of
governance 81
Conclusion 82
4 Questions and discussion 84
5 Ostrom’s ideas in action 97
Christina Chang
References 103
About the IEA 106
THE AUTHORS
Christina Chang is Lead Economic Analyst at CAFOD and is
responsible for their work programme on economic and financial
issues. CAFOD is the official development agency of the Catholic
Church in England and Wales and works with partners in 40
countries around the world, responding to immediate needs and
deeper causes of poverty. She was previously Policy Manager at
the International Chamber of Commerce in Paris.
Elinor Ostrom (1933–2012) was Distinguished Professor and
Arthur F. Bentley Professor of Political Science at Indiana Univer-
sity. In 2009 she became the first woman to be awarded the
Nobel Prize in Economics. The award recognised her pioneering
work on the governance of common-pool resources. In 1973 she
founded the Workshop in Political Theory and Policy Analysis
with her husband, Vincent Ostrom. Elinor Ostrom and her team
conducted a large number of case studies around the world,
examining resources such as fisheries, forests and grazing land.
These studies enabled her to identify several ‘design principles’
for their successful management. She also developed a theoret-
ical framework for the analysis of different institutional arrange-
ments. Her extensive research led to the publication of numerous
academic papers and books including Governing the Commons
the future of the commons
8 9
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The Institute of Economic Affairs would like to thank CQS
for its very generous sponsorship of the 2012 Hayek Memorial
Lecture and of this publication.
(1990) and Understanding Institutional Diversity (2005). For the
Institute of Economic Affairs she contributed a paper, ‘Institu-
tions and the Environment’, to the Economic Affairs symposium
on ‘The Economic Analysis of Institutions’ (September 2008). In
March 2012, Professor Ostrom gave the Twenty-First Annual IEA
Hayek Memorial Lecture on ‘The Future of the Commons: Beyond
Market Failure and Government Regulation’.
Mark Pennington is Professor of Public Policy and Political
Economy in the Department of Political Economy, King’s College,
University of London. His most recent book is entitled Robust
Political Economy: Classical Liberalism and the Future of Public Policy
(Edward Elgar, 2011). Previous books include Planning and the
Political Market: Public Choice and the Politics of Government Failure
(Athlone/Continuum, 2000) and Liberating the Land (IEA, 2002).
Vlad Tarko is a PhD student at George Mason University and a
Research Fellow at the Mercatus Center. He was previously a
researcher at the Center for Institutional Analysis and Develop-
ment in Bucharest. His main interests are new institutionalism,
public choice and Austrian economics. He has published papers
in Constitutional Political Economy, Governance and Futures.
foreword
1110
manage the resource. This is what happens with fisheries in the
European Union. A benevolent government with perfect know-
ledge, it is argued, will be able to develop the rules to prevent
overfishing and enforce those rules. But what if government is not
benevolent and is subject to lobbying? And what if government
is simply unable to monitor effectively? Fully specified property
rights and private ownership are suggested as the alternative. But
these can come with problems too, such as enormous transaction
costs of monitoring and enforcement.
Elinor Ostrom showed how the community itself could often
define the rules for using common-pool resources and also develop
appropriate monitoring mechanisms that were consistent with the
customs that characterised the way in which those communities
lived. Often monitoring mechanisms would be chosen that were very
effective but which might seem counter-intuitive to an outsider.
In no sense do Professor Ostrom’s ideas conflict with the idea
of a free economy. Although there may be some role for govern-
ment, such as providing information or courts systems for the
adjudication of disputes, Ostrom’s observations about how
resource systems could be managed were essentially observations
about free economic actors at work. The community management
of pastureland, fisheries and so on, and the implicit property
rights that are involved, form part of what might be described as
the ‘free economy outside the market economy’. It has to be said –
and this was clear from the variety of people attending the Hayek
Lecture and those asking questions at the end – that Ostrom’s
ideas are attractive to those of a left-leaning persuasion. To the
left, perhaps, the community management of a resource is the
acceptable face of a free economy like a mutual bank or coopera-
tive retail outlet – but it is no less free for that.
FOREWORD
In March 2012 the IEA was fortunate to be able to host Elinor
Ostrom for our annual Hayek Lecture and a range of other events.
Throughout the day, she was engaging and sparkling intellectu-
ally. Every idea that was brought up, whether by young students
or seasoned academics, brought a very thoughtful and energetic
response. Quite clearly, Professor Ostrom enjoyed discussing
economic ideas – even those that were only tangentially related to
her research. Very sadly, Professor Ostrom died shortly after the
Hayek Lecture and her husband – who worked in a similar academic
area – died shortly afterwards. While this leaves a huge hole in the
world of political economy, Professor Ostrom’s legacy has ensured
that, across the world, young academics are engaged in research
examining the management of natural resources by communities.
Ostrom examined problems relating to the management of
common-pool resources. These are very important environmental
issues – especially for the poorest people in the world. If we have
a fishery, pastureland or forest area, for example, it is important
for those relying on it, as well as for consumers of products that
are produced using the resource, that it is managed sustainably so
that it can renew itself.
Traditionally economists have suggested two solutions to
the problem of the management of common-pool resources. It
has often been thought that the government should own and/or
forewordthe future of the commons
12 13
academic, puts the lecture in a wider context and effectively
demolishes the myth that Ostrom should be a poster child for
anti-market economists. Vlad Tarko provides an intellectual biog-
raphy of Elinor Ostrom and further context for her import ant
work. Finally Christina Chang, who works for a foreign aid
agency, provides an interesting example of how she has found
Ostrom’s ideas working in the context of a very difficult common-
pool resource problem.
Overall, this excellent collection provides a very helpful intro-
duction to the work of Elinor Ostrom which the IEA commends to
those studying economics, political economy and related discip-
lines. It is also important for those policymakers who are trying to
wrestle with natural resource problems and, hopefully, will help
inject the required humility into their thinking.
Over the coming decades, Elinor Ostrom will be remembered
for her brilliant contributions to political economy. She will also
be remembered by IEA visitors, staff and trustees for her inspiring
visit to the UK and the wonderful way in which she interacted with
intellectually curious students and others who engaged with her.
philip booth
Editorial and Programme Director,
Institute of Economic Affairs
Professor of Insurance and Risk Management,
Cass Business School, City University
September 2012
The views expressed in this monograph are, as in all IEA publi-
cations, those of the author and not those of the Institute (which
has no corporate view), its managing trustees, Academic Advisory
Council members or senior staff.
Mechanisms related to those observed by Ostrom can be
seen in the context of many other economic activities. Golf clubs
develop their own rules systems and methods of enforcement.
Organised sports more generally have many polycentric sources
of rules and enforcement to ensure that those participating can
achieve certain common aims. The local village under-eleven
football team is related to the very same organisations that
manage the Premiership and the World Cup. For the children
playing, there will be club rules, local rules, FA rules and FIFA
rules all sitting alongside each other and with different enforce-
ment mechanisms – there are, though, no government rules.
Before the state took over financial regulation, the stock exchange
would determine the rules by which participants in financial
markets acted: this was a purely private body which would seem
to have been a more successful rule-maker than the government.
The UK and the USA both have a great tradition of private rule-
making to facilitate groups of persons reaching a common end.
But Ostrom’s main concern was common-pool resources. As
she makes clear in the question and answer session published
below, she was acutely aware of the serious problems facing the
UK and the European Union with regard to our fisheries systems.
Not just there, but in other areas too, we need to apply Ostrom’s
work in order to ensure that we have sustainable management of
common-pool resources. Top-down government approaches have
not worked. If the work of left-leaning and free market economists
points in the same direction with regard to these problems then,
perhaps, that is helpful in establishing an intellectual consensus.
Together with Ostrom’s lecture, which summarises her bril-
liant work in this field, we also have important contributions
by other authors in this publication. Mark Pennington, a UK
summary
1514
resource users or by assisting enforcement processes through
court systems.
• Elinor Ostrom’s work in this field, for which she won the
Nobel Prize in economics in 2009, was grounded in the
detailed empirical study of how communities managed
common-pool resources in practice.
• It is essential that we avoid the ‘panacea problem’. There is
no correct way to manage common-pool resources that will
always be effective. Different ways of managing resources
will be appropriate in different contexts – for example within
different cultures or where there are different physical
characteristics of a natural resource.
• Nevertheless, there are principles that we can draw from
the detailed study of the salient features of different cases to
help us understand how different common-pool resources
might be best managed; which rules systems and systems of
organisation have the best chance of success or failure; and so on.
• Elinor Ostrom’s approach has been praised by the left, who
often see it as being opposed to free-market privatisation
initiatives. In fact, her approach sits firmly within the
classical liberal tradition of political economy. She observes
communities freely choosing their own mechanisms to
manage natural resource problems without government
coercion or planning.
• In developing a viable approach to the management of
the commons, it is important, among other things, that a
resource can be clearly defined and that the rules governing
the use of the resource are adapted to local conditions.
This suggests that rules imposed from outside, such as by
government agencies, are unlikely to be successful.
SUMMARY
• Traditional economic models of how to manage
environmental problems relating to renewable natural
resources, such as fisheries, have tended to recommend
either government regulation or privatisation and the explicit
definition of property rights.
• These traditional models ignore the practical reality of
natural resource management. Many communities are
able to spontaneously develop their own approaches to
managing such common-pool resources. In the words of
Mark Pennington: ‘[Professor Ostrom’s] book Governing the
Commons is a superb testament to the understanding that can
be gained when economists observe in close-up detail how
people craft arrangements to solve problems in ways often
beyond the imagination of textbook theorists.’
• In particular, communities are often able to find stable and
effective ways to define the boundaries of a common-pool
resource, define the rules for its use and effectively enforce
those rules.
• The effective management of a natural resource often requires
‘polycentric’ systems of governance where various entities
have some role in the process. Government may play a role
in some circumstances, perhaps by providing information to
the future of the commons
16 17
FIGURES AND TABLE
Figure 1 The Institutional Analysis and Development
(IAD) framework 51
Figure 2 Second-tier variables of an SES 73
Table 1 Types of goods 58
• There are important areas of natural resource management
where Elinor Ostrom’s ideas should be adopted to avoid
environmental catastrophe. Perhaps the most obvious
example relevant to the UK is in European Union fisheries
policy. Here, there is one centralised model for the
management of the resource that is applied right across the
European Union, ignoring all the evidence about the failure of
that approach.
The Future of the Commons
21
1 ELINOR OSTROM, COMMON-POOL
RESOURCES AND THE CLASSICAL
LIBERAL TRADITION
Mark Pennington
Introduction
I am very honoured to contribute this introduction to the ideas of
Professor Elinor Ostrom. My own work has often drawn inspira-
tion from her writings and it was a privilege to speak to Professor
Ostrom at a lunch hosted by the IEA prior to the annual Hayek
Lecture which is the subject of this occasional paper. Her sad loss,
a matter of weeks on from that lecture, leaves the world without
one of the most innovative social scientists of the last century.
In an introductory essay, I cannot hope to convey all of the
insight and nuance that characterised Professor Ostrom’s research
over a period of 40 years. I aim instead to provide readers with
a broad outline of her work focusing on three particular dimen-
sions. The first and longest section sets out the core principles
that underscore her analysis of common-pool resources and her
argument for moving beyond the dichotomy between ‘privatisa-
tion’ and ‘government regulation’. The second section examines
the implications of Professor Ostrom’s ideas for the classical
liberal tradition. Towards the end of his life Hayek noted the need
for a more creative appreciation of the way in which institutions of
property rights might be adapted in view of emerging problems of
environmental protection (Hayek, 1988). Ostrom’s work has been
crucial in identifying what these alternative property institutions
the future of the commons
22 23
elinor ostrom and the classical liberal tradi tion
Ostrom and the new institutionalism: rethinking institutions
and incentives
Though economists have traditionally focused on the role of
institutions and incentives, many analysts have approached the
interrelationship between them in a simplistic way. Nowhere
has this simplistic mode of thought been more entrenched than
in discussion of common-pool resources. Traditionally, analysts
have assumed that all common-pool resources suffer from the
same deficient incentive structure which leads to widespread
‘free-riding’. When resources exist in an unowned state, so the
argument goes, no individual will have an incentive to conserve
because to do so will simply leave more resources for others to
take. In the absence of exclusion devices which enable people to
profit personally from conservation, they will extract as much of
the resource as possible up to the point of depletion. According to
this view, as popularised by Garret Hardin (1968), the only way to
internalise externalities and avoid the ‘tragedy of the commons’
is to have an external body impose a management structure over
the resource. This structure can take the form of either private
ownership, where exclusive rights to extract fish, timber, water,
etc., are parcelled out to individual owners, or it can take the form
of government ownership, where the state takes responsibility
for managing the asset either through direct control or via the
external imposition of rules and regulations.
Ostrom’s work represents a direct challenge to this form of
theorising because, while recognising that incentives matter, she
argues that incentive structures are more varied and complex
than conventional analysis assumes.1 In the case of common-pool
1 The ‘tragedy of the commons’ should really be described as the ‘tragedy of open
access’. The type of scenario discussed by Hardin refers to a situation where
might look like. In addition, I hope to show how some of these
insights can be applied beyond the realm of resource conservation
to a broader range of socio-economic questions where the case
for decentralised forms of governance is often overlooked. The
final section briefly sets out how Professor Ostrom’s work might
impact on economics as a profession.
Ostrom on incentives and the management of
common-pool resources
Elinor Ostrom’s Nobel Prize-winning work on the management
of common-pool resources can be situated broadly within the
rational-choice tradition in economic and political theory. Long
before this work attracted widespread attention, she and her
husband Vincent were pioneers in public choice theory, consti-
tutional political economy and what has come to be known as
the ‘new institutionalism’ (Aligica and Boettke, 2009). Though
accepting that actors are not purely rational, that they suffer
from incomplete information and various cognitive limitations,
Ostrom’s framework recognises that individuals are nonetheless
purposeful actors who respond to incentives. Institutions shape
the incentives that people face and affect the likelihood of whether
they will coordinate their actions successfully or whether they will
engage in negative-sum games. ‘Institutions’ refers both to formal
and ‘hard’ institutions, such as the relative extent of individual,
communal and state-owned property rights and a legal system
which enforces these rights; and to informal or ‘soft’ institutions
such as cultural attitudes towards promise-keeping, and prefer-
ences for long- or short-term gain.
the future of the commons
24 25
elinor ostrom and the classical liberal tradi tion
the European Common Fisheries Policy, which prevents fish-
ermen either at the local or even at the national level from devising
rules to limit overfishing (De Alessi, 1998). In developing nations
it includes the miserable record of nationalised forests and irriga-
tion systems where centralised management has replaced intri-
cate and long-standing customary rules for dealing with resource
scarcity and conflict (Ostrom, 1990: 23).
Though highly critical of externally imposed solutions to
common-pool problems, Ostrom does not claim that decentralised
community-based approaches are always the most appropriate
institutional form. She recognises that in many cases individu-
alised property institutions may be better placed to incentivise
resource conservation and to allow greater scope for innova-
tion than more collective structures (for example, McKean and
Ostrom, 1995). Similarly, she appreciates that in some circum-
stances neither private nor communal management may be
feasible and that there may be no alternative to relying on state
regulation. The question that Ostrom sets herself is to discover
what factors are most likely to result in bottom-up solutions to
potential common-pool problems and what factors are likely to
thwart the development of these solutions. Similarly, she aims to
provide a framework that can guide decisions about when to rely
on spontaneous processes of governance and when to rely on the
external generation of rules. The key elements of this multilevel
framework for understanding what Ostrom refers to as ‘socio-
ecological systems’ and the ‘design principles’ to emerge from it
are set out below.
resources, it is not always the case that resources will be over-
exploited. There are many instances where communities of
resource users have managed to develop exclusion methods
and evolve effective rules which have avoided the tragedy of the
commons without external regulation. Examples include the
management of commonly owned pastures in the Swiss Alps, the
regulation of grazing and logging on commonly held meadows
and forests in Japan, the sustainable management of inshore fish-
eries by cooperatives in the eastern United States, and the supervi-
sion of complex irrigation systems in the Valencia region of Spain
(Ostrom, 1990: ch. 3).
On the other hand, there are numerous examples where
attempts to impose individual property rights or government
ownership and regulation have had disastrous consequences.
Thus, attempts to privatise natural resources in some of the
transition economies and in parts of Africa, where basic norms
emphasising the protection of individual property rights do not
exist, have resulted in rampant corruption and cronyism as ruling
elites have sought to grab access to resources for themselves and
their political and tribal allies (Van de Walle, 2001). In the case
of government ownership, meanwhile, there is a whole catalogue
of cases where the takeover of natural resources by government
agencies has produced disastrous results. In developed nations,
this includes the dismal record of centralising measures such as
there are no rules governing the use of the resource. This is a very rare situation.
In practice, most common-pool resources are governed by a set of rules – but
the origin of these rules differs. In some circumstances they are developed en-
dogenously by the resource users themselves, but elsewhere they are imposed
on resource users by an external governing body. The debate about the relative
efficacy of internally generated versus externally imposed rules is what Ostrom
highlights so well.
the future of the commons
26 27
elinor ostrom and the classical liberal tradi tion
potential free-riding and opportunistic behaviour. Ceteris paribus,
the smaller the population of resource users the easier it will be
to detect people who are abusing the rules. Similarly, a cultur-
ally homogeneous and relatively stable community where people
have strong reputational and social ties and a commitment to
long-term development is less likely to invite free-riding than a
more mobile community with no strong sense of local or cultural
identification. Groups which possess a high degree of interper-
sonal trust or social capital are more likely to arrive at commonly
agreed rules and to adhere to these rules than are those lacking
such social capital. If they are to be successful, therefore, the rules
for resource management need to reflect this sociocultural variety.
The importance of monitoring and enforcement
According to Ostrom, the most successful systems for common-
pool resource management also include strong monitoring and
enforcement mechanisms. In the Swiss Alpine commons, for
example, village courts impose fines on those who exceed their
allotted grazing rights. Even when a community exhibits strong
social cohesion there will be a tendency for people to break the
rules if there are no rewards for upholding and no penalties for
breaking them. In addition, communities where the population
has a moral commitment to the rules in operation are likely to fare
better in securing enforcement than those lacking a moral iden-
tification with the relevant rules. When people derive a personal
sense of utility from knowing that ‘right has been done’ they are
more likely to enforce rules, even when this may be relatively
costly to themselves, than when actors lack a strong sense of right
and wrong (on the significance of preferences for rule enforce-
ment, see Gaus, 2011).
Socio-ecological systems and design principles for common-
pool resources
Boundaries to facilitate exclusion
A key factor affecting the likelihood of bottom-up solutions
developing is the character of the resource and, in particular,
the existence or otherwise of clearly defined boundaries. Exclu-
sion mechanisms are the key to overcoming free-riding, and
resource boundaries increase the capacity for those who use a
resource to limit access by those living outside the community in
question. Common-pool resources vary significantly in terms of
these boundary attributes. Grazing land in a mountain valley,
for example, might have clearly defined boundaries owing to the
nature of the surrounding terrain, whereas open grassland on a
large plateau may lack such natural markers. Similarly, inshore
fisheries often have clearly defined natural boundaries, whereas
offshore fisheries frequently do not.
The importance of internal rules
Though the existence of boundaries to limit access by those outside
a community of resource users is important, it is also critical
that there are rules which prevent people within the community
concerned from appropriating too much of the resource. Successful
models of resource management such as the Swiss mountain
commons and the Valencia irrigation system in Spain specify clear
procedures for when and how the resource can be used.
The importance of locally adapted rules
Resources vary across time and place, so no single management
rule will be appropriate in all circumstances. The character of
resource users also varies and this affects the capacity to overcome
the future of the commons
28 29
elinor ostrom and the classical liberal tradi tion
and especially when higher authorities respond to the demands
of external interest groups to allow access to a resource base, then
common-pool resource systems may be highly fragile. This has
been a particular problem in many parts of the developing world,
where local customary rights to use forests and other resources
have often been overridden by national governments responding
to the demands of either domestic or international business inter-
ests in resource-extraction industries. Similarly, in contexts where
central authorities assume responsibility for determining most of
the rules that govern the use of resources, there will be a dimin-
ished incentive for those involved at the local level to find ways of
devising their own governance arrangements.
Action situations and institutional implications
All the factors listed above affect the incentive structure that faces
participants in the context of specific common-pool resources,
and these incentives constitute what Ostrom calls particular
‘action situations’.
The most important point to emerge from Ostrom’s account
of socio-ecological systems is that there are many ‘action situ-
ations’ where decentralised community governance can work
well. Specifically, when there are clear boundaries to a resource;
where a community has high levels of interpersonal trust or
social capital; where there are procedures for resolving disputes;
and where the community concerned has sufficient decision-
making autonomy to create, monitor and enforce its own rules
and to exclude outsiders, then incentives can operate to avoid the
‘tragedy of the commons’. In these ‘common property regimes’
resources are exclusive to a particular community rather than
Dispute resolution
The existence of clear and well-established procedures for dispute
resolution may also increase the scope for the decentralised reso-
lution of common-pool resource problems. Even in relatively
homogeneous and stable communities disagreements over the
correct interpretation of user rights are likely to arise. Commu-
nities with well-developed and transparent court systems tend
to generate more sustainable forms of common-pool resource
management. The Valencia region of Spain is, for example, prone
to frequent conflicts and disputes over water access, owing to the
often erratic pattern of rainfall and river replenishment. Nonethe-
less, the holding of regular tribunals and court proceedings has
provided a context for speedy and efficient dispute resolution and
helped to sustain effective management of the irrigation system
over several centuries, notwithstanding rapid social and techno-
logical change. In the absence of such systems, incentives to avoid
a ‘scramble for resources’ are much weaker and a tragedy of the
commons is likely to assert itself.
Interaction between systems of rules
A final and often fundamental factor affecting the character of
common-pool problems is the constitutional relationship between
different layers of rule-making. A key finding of Ostrom’s work
is that effective rules are more likely to arise in situations where
those who have an immediate stake in overcoming common-pool
resource problems are actively involved in shaping and enforcing
governance arrangements. When communities make rules for
themselves they have strong incentives to make the rules work and
to learn from their mistakes. When locally established rules and
property rights are not respected by higher tiers of governance,
the future of the commons
30 31
elinor ostrom and the classical liberal tradi tion
for failing to maintain it. A significant body of empirical work
confirms that for a wide range of resources, including forests,
minerals, oyster beds and some inshore fisheries, private property
institutions work to promote highly sustainable management
practices (for a summary of this evidence, see De Alessi, 2003).
Government ownership or regulation is more likely to be rela-
tively more effective in contexts where none of the above factors
is present and hence where there is little or no scope for either
community governance or individual private property arrange-
ments to develop. This is most likely to be so when there are
no clear boundaries to the resource, where there is a large-scale
and highly mobile and diverse population of resource users; this
leads to a situation where the transaction costs of arriving at and
enforcing decentralised solutions may be prohibitive. Regional
and international problems of trans-boundary air pollution and
the problem of anthropogenic climate change seem to be the most
obvious candidates that fall into this category, where there may be
no alternative but to rely on centrally imposed rules to incentivise
changes in behaviour.
The presumption against central planning
Though Ostrom recognises that there may be a class of resource
management problems that require some form of external,
centrally imposed regulation, it is important to recognise that
there is a strong presumption against relying on such methods,
even in situations where community governance or individual
property solutions have not yet developed. There are a number of
reasons underlying this presumption against central planning.
The first is that central regulatory authorities often lack
being ‘publicly owned’, but, instead of parcelling out the assets to
individuals, the exclusive owner is a decentralised communal unit
(McKean and Ostrom, 1995: 6).
Many of the most successful models of commons manage-
ment that Ostrom cites are ‘mixed regimes’ including elements
of individual and common property. In the Swiss Alps, for
example, farmers have individually owned plots for the growing
of vegetables, fruit trees and hay for winter fodder, but the
summer meadows, forests, irrigation systems and the paths and
roads connecting individually and communally owned plots
are managed by a village-level association (Ostrom, 1990: 61–5).
Such arrangements work particularly well where the scale of the
resource or common-pool resource problem makes it too difficult
to create purely individual private property rights or where there
may be cultural hostility to the concept of individual property.
In other contexts, however, the creation of individual private
property rights may indeed prove more effective. When, for
example, there are clear boundaries to a resource but where the
community is highly mobile and culturally heterogeneous, then
incentives may be insufficient to create and enforce effective
communal rules. Individual private property rights work well
precisely because they minimise the need for agreement between
resource users. Actors, whether individuals or corporate bodies,
can use a resource as they see fit without requiring permission
from a superior hierarchy or a committee of their neighbours.
At the same time, provided the property rights are reasonably well
defined and that there are effective courts and dispute resolution
procedures in place, individual private property rights operate
to in ternalise costs and benefits – the property owner reaps the
potential rewards from conserving a resource and suffers losses
the future of the commons
32 33
elinor ostrom and the classical liberal tradi tion
prone to respond more to their own budgetary imperatives and
to the demands of interest groups that are often seeking to redis-
tribute property rights rather than engage in mutually beneficial
contracts with the communities concerned.
A second reason to avoid immediate recourse to central regu-
lation is that the very act of regulating from the centre under-
mines the incentive for resource users themselves to devise an
appropriate set of rules. When the state takes over responsibility
for managing an asset, individuals and groups that do not already
have their own institutions in place will simply wait for the
government to handle their problems for them. As Ostrom (1990:
213) puts it: ‘if someone else agrees to pay the costs of supplying
new institutions then it is difficult to avoid the temptation to
free-ride’. Under these conditions there is little incentive for local
actors to find ways of using their own culturally specific know-
ledge to build up effective governance procedures from below.
This ‘crowding out’ effect reduces the capacity of communities
to develop mechanisms needed to monitor free-riding behaviour
and to create the social capital required to overcome resource
conservation dilemmas. Indeed, if the community itself developed
institutions to deal with resource management when state systems
existed, there would be the potential for conflict between the two
sets of institutions (state and community) and huge uncertainty
about how such conflicts might be resolved. This kind of uncer-
tainty, in many situations, can lead to substantial welfare losses.
Even relatively large-scale collective-action problems are more
likely to be solved when the necessary institutions are developed
from below. Many of the most successful cases of river catchment
supervision, for example, have occurred when relatively small
groups of water users at the level of individual river basins have
knowledge about the specific character of the assets to be
managed and the nature of the incentives facing resource users.
Effective regulation requires that those devising regulatory rules
have sufficient knowledge of on-the-ground incentives in order to
create and to enforce rules which can change those incentives in
a manner encouraging conservation. More often than not central
regulators lack this kind of knowledge. Distant bureaucrats
may not be aware of the physical characteristics of the resource
in question – whether there are potential resource boundaries,
subtle variations in climatic patterns, etc. – which should affect
the character of the rules chosen. Some of this information might
be gathered by a government department if sufficient resources
could be devoted to this task, but this may prove more costly than
relying on the knowledge of those who are actually resident on
site.
There are, however, other forms of knowledge, which even in
principle central regulators will be unlikely to be able to access.
Knowledge of the cultural norms and values that structure the way
in which people perceive and respond to resource- management
issues and how these values evolve is embedded in the minds
and everyday culture of those who inhabit the communities
concerned. This is what Hayek (1945) refers to as knowledge of the
‘circumstances of time and place’, which is often tacit and which
cannot be expressed in verbal statements or regulatory statutes.
As a consequence, it is unlikely that external regulators will under-
stand enough about the specific incentives that face resource users
to be able to devise an effective set of rules. In addition, bureau-
crats in central agencies typically lack a sufficient personal stake
to manage assets effectively. Since their status and remunera-
tion are largely detached from success at the local level they are
the future of the commons
34 35
elinor ostrom and the classical liberal tradi tion
evolution it increases the chance of discovering beneficial insti-
tutions. Should there be only one rule-making body, then any
errors are likely to have systemic effects. In a polycentric order,
mistakes, though inevitable, are confined to the resource owners
in question. Adaptation is also speedier than in a more unitary
equivalent – actors can learn from and imitate the most successful
models adopted by their neighbours without waiting for approval
from some overarching authority or majority.
The role of the state in environmental resource management –
what we can learn from Ostrom
None of the above should be taken to imply that Ostrom’s frame-
work rules out a role for the state. More specifically, states can
play a useful role if they facilitate development of the dispute
resolution procedures and ensure legal recognition for the local
property rights structures which are a key ingredient in creating
incentives to overcome free-riding. States might also serve a useful
function by spreading information about new scientific or tech-
nical knowledge pertinent to the management of a particular
resource – though this knowledge should be used in conjunction
with, rather than replacing, the more localised and culturally
specific know-how that resides at the community level. Govern-
ments might also be involved in the ownership or regulation of
some common-pool resources where the transaction costs of
securing common or private property arrangements are too high.
In general, though, so long as the resources in question are at least
partially divisible, this activity should be confined to municipal
or local government structures which have the autonomy to raise
their own revenues and create their own locally adapted rules.
first created localised associations to manage access. The creation
of these institutions at the most decentralised level has then
enabled them to build further institutions to devise and enforce
rules and to link with other communities at the inter-basin level
in order to manage the catchments as a whole. By contrast, when
water users have lobbied regional governments to have a single
agency take over management of the resource, this has frequently
led to the capture of such agencies by bureaucrats and external
rent-seeking interest groups aiming to redistribute resources
rather than address the underlying resource scarcity (Ostrom,
1990: ch. 5).
A final and perhaps most important reason to presume
against central planning is that it removes the scope for people
to learn how to address common-pool resource problems more
effectively. Decision-making over natural resources does not
start from a situation where the most effective institutional form
for managing the resource is ‘given’ in advance. On the contrary,
knowledge of the kinds of rules, institutions and technologies that
can be combined in order to internalise externalities needs to be
discovered through a dynamic, evolutionary process of trial-and-
error learning (Ostrom, 2005). There is, therefore, a strong case
for relying on polycentric rather than monocentric structures of
governance. Very few environmental goods are completely indi-
visible in supply – most are territorial and their supply can vary
within countries and between regions and much smaller locali-
ties. In principle, therefore, such goods are suited to a process
of ‘parallel adaptation’ where a variety of institutional devices
compete and where people can copy and adapt the most successful
models to their own circumstances (ibid.). Such a process will not
secure an ‘optimal solution’, but by allowing for trial and error
the future of the commons
36 37
elinor ostrom and the classical liberal tradi tion
the one hand, governments in places from Brazil to Nigeria have
encouraged excessive resource extraction by directly subsidising
road building, logging and oil exploration in highly sensitive
areas. On the other hand, they have failed to protect the property
rights of local people who have come into contact with extractive
industries as a result of these subsidies and in some cases have
been complicit in expropriating these very rights (Anderson and
Leal, 2001: ch. 11).
Developed countries, too, have much to learn from Ostrom’s
approach. Many resources could be managed more effectively
through a decentralised mix of communal and private property
structures with the state acting in a facilitative role. Instead,
governments often have more-or-less exclusive control of many
environmental resources. In Britain, for example, it is disap-
pointing that the recent report by the Independent Panel on
Forestry has recommended retaining the Forestry Commission’s
assets in public ownership with an increased commitment to
central funding. Forestry provides a fairly clear-cut case where
enforceable boundaries can enable either private or community-
based owners to manage access and craft rules to balance the
competing demands for commercial extraction, recreational
access and conservation.
At the EU level, the Common Fisheries Policy is desperately
in need of an Ostrom-inspired reform agenda. While there are
clear logistical difficulties in trying to enforce individual private
property rights and even communal property rules over offshore
fisheries, it is manifestly inappropriate for a fishery from the
Baltic to the Mediterranean to be managed as if it were a single
resource. At the very least, there is a strong case for the repatri-
ation of fisheries management to nation-states with the European
Federal or polycentric political structures provide a laboratory
for experiments in institutional design which can be spread by
a process of trial-and-error learning across jurisdictions. What
should be avoided, wherever possible, is a unitary model of ownership
and/or control by a central government agency.
In the context of many developing countries, attention to the
design principles set out above would represent a marked reversal
of policy trends in the post-colonial era. The tendency to perceive
nationalisation as a more efficient and modern form of manage-
ment (a tendency often encouraged by external aid agencies) has
been particularly unfortunate. In Nepal, for example, nationalisa-
tion of forestry in the post-war era resulted in widespread resource
depletion as people no longer subject to communal rules engaged
in free-riding behaviour while national bureaucrats had few incen-
tives to monitor the enforcement of officially imposed rules and
regulations. Only recently have governments begun to see the
error of this approach and to give more autonomy to communities
and individuals, but there is still a deep reluctance to grant full
autonomy to localised governance structures (Ostrom, 1990: 178).
More generally, governments in developing nations need to
recognise and protect the property rights of their own people, and
international aid agencies need to stop funding those who refuse
to respect these rights. When governments have been attentive
to the enforcement of communal rights, as for example in New
Guinea, then communities can be well placed to manage assets,
even in negotiations with large external agents, such as oil and
timber companies. Many of the problems associated with defor-
estation and pollution have not resulted from a failure of markets
or of community governance but from central government actions
which have directly undermined local property rights systems. On
the future of the commons
38 39
elinor ostrom and the classical liberal tradi tion
protection of private property, extensive reliance on civil society
and voluntary association, and a limited and decentralised form
of government is based on the view that the dispersed (though
unequal) ownership of property in a market system is more
robust in the face of these imperfections than more centralised
alternatives. By decentralising decision-making to many different
individuals and organisations, it facilitates a greater level of
experimentation than more state-centric regimes, allowing for
evolutionary learning while minimising the impact of inevitable
mistakes. At the same time, it provides better incentives for people
by allowing them to reap the rewards of decisions which benefit
their fellows and to bear penalties for failing to do so. Ostrom’s
arguments are based on the similar contention that decentralised
forms of governance are better placed to enable trial-and-error
discovery of the rules needed to overcome common-pool resource
problems and to provide incentives for those most affected by
such rules to make them work.
Within this context, it is important to confront a myth, propa-
gated by some ill-informed opinion, that Ostrom’s research
somehow constitutes a refutation of ‘neoliberal’ economics and
its arguments in favour of privately owned and decentralised
property regimes. Two examples of this opinion are set out below.
Writing in the Guardian in October 2009, Kevin Gallagher
claimed that: ‘In a nutshell, Ostrom won the Nobel Prize for
showing that privatising natural resources is not the route to
halting environmental degradation’ (Guardian, 13 October 2009).
Similarly, the Nobel laureate Joseph Stiglitz was quoted in
the New York Times saying: ‘Conservatives use the Tragedy of
the Commons to argue for property rights … What Ostrom has
demonstrated is the existence of social control mechanisms that
Union providing a dispute resolution function between member
states. Ideally, however, there should be still further decentralisa-
tion of decision-making, rebuilding the cooperative fishermen’s
associations that used to manage local fisheries but which have
been systematically undermined by EU legislation.
Ostrom and the classical liberal tradition
Throughout her career Elinor Ostrom was keen to avoid crude
ideological labelling, and the title of her Hayek Lecture, ‘Beyond
market failure and government regulation’, confirms a long-
standing determination to chart an intellectual course avoiding
conventional left versus right confrontations on the relative
efficacy of free markets and state regulation. Nonetheless, there
is a good deal within the intellectual space that Ostrom carves out
that is thoroughly at one with the basic insights of classical liberal
political economy.
At root, Ostrom’s arguments showing the frequent, though
not universal, efficacy of decentralised governance are an applica-
tion of what has come to be known as ‘robust political economy’
(on this, see Pennington, 2011; Leeson and Subrick, 2006). Robust
political economy analysis evaluates institutions according to
their capacity to cope with two human imperfections. On the one
hand, the problem of limited knowledge – the fact that even the
most intelligent actors are relatively ignorant of their surround-
ings and are prone to make mistakes. And, on the other hand, the
problem of limited benevolence – the fact that people are often
unwilling to contribute to the good of their fellows unless they are
able to gain some personal benefit from doing so.
The classical liberal case for a regime based on strong
the future of the commons
40 41
elinor ostrom and the classical liberal tradi tion
alternatives to the municipal provision of collective goods are not
a form of ‘privatisation’. Indeed, many leftist/social democratic
critics have condemned them as such (McKenzie, 1996). These
are, however, precisely the type of ‘mixed’ property arrangements
that Ostrom thinks can and should be used much more widely.
Residents have individual property rights to their houses but must
submit to common regulations developed by the cooperative
association in order to maintain aesthetic standards, control new
development and ensure contributions to goods such as parks,
roads and street lighting. It is, therefore, a mistake common
to simplistic versions of ‘left-wing’ and ‘right-wing’ thinking
to equate the case for privatisation with individual ownership.
Condominiums and private communities provide a clear case of
private – though not necessarily individual – ownership.
At the core of Ostrom’s work is the insight that many, though
not all, of the free-rider and collective-good problems that are
usually presented as requiring external regulation may be better
addressed by relying on the ingenuity of those most affected by
them to devise an appropriate set of rules. This is an insight that
is close to the heart of the classical liberal tradition and which has
prompted a new generation of scholars to catalogue cases where
we observe the formation of rules without the exercise of external
authority.
The development and enforcement of the rules governing
international commercial contracts provide an important case
in point. A well-functioning market with effective rules against
fraud and crooked dealing is an example of a collective good – it
is in the collective interests of all participants in the market that
such rules exist, but it may not be in the specific interests of indi-
vidual participants to uphold these rules because each actor may
regulate the use of the commons without having to resort to
property rights’ (New York Times, 12 October 2009).
Gallagher’s journalistic lack of acquaintance with Ostrom’s
work is sloppy though perhaps understandable, but Stiglitz’s
statement is frankly reprehensible. At no point does Ostrom
claim that commons problems can be addressed ‘without having
to resort to property rights’. Property rights and the ability to
exclude outsiders are fundamental to the common property
regimes which Ostrom believes provide an alternative to parcel-
ling out resources either to discrete individuals or to public owner-
ship. Similarly, at no point does Ostrom refute the case for private
ownership per se, though she questions the wisdom of external
agents imposing individualised property rights in communities
which have evolved effective common property regimes. Common
property regimes are themselves, according to Ostrom, a form of
exclusive private property – it is just that private property rights
should not always be equated with individual property rights. In
the words of Ostrom and her co-author Margaret McKean, ‘It is
crucial to recognise that common property is shared private property …’
They proceed:
Common property regimes are a way of privatising the
rights to something without dividing it into pieces …
Historically common property regimes have evolved in
places where the demand on a resource is too great to
tolerate open access, so property rights have to be created,
but some other factor makes it impossible or undesirable to
parcel the resource itself. (McKean and Ostrom, 1995: 6)
Few would suggest that the condominium associations and
private (sometimes gated) communities that have spread rapidly
over recent years across the USA and East Asia as bottom-up
the future of the commons
42 43
elinor ostrom and the classical liberal tradi tion
Reserve, individual banks and banking associations competed for
funds on the basis of reputation and a system of ‘private law’. In
the absence of state-supported deposit insurance, private lending
institutions had to attract depositors by, for example, ensuring
the acceptability of the currencies they issued, thus limiting the
potential for ‘bank runs’ to insolvent institutions, and moni-
toring the character of lending practices in member associations.
Depositors, meanwhile, had strong incentives to seek out those
institutions with the most secure reputation because a failure
to invest with a sound bank could risk their entire investment.
The presence of these incentives was by no means sufficient to
eradicate financial crises and panics over institutional solvency,
but they did provide a context where the effects of any abuse of
trust could be confined to a relatively small sphere (White, 1984;
Timberlake, 1993).
The advent of a government-regulated banking industry has,
over time, transformed this nexus of incentives. With central-
ised government institutions assuming more and more respon-
sibility for the integrity of the financial system, individual banks
no longer have a strong incentive to develop a reputation for
best practice. Instead of competing for depositors on the basis
of probity, banking institutions increasingly seek ways to avoid
government regulations – safe in the knowledge that should their
practices prompt a ‘bank run’, they will be ‘bailed out’ by the state.
On the demand side, the provision of state-financed deposit insur-
ance has reduced the incentive for depositors to seek out the most
trustworthy institutions. With the state committed implicitly or
explicitly to bailing out banks, there is little reason for people to
incur the costs of seeking out best-practice institutions. From a
classical liberal perspective, it is this incentive structure which has
gain a personal advantage by engaging in fraud and opportunism.
Seen through the lens of market failure, or, to be more precise,
‘decentralisation failure’, analysis, international trade should be
a par ticularly unpromising area for there to be any kind of order
because there is no formal state or state-like authority at the global
level to enforce the terms of international contracts.
As Leeson (2008) has shown, however, notwithstanding the
absence of external authority, an effective system of decentralised
rule enforcement via private arbitration has evolved to facilitate a
massive expansion in trans-border trade. There are currently over
a hundred international arbitration agencies across the world,
including organisations such as the International Chamber of
Commerce and the London Court of Arbitration, and 90 per cent
or more of international contracts contain relevant arbitration
clauses. Willingness to sign up to private arbitration sends out
a signal that the party concerned is unlikely to renege on a deal.
Those who refuse to be bound by the terms of arbitration, mean-
while, are unlikely to find partners with whom to trade. Abuses
occur within this system, but in a context where there are multiple
organisations needing periodically to cooperate with others there
are powerful incentives for trans-boundary actors to develop a
reputation for good conduct and to monitor enforcement of the
rules.
The case of international private arbitration is an
‘Ostromesque’ example where those actors affected most by regu-
lation have incentives to develop and to participate actively in the
enforcement of effective governance institutions. It is, however,
precisely these incentives which have been progressively under-
mined in areas such as the regulation of money and banking. Prior
to the advent of regulatory institutions such as the US Federal
the future of the commons
44 45
elinor ostrom and the classical liberal tradi tion
textbook theorists. More often than not, this kind of appreciation
is excluded when theorists develop abstract models of economic
incentives and confine empirical work to the manipulation of
large-scale data sets which miss out on the causal role played by
fine-grained institutional detail. Sadly, the appreciation of case-
study work has all but disappeared from mainstream empirical
economics with its erroneous belief in the superior scientific
status of large-scale quantitative modelling.
Ostrom’s case-study work follows the example set by another
Nobel laureate and founder of the ‘new institutionalism’ – Ronald
Coase. Among his many achievements Coase showed that light-
houses, which many economists had theorised as a non-exclud-
able collective good and thus unlikely to be supplied privately,
were in fact historically supplied by largely private means (Coase,
1974; see also Barnett and Block, 2007). Economists had typically
assumed that vessels could benefit from lighthouse services irre-
spective of payment when, in fact, lighthouses were often owned
by harbour companies with fees charged on entrance to port.
Nonetheless, it is still common to find economists, who would
never dream of ‘getting their hands dirty’ with such case-study
work, continuing to assert that lighthouses cannot be supplied
on a private basis. One can only hope that, in years to come,
economists will not be insisting that externally imposed priva-
tisation through individualisation of property rights or govern-
ment control provide the only ways to escape the tragedy of the
commons. Elinor Ostrom’s work must result in a renewed appre-
ciation of the role of case studies in economics and must continue
to receive the credit it so richly deserves.
pervaded financial markets for much of the last 100 years, under-
mining the integrity of markets and increasing the possibility of
‘systemic failure’.
The above argument does not deny a potential role for the
state in the regulation of financial markets. Indeed, with the state
so heavily involved in the current operation of these markets, it
is difficult to see how any programme of reform could eschew
government action in its entirety. What it does suggest, however,
is the need for an Ostrom-inspired willingness to appreciate how
layers of centrally imposed regulation can undermine incentives
for what might be a more effective set of bottom-up rules. This
level of sophistication is sadly lacking in contemporary commen-
taries, which assert that ‘markets have failed’ and that central
governments should regulate even more intrusively in order to
avoid future financial crises.
Conclusion: Ostrom and the need for a new economics
Elinor Ostrom was a political scientist by training, but like many
economists her work recognises the importance of institutions
and the role they play in shaping incentives. Ostrom’s analysis,
however, should be seen as a call to economists to move beyond
the sterile ‘blackboard’ analysis of ‘markets’ and ‘government’
to look at how actual institutions operate on the ground. Though
she was keen to use aggregate statistical studies when appro-
priate, Ostrom’s research also demonstrates the great value
of detailed case studies. Her book Governing the Commons is a
superb testament to the understanding that can be gained when
economists observe in close-up detail how people craft arrange-
ments to solve problems in ways often beyond the imagination of
the future of the commons
46 47
elinor ostrom and the classical liberal tradi tion
McKenzie, E. (1996), Privatopia, New Haven, CT: Yale University
Press.
Ostrom, E. (1990), Governing the Commons: The Evolution of
Institutions for Collective Action, Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Ostrom, E. (2005), Understanding Institutional Diversity,
Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Pennington, M. (2011), Robust Political Economy: Classical
Liberalism and the Future of Public Policy, Cheltenham: Edward
Elgar.
Timberlake, R. (1993), Monetary Policy in the United States,
Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Van de Walle, N. (2001), African Economies and the Politics of
Permanent Crisis, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
White, L. (1984), Free Banking in Britain, Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
References
Aligica, P. D. and P. Boettke (2009), Challenging Institutional
Analysis and Development: The Bloomington School, London:
Routledge.
Anderson, T. and D. Leal (2001), Free Market Environmentalism,
New York: Palgrave.
Barnett, W. and W. Block (2007), ‘Coase and Van Zandt on
lighthouses’, Public Finance Review, 35(6): 711–33.
Coase, R. (1974), ‘The lighthouse in economics’, Journal of Law
and Economics, 17(2): 357–76.
De Alessi, L. (2003), ‘Gains from private property: the empirical
evidence’, in T. Anderson and F. McChesney (eds), Property
Rights: Cooperation, Conflict and Law, Princeton, NJ: Princeton
University Press.
De Alessi, M. (1998), Fishing for Solutions, London: Institute of
Economic Affairs.
Gaus, G. (2011), The Order of Public Reason, Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Hardin, G. (1968), ‘The tragedy of the commons’, Science, 162:
1243–8.
Hayek, F. A. (1945), ‘The use of knowledge in society’, American
Economic Review, 35(4): 519–30.
Hayek, F. A. (1988), The Fatal Conceit, London: Routledge.
Leeson, P. (2008), ‘How important is state enforcement for
trade?’, American Law and Economics Review, 10(1): 61–89.
Leeson, P. and R. Subrick (2006), ‘Robust political economy’,
Review of Austrian Economics, 19: 107–11.
McKean, M. and E. Ostrom (1995), ‘Common property regimes in
the forest: just a relic from the past?’, Unasylva, 46(180): 3–15.
elinor ostrom’s life and work
4948
matter that she ended up getting a master’s degree and a PhD
in political science, which was quite unusual for a woman at the
time. Her dissertation was about water management in California,
setting her on course for what would become a lifelong study of
how communities self-organise in response to various challenges.
In 1963 she married fellow political scientist Vincent Ostrom and
the couple moved to Bloomington a year later. There, at Indiana
University, they started the Workshop in Political Theory and
Policy Analysis in 1973, after having set up a series of informal
weekly meetings in 1969.
The workshop became a major interdisciplinary research
centre, and a key actor in the rise of new institutionalism and in
public choice economics. Over the years, the Ostroms received
offers from Harvard and Duke, but they decided to remain at
Indiana: ‘my sense has been that you don’t build something like
this [workshop] and just move it’, explained Elinor Ostrom. ‘Part
of the staff are not movable. They understand the enterprise and
they make a difference. We’ve had faculty colleagues who were
just great. We have a team and you don’t pick up and move a
whole team.’ When she won the Nobel Prize in Economics in
2009, she donated the money to the workshop, saying that the
research honoured by the prize had been a collective effort. She
died of cancer in 2012, followed by her husband just two weeks
later. As Steve Horwitz put it: ‘you know how much two people
loved each other when one literally cannot live without the other’.
Elinor Ostrom’s intellectual contributions
Elinor Ostrom’s work, as part of the Bloomington school of
institutionalism and public choice, can be seen as advancing
2 ELINOR OSTROM’S LIFE AND WORK
Vlad Tarko
The life of Elinor Ostrom1
Elinor Ostrom was born in 1933 and grew up in the midst of the
Great Depression in Los Angeles. When her parents divorced,
she remained with her mother and they lived in relatively poor
conditions, having to grow their own food in their backyard
garden. She went to Beverly Hills High School, across the street
from her house. ‘I’m very grateful for that opportunity,’ she later
recalled, ‘because 90 per cent of the kids who went to Beverly
Hills High School went on to college. I don’t think I would have
gone to college if not for being in that environment.’ She gradu-
ated from the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), in
1954 with a major in political science, after which she married her
first husband, Charles Scott, a classmate. They moved to Boston,
where she worked as assistant personnel manager at a law firm,
while Charles went to Harvard’s law school. ‘Basically I put my
husband through law school,’ she recalled. They divorced after
three years and she returned to UCLA to work in the personnel
office.
After deciding to take a course in public administration, more
or less as a hobby, she became so fascinated with the subject
1 Herald-Times (2009); Zagorski (2006).
elinor ostrom’s life and workthe future of the commons
50 51
analysis and development (known for short as the ‘IAD frame-
work’, Figure 1). This includes an ability to deal with this hetero-
geneity of normative perspectives. They have done this not by
starting from scratch, but by expanding the theory of public
choice within the context of new institutionalism (Ostrom and
Ostrom, 2004). As such, as Aligica and Boettke (2009) note, the
fundamental economic theory with the mindset of a political
scientist. It can be said that the standard economic approach to
institutions, as best illustrated by ‘law and economics’ (Harrison,
1995; Friedman, 2000), usually assumes that the task of the econo-
mist is to devise the optimal set of institutions for achieving a
maximum amount of economic efficiency, and that the standard
public choice model explores the political barriers to achieving
these optimal institutions in practice.2 The standard political
science approach, on the other hand, starts from a very different,
and more relativistic, perspective: the realisation that people
generally have important disagreements with respect to what
constitutes the ‘proper function’ of the social system in general
and of the government in particular. Economic efficiency is just
one possible social goal among many, and most people would
disagree that it is a goal that trumps all others. Other social goals,
such as fairness, stability, social peace, voice and inclusivity,
liberty, long-term resilience and adaptability, are often considered
as important if not more important than economic efficiency. As
such, the political scientist sets for himself or herself a much more
difficult theoretical task: to explore the social-political mechan-
isms by which this diversity of views somehow coalesces into
social order, and the reasons why the legitimacy of the existing
social order, in part or in total, can break down, leading to forms
of social change that can manifest themselves in various ways
from gradual reform to revolution.3
The Bloomington school’s most important contribution to
economic theory has been to create a framework for institutional
2 Olson (1965); Mueller (1979); Buchanan et al. (1980); Tullock et al. (2002); Tull-
ock (2005); Caplan (2008).
3 Giugni et al. (1999); Tilly (2003); Goodwin and Tilly (2006); Gaus (2011).
4. Redesigning the institutional factors
3. Evaluating the outcomes of the interactions in the action arena
2. Understanding the relevant action arena
1. Identifying the relevant institutional factors
Action Situation
defined by identifying the
rules-in-use, the resources
involved, and events to
which the participants are
responding
Patterns of
interaction
Analysis of
incentives faced by
participants in the
action situation
Outcomes
How the resources
are used: are they
depleted; are they
under-used; who
uses them; to what
ends are they used?
Normative criteria
• Economic
efficiency,
• Fairness (of
opportunity or of
outcome),
• Resilience,
sustainability and
preservation,
• Participation rate,
• etc.
Institutional
rules-in-use
(formal and
informal)
Define rights and
obligations of …
Define access &
authority over …
Institutional
roles
(positions,
status
functions,
legal persons)
Resources
• Information
• Capital
• People
Participants/actors
(individuals or groups)
defined by identifying the
relevant institutional roles
and who has them
Figure 1 The Institutional Analysis and Development (IAD)
framework
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
*Motorway and trunk road completions for England; traffic statistics for Great Britain.
Source: Transport Statistics Great Britain, 1986–2011 editions.
elinor ostrom’s life and workthe future of the commons
52 53
arenas’ and ‘action situations’ (see Figure 1). The complexity
results from the fact that the same person may be acting in
different action arenas at the same time (i.e. have more than just
one institutional position, such as being both a business owner
and the friend of a politician), and from the fact that decisions
in one action arena take precedence over and constrain what
happens in another (for example, the decision of a government
official can overrule the private interactions among citizens).
Importantly, this way of structuring social phenomena into inter-
acting action arenas allows the researcher to focus on just one
simplified problem at a time, and, when necessary, to expand
the perspective to include all the relevant details from associated
action arenas without being overwhelmed by the complexity of
the web of social rules and norms. Moreover, this approach allows
one to engage in both purely descriptive research (i.e. simply
trying to understand from an outside vantage point the forces
involved in the process of social change and to understand what
kinds of outcomes different types of social arrangements tend to
generate; Ostrom, 2008) and in normative analysis (in which one
argues from a particular normative perspective in favour of the
adoption of a specific change of institutions and rules).
From a simple and general perspective, we can consider four
important nested action arenas: the operational level (the set
of rules about everyday activities, directly involving the use of
various resources); the collective choice level (the set of rules about
how to change the operational rules); the constitutional level (the
set of rules about how to change the collective choice rules and
about who occupies certain key positions at the collective choice
level); and the meta-constitutional level (constituted by moral
intuitions, social norms and traditions that determine what kinds
Bloomington school ‘is an attempt to contribute to a “revolution”
in the social sciences’ and ‘has found itself in the middle of the
major social sciences debates of the twentieth century and, at the
same time, has tried to transcend them by presenting itself as a
comment and an extension of a 500-year-old intellectual tradition’
going back to Hobbes, a tradition preoccupied with ‘the relation
between spontaneous dynamics of social order, and rule-guided
behavior and rule systems’ (ibid.: 99, 101).
This ‘500-year-old intellectual tradition’ is concerned with
explaining social order. The Ostroms’ approach to the matter
focuses on institutions: i.e. on the formal and informal rules that
govern human behaviour and on the mechanisms for creating and
changing those rules. As a consequence of such rules, individuals
are assigned, in different contexts, certain institutional roles (posi-
tions or functions) which come with specific rights and obliga-
tions. Importantly, these contexts and the roles within them are
symbolic in nature, e.g. a border can be just a line on the ground or
on a map and not an actual wall physically preventing movement,
and a president is an institutional function obtained thanks to
reputation and coalition-building skills and not due to being the
physically strongest person (Henrich and Gil-White, 2001; Toma-
sello, 2009). This symbolic aspect of social rules and norms, and
the assignment of institutional roles that follows from rules and
norms, generates the complexity, as well as the cultural and insti-
tutional diversity, of human societies. The challenge for the social
scientist is then to model and understand this complexity and
variety, and the IAD framework presents itself as a comprehensive
solution to this challenge (Ostrom, 2005).
The key idea of the Ostroms’ institutionalism is to understand
a society as a structure of interconnected and/or nested ‘action
elinor ostrom’s life and workthe future of the commons
54 55
to empirical analysis himself (McGinnis and Ostrom, 2011), the
empirical research that Elinor Ostrom did and organised was
quite extraordinary in scope, depth and significance. Apart from
research in the USA on both urban areas (for example, compara-
tive research on police organisation in small and large depart-
ments in Indianapolis, Chicago and St Louis) and rural areas
(for example, irrigation arrangements and ‘water wars’ in 1950s
California and fisheries in Maine), her research interests in irri-
gation arrangements, fisheries and forest management took her
around the world to countries as diverse as Nigeria, Nepal, Indo-
nesia, the Philippines, Japan, Bolivia, Australia, Mexico, Spain,
Poland, Switzerland and Sweden. This research has created
a large database of case studies, organised in a manner that
facilitates comparison thanks to the IAD framework. As Elinor
Ostrom has often emphasised, owing to the complexity of the
subject matter (there are many relevant variables that can influ-
ence the outcome), in order to be able to come up with reliable
conclusions and policy recommendations, it is necessary to
study a large number of diverse cases. However, the necessity of
studying so many cases creates the challenge of coming up with a
general enough theoretical framework to facilitate the comparison
between different cases. One has to analyse the same variables in
all cases, but relevant variables cannot be left out.
There have been several empirical results of this research
programme so far. It has turned on its head some of the conven-
tional wisdom about metropolitan administrative organisation,
with regard to the supposed efficiency of centralised administra-
tion: ‘The presumption that economies of scale were prevalent
was wrong; the presumption that you needed a single police
department was wrong; and the presumption that individual
of rules at the lower levels are seen and accepted as ‘legitimate’).
One can see that basic economics, public choice, political science
and the sociology and economics of culture become special cases
of this institutionalist approach. Basic economic analysis, both
micro and macro, happens at the operational level as a conse-
quence of a particular ‘given’ set of rules. Public choice theory and
political science, focusing on phenomena such as rent-seeking
and regulatory capture (that is, special interests lobbying for rules
that benefit them; Olson, 1965; Tullock, 2005), and on the impact
of different voting systems (Buchanan and Tullock, 1999 [1962];
Mueller, 1979), describe the interaction between the collective
choice level and the operational level. Constitutional public choice
(Buchanan and Brennan, 2000 [1985]; Ostrom, 1997) analyses the
way in which constitutions can effectively constrain the collective
choice level and the way in which incentives at the operational
level bubble up all the way to the constitutional level, creating
challenges to the rule of law. Finally, the sociology and economics
of culture explore the impact of the meta-constitutional level upon
the lower levels, sometimes creating challenges for the adoption of
better institutions and, at other times, preventing overly rushed
moves in a wrong direction.4
As one of the leading figures of the Workshop in Political
Theory and Policy Analysis, Elinor Ostrom has been at the centre
of these developments, but perhaps her most important contri-
bution was to bring to the table a strong empirical focus. While
Vincent Ostrom, who was responsible for some of the most
important Bloomington school theoretical developments, such
as the emphasis on polycentricity, was not a complete stranger
4 Sperber (1996); Boettke (2001 [1996]); Ostrom (2000); Richerson and Boyd
(2005); Boettke et al. (2008).
elinor ostrom’s life and workthe future of the commons
56 57
Understanding public goods and common-pool
resources
Apart from the creation of the IAD framework, the most
import ant theoretical contributions to economics of this empirical
work have been to expand the economic theory of public goods
and common-pool resources; to expand basic consumer theory by
creating the theory of ‘co-production’; and to better understand
the importance of polycentricity. A brief explanation of these
ideas is useful to help an understanding of the background of
Elinor Ostrom’s Hayek Memorial Lecture.
Economists often classify goods and services based on two
criteria: the ease with which the producer can exclude free-riders
(people who consume the good or service without paying), and
the extent to which consumption by one user subtracts from the
availability of the good or service for other people (how ‘rivalrous’
the good or service is). Based on these criteria, we have four basic
types of possible goods (Table 1). If free-riding is not prevented,
the good or service tends to be under-produced because most
producers do not act purely out of charity and producers will
not get compensated for its production. However, if consump-
tion subtracts from the availability of the resource, free-riding
also tends to deplete (destroy) the resource because most people
correctly understand that, even if they themselves abstain from
using the resource, the depletion will still not be stopped as
others (the free-riders) will deplete it anyway (so there is no point
in abstaining oneself). In other words, public goods tend to be
under-produced, and common-pool resources tend to be both
under-produced and over-consumed.
departments wouldn’t be smart enough to work out ways of coor-
dinating is wrong … For patrolling, if you don’t know the neigh-
borhood, you can’t spot the early signs of problems, and if you
have five or six layers of supervision, the police chief doesn’t know
what’s occurring on the street’ (Elinor Ostrom, cited in Zagorski,
2006: 19222).
Secondly, conventional wisdom about important ecolog-
ical matters has also been overturned, especially with regard
to the supposed inability of communities to self-organise to
create collective rules for punishing free-riders on common-pool
resources. It was demonstrated that the tragedy of the commons
could be avoided through such self-organisation and that
universal ‘panaceas’ that ignore the relevant distinctions between
different situations were very damaging. The other major contri-
bution has been to discover the set of collective choice arrange-
ments and rules (‘design principles’) that tend to facilitate a
long-term productive relationship of a community with its envir-
onment, including its ability to respond effectively to unexpected
challenges and difficulties (Ostrom, 1990, 2005). In her Hayek
Memorial Lecture, Elinor Ostrom expands on these design prin-
ciples and briefly explains why they work. She uses the concept
of a ‘socio-ecological system’ (or SES for short), which is simply a
concise way of referring to the connection between a community
and its natural environment.
What is clear, however, is that the design principles preclude
an approach to political economy that simply proposes blueprint
political solutions or forms of organisation that ignore the forms
of organisation that evolve within society itself, often for very
good reason.
elinor ostrom’s life and workthe future of the commons
58 59
the economic analysis of public goods and common-pool
resources can be undertaken properly only from an institution-
alist perspective that takes accounts of these factors.
Another important theoretical extension of standard
economic theory is the concept of co-production. It became
obvious in these common-pool resource studies that the consumer
was often part of the production process: the standard economic
separation between the producer who sells a product and the
consumer who buys it was not tenable. But once one under-
stands this idea of a ‘consumer-producer’ (i.e. a consumer actively
involved in the production process, but who also pays some-
thing to the ‘regular producer’, with whom he cooperates, for the
product), one starts to see it everywhere: a video game does not
entertain without it being played; a concert is not a success if the
public is completely passive; a professor cannot teach an unwilling
or completely apathetic student; a doctor often needs the patient’s
inputs in the process of diagnosis; police cannot catch criminals if
citizens are unwilling to provide them with any clues; fire protec-
tion services depend on the citizens’ efforts to prevent fires; the
justice system cannot function if no one is willing to be a witness,
etc. Following the standard consumer theory framework, Ostrom
and her collaborators created the basic mathematical model of
co-production (Parks et al., 1981). From this model it follows that,
when the regular producer and the consumer-producer are inter-
dependent, as in the cases mentioned above, a trade-off emerges
between the efforts of the regular producer and of the consumer-
producer. The resulting outcome, how much is produced and the
relative involvement of the regular producer and the consumer-
producer depend on the relative costs encountered by them: the
production costs (wages, and so on) paid by the regular producer
Table 1 Types of goods
Excludability of free-riders
Easy Hard
Rivalry/
subtractability
of consumption
Large Private good Common-pool
resource
Small Club good Public good
The classic solution to the public goods problem has been to
use taxes to pay for public goods, thus adjusting their supply level
upwards (presumably towards the optimum). The classic solution
to the ‘tragedy of the commons’ problem, provided by Hardin
(1968), has been to transform the resource into a private good
(either by privatising it or by turning it into government property
with proper monitoring).
One of the main reasons for which Elinor Ostrom received her
Nobel Prize is the discovery that these classic solutions are not
the only possible ones. What Ostrom discovered in her empirical
studies is that, despite what economists have thought, communi-
ties often create and enforce rules against free-riding and assure
the long-term sustainability of communal properties. Her ‘design
principles’ explain under what conditions this happens and when
it fails. Furthermore, she also noted that cultural factors such as
trust influence the amount of free-riding that one could expect to
see. The importance of self-governance partially stems from this.
The bottom line is that, while the rivalry aspect of a good is to a
large extent objective, depending on the nature of the good itself,
the social impact of the excludability aspect depends on the insti-
tutional system of formal rules and social norms. Consequently,
elinor ostrom’s life and workthe future of the commons
60 61
overlapping prerogatives, some of them organised at differing
scales, and operating under an overarching set of rules. Polycen-
tricity differs from anarchy in that the interactions between the
decision centres are governed by well-established rules.5 Nonethe-
less, polycentricity differs from hierarchical organisation as well in
that the different decision centres have specified areas of authority
in regard to which they need not defer to others. As Elinor Ostrom
explains more in her lecture, it is these areas of limited autonomy
that create, at the local level, a structure of incentives favourable
to building trust and also create a diverse environment favour-
able to discovering better solutions to problems. These solutions
are less vulnerable to disturbances as the strengths of one part of
the system can help overcome the weaknesses of another part.
In polycentric systems, users of common-pool resources ‘achieve
many of the advantages of utilizing local knowledge as well as
the redundancy and rapidity of a trial-and-error learning process
… information about what has worked well in one setting can be
transmitted to others who may try it in their settings … and when
small systems fail, there are larger systems to call upon – and vice-
versa’ (Ostrom, 1999: 39).
Fisheries: an application of Ostrom’s work
To illustrate these concepts, let us briefly discuss a problem that
affects Britain as well as many other countries: that of fisheries
management. As Elinor Ostrom mentions in her lecture, the actual
study of fisheries around the world has led to some surprises. For
example, contrary to most economists’ expectations, communities
5 Ostrom (1999); Ostrom (2005: ch. 9); Aligica and Boettke (2009: 101–7); McGin-
nis and Ostrom (2011); Aligica and Tarko (2012).
versus the opportunity cost to the consumer of getting involved in
the production process.
As Aligica and Boettke note ‘[t]he role of co-production came
in many respects as a revelation’, as it became obvious that the
analysis of many public services was deficient because it ignored
this issue. ‘[O]nce it was clearly defined, co-production problems
could be identified in many sub-domains of the service industries
in both private and public sectors … It was the standard assump-
tion of the separation of production from consumption that
blinded everybody from identifying the source of what was called
the “service paradox”’ (2009: 33). The ‘service paradox’ consists of
a situation in which ‘[t]he better services are, as defined by profes-
sional criteria, the less satisfied the citizens are with those services’
(Ostrom and Ostrom, 1999 [1977]). This paradox emerges when
the evaluation of the production process focuses solely on the part
provided by the regular producer, ignoring the part played by the
consumer-producer. Consequently, in such cases, the co-produc-
tion trade-off is drifting away from its optimum and the interac-
tion between the two parts is becoming more and more defective,
despite genuine efforts to improve the service. To give a simple
example, education may become worse, despite genuine improve-
ments in textbooks and in classroom materials, if those develop-
ments undermine student motivation in some way, perhaps by
presenting material so clearly that students no longer feel the
need to discuss issues with classmates and teachers.
Polycentricity
Finally, the concept of polycentricity can be understood as the coex-
istence of many decision centres with autonomous and sometimes
elinor ostrom’s life and workthe future of the commons
62 63
Pacific salmon fisheries. Prior to the mid-1970s, they were
centrally managed and, as Ostrom notes, they faced a typical
knowledge problem: the ‘centrally regulated system had focused
on aggregations of species and spent little time on the freshwater
habitats that are essential to maintain the viability of salmon
fisheries over the long term’. In the mid-1970s, the management
system changed owing to a major court decision that granted to
‘Indian tribes that had signed treaties more than a century before’
the right ‘to 50 per cent of the fish that passed through the normal
fishing areas of the tribes’. Consequently, ‘[t]his has required the
state to develop a “co-management” system that involves both the
state of Washington and the 21 Indian tribes in diverse policy roles
related to salmon’. The change created a new system of incentives
at the local level. On the one hand, the state’s continued involve-
ment assured the individual tribes that free-riding by other tribes
was not going to be tolerated and, therefore, that their conserva-
tion efforts were worthwhile. On the other hand, the co-manage-
ment system gave individual tribes an important economic stake
in the resource, which, in turn, stimulated them to solve the afore-
mentioned knowledge problem.
Other authors who have studied many other cases of
successful or unsuccessful fisheries have also concurred that ‘a
better outcome is more likely with the right incentives, increas-
ingly restrictive access, simpler institutions and appropriate
management scales’ (Hilborn et al., 2005: 53), and that ‘fish-
eries management problems are strongly linked to distributive
bargaining conflicts between small-scale and large-scale inter-
ests’, a major stumbling block coming from the ‘perceptions that
prospective reforms will favor one segment of the fishing industry
over the other’ (Alcock, 2002: 459).
often do not regulate the quantity of fish that people are allowed
to harvest, which can be too difficult to monitor, but instead
rely on other proxies, such as regulating the allowed fishing time
(for example, banning fishing during spawning periods), regu-
lating the fishing location or the fishing technology (for example,
banning ‘overly efficient’ technologies in certain parts of a river).
The history of some of the US fisheries studied by Ostrom is inter-
esting because of examples of how the intervention of the state
can be both beneficial and deleterious.6
The Maine lobster fisheries were severely depleted in the
1920s, as local communities were failing in their attempts to
effectively manage the fisheries. The state intervened by threat-
ening some of the fisheries with closure, but, rather than setting
up its own top-down comprehensive fishery policy, it merely
‘supported informal local enforcement efforts’. The intervention
was successful and ‘by the late 1930s, compliance problems were
largely resolved and stocks had rebounded’.
A more recent state intervention was to transform the
informal local organisations which were beginning to break down
into formalised councils with democratic local elections and
formalised authority over specified geographical areas. This had
an unexpected beneficial consequence when ‘the formalization of
local zones was followed, almost immediately, by the creation of
an informal council of councils to address problems at a greater
than local scale’. This highlights something that is often surprising
to many: that cooperation between communities with regard to
large-scale problems can often emerge from bottom up.
Another interesting example is that of Washington State
6 The following two paragraphs are based on Ostrom (1999).
elinor ostrom’s life and workthe future of the commons
64 65
Buchanan, J. M. and G. Brennan (2000 [1985]), The Reason of
Rules: Constitutional Political Economy, Indianapolis: Liberty
Fund.
Buchanan, J. M. and G. Tullock (1999 [1962]), The Calculus of
Consent, Indianapolis: Liberty Fund.
Buchanan, J. M., R. D. Tollison and G. Tullock (eds) (1980),
Toward a Theory of the Rent-seeking Society, Texas: A&M
University Press.
Caplan, B. (2008), The Myth of the Rational Voter: Why
Democracies Choose Bad Policies, new edn, Princeton, NJ:
Princeton University Press.
Friedman, D. (2000), Law’s Order: What Economics Has to Do
with the Law and Why It Matters, Princeton, NJ: Princeton
University Press.
Gaus, G. (2011), The Order of Public Reason: A Theory of Freedom
and Morality in a Diverse and Bounded World, Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Giugni, M., D. McAdam and C. Tilly (eds) (1999), How Social
Movements Matter, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota
Press.
Goodwin, R. E. and C. Tilly (eds) (2006), The Oxford Handbook of
Contextual Political Analysis, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Hardin, G. (1968), ‘The tragedy of the commons’, Science, 162:
1243–8.
Harrison, J. L. (1995), Law and Economics, Eagan, MN: West
Publishing Co.
Henrich, J. and F. Gil-White (2001), ‘The evolution of prestige:
freely conferred status as a mechanism for enhancing the
benefits of cultural transmission’, Evolution and Human
Behavior, 22: 1–32.
Conclusion
Summing up, Elinor Ostrom’s contributions, as part of the Bloom-
ington school, have challenged in important ways the conven-
tional expert wisdom about the ways in which communities work
and social cooperation emerges or fails. These contributions have
led to a very important theoretical development – the construc-
tion of the IAD framework, and the associated theory of society as
an interacting system of action arenas. As mentioned earlier, this
theoretical development is in many ways an extension and gener-
alisation of previous theories, especially public choice theory. As
the Ostroms mention (Ostrom and Ostrom, 2004), this entire
theoretical enterprise has its analytical roots in Buchanan and
Tullock’s Calculus of Consent, but it has since expanded consider-
ably into a full-blown economic theory of society as a whole.
References
Alcock, F. (2002), ‘Bargaining, uncertainty, and property rights
in fisheries’, World Politics, 54(4): 437–61.
Aligica, P. D. and P. J. Boettke (2009), Challenging Institutional
Analysis and Development: The Bloomington School, New York:
Routledge.
Aligica, P. D. and V. Tarko (2012), ‘Polycentricity: from Polanyi
to Ostrom, and beyond’, Governance, 25(2): 237–62.
Boettke, P. J. (2001 [1996]), ‘Why culture matters: economics,
politics, and the imprint of history’, in Calculation and
Coordination, New York: Routledge, pp. 248–65.
Boettke, P. J., C. J. Coyne and P. T. Leeson (2008), ‘Institutional
stickiness and the new development economics’, American
Journal of Economics and Sociology, 67(2): 331–58.
elinor ostrom’s life and workthe future of the commons
66 67
Ostrom, V. (1997), The Meaning of Democracy and the
Vulnerabilities of Democracies: A Response to Tocqueville’s
Challenge, Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.
Ostrom, V. and Ostrom E. (1999 [1977]), ‘Public goods and
public choices’, in M. D. McGinnis (ed.), Polycentricity and
Local Public Economies: Readings from the Workshop in Political
Theory and Policy Analysis, Ann Arbor, MI: University of
Michigan Press.
Parks, R. B., P. C. Baker, L. L. Kiser, R. J. Oakerson, E. Ostrom,
V. Ostrom, S. L. Percy, M. B. Vandivort, G. P. Whitaker and
R. K. Wilson (1981), ‘Consumers as coproducers of public
services: some economic and institutional considerations’,
Policy Studies Journal, 9: 1001–11.
Richerson, P. and R. Boyd (2005), Not by Genes Alone: How Culture
Transformed Human Evolution, Chicago, IL: University of
Chicago Press.
Sperber, D. (1996), Explaining Culture, Oxford: Blackwell.
Tilly, C. (2003), Contention and Democracy in Europe 1650–2000,
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Tomasello, M. (2009), Why We Cooperate, Cambridge, MA: MIT
Press.
Tullock, G. (2005), The Selected Works of Gordon Tullock, vol. 5:
The Rent-Seeking Society, Indianapolis: Liberty Fund.
Tullock, G., A. Seldon and G. L. Brady (2002), Government
Failure: A Primer in Public Choice, Washington, DC: Cato
Institute.
Zagorski, N. (2006), ‘Profile of Elinor Ostrom’, Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America,
103(51): 19221–3.
Herald-Times (2009), ‘The story of non-economist Elinor
Ostrom’, 9 December.
Hilborn, R., J. M. Orensanz and A. M. Parma (2005),
‘Institutions, incentives and the future of fisheries’,
Philosophical Transactions: Biological Sciences, 360(1453):
47–57.
McGinnis, M. D. and E. Ostrom (2011), ‘Reflections on Vincent
Ostrom, public administration, and polycentricity’, Public
Administration Review, 72(1): 15–25.
Mueller, D. C. (1979), Public Choice, Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Olson, M. (1965), Logic of Collective Action: Public Goods and the
Theory of Groups, Boston, MA: Harvard University Press.
Ostrom, E. (1990), Governing the Commons: The Evolution of
Institutions for Collective Action, Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Ostrom, E. (1999), ‘Polycentricity, complexity, and the
commons’, Good Society, 9(2): 37–41.
Ostrom, E. (2000), ‘Collective action and the evolution of social
norms’, Journal of Economic Perspectives, 14(3): 137–58.
Ostrom, E. (2005), Understanding Institutional Diversity,
Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Ostrom, E. (2008), ‘Developing a method for analyzing
institutional change’, in S. Batie and N. Mercuro (eds),
Alternative Institutional Structures: Evolution and Impact, New
York: Routledge.
Ostrom, E. and V. Ostrom (2004), ‘The quest for meaning in
public choice’, American Journal of Economics and Sociology,
63(1): 105–47.
69
the future of the commons
68
teams do not tend to share resources across disciplines, so that
as you are trying to study these things you have to learn about
the termin ology from other disciplines. For example, I am now
working with a group of ecologists studying forest resources and
I had to learn what DBH meant (it is diameter breast height) and
how to measure the size of a tree. I also had to learn a variety of
other technical things because we are measuring the condition of
the forests in a scientifically very careful way besides looking at
the social systems and how they are organised.
Without understanding both the social systems and the tech-
nical aspects of the management of a resource, we cannot conduct
work that enables us to understand the conditions that help
produce sustainable management. We need to have a common
framework of language that will enable us to help develop sustain-
able systems and achieve the sustainability of diverse commons.
Challenges in achieving sustainability
So what are some of the challenges that we face in achieving
sustainability? The first one that I will talk about shortly is over-
coming what I call the ‘panacea trap’. A second one is developing a
multidisciplinary, multi-tier framework for analysing sustainable
social-ecological systems that people across disciplines can use.
We need to build better theories for explaining and predicting
behaviour. We need to find ways of collecting data over time, but
we have got to learn which variables we should be studying in a
consistent way to have good studies over time. And we need to
understand design principles and why they work.
This is a very big agenda. They all point us to the importance
of institutional diversity. In this lecture I will only be able to
3 THE FUTURE OF THE COMMONS:
BEYOND MARKET FAILURE AND
GOVERNMENT REGULATION1
Elinor Ostrom
Introduction
Earlier studies of the commons focused on small-to-medium-sized
common-pool resources, such as irrigation systems, fisheries
and forests, into which we and many others undertook a great
deal of research. But many of the studies of particular common-
pool resources were by people working in a particular discipline
without comparison with other studies and without any theoret-
ical foundation.
But as we looked at those studies in our own research and as
we did some empirical work, we were able to get a good sense
of how small- and medium-sized common-pool resources were
managed by common-property institutions. Now it turns out,
especially after 2009, that there is considerable interest in our
research on small, medium, large and global environmental
systems. And researchers, citizens and officials are asking for
some kind of a general framework that puts people and societies
together and explains the ways in which they are able to manage
common-pool resources.
When we put people and ecologies together, we can think
of the results as a ‘social-ecological system’ (SES). Academic
1 The Hayek Memorial Lecture hosted by the IEA on 29 March 2012.
the future of the commons
70 71
the future of the commons
produce outcomes. When we talk about market relationships
between buyers and sellers, we are looking at an action situation.
And that focal level is affected by and affects larger and smaller
eco systems as well as larger and smaller social, economic and
political systems.
So let us look at the first tier of that framework. We can think
broadly of a resource system and a governance system – these
are the sub-parts. A resource system sets conditions for an action
situation, but we can think of resource units as part of that. So
when we talk about a forest, part of the resource units are trees.
If we talk about a fishery, the resource units are fish. They differ
dramatically in their characteristics, but both are the resource
unit that is being harvested.
We can also think of a wide diversity of actors who are partici-
pating in one or another of the action situations that affect the
long-term sustainability of that system. They act within the
governance system that sets the rules. This is a very broad frame-
work, I am going to unpack it in a few minutes, but it is now being
used by a number of people for current studies. So how does the
framework help us build and test better theories?
That is the third challenge that we are facing. And the
import ant thing is that the framework helps identify multiple
variables that potentially affect the structure of action situations;
the resulting interactions between the governance systems; the
actions of the resource users and the resource system; and the
outcomes in terms of the sustainable management of the resource.
And so this framework is one way that we can study similar
systems that share some variables in common but that do not
share all variables in common. It helps us to look at quite different
systems. The framework then avoids the problem of people
provide an overview of these, but I will be very glad to pursue one
or another of them in questions if people want to do so.
Challenge one, as I mentioned, is the panacea problem. A very
large number of policymakers and policy articles talk about ‘the
best’ way of doing something. For many purposes, if the market
was not the best way people used to think that it meant that the
government was the best way. We need to get away from thinking
about very broad terms that do not give us the specific detail that
is needed to really know what we are talking about.
We need to recognise that the governance systems that
actually have worked in practice fit the diversity of ecological condi-
tions that exist in a fishery, irrigation system or pasture, as well
as the social systems. There is a huge diversity out there, and the
range of governance systems that work reflects that diversity.
We have found that government, private and community-based
mechanisms all work in some settings. People want to make me
argue that community systems of governance are always the best:
I will not walk into that trap.
There are certainly very important situations where people
can self-organise to manage environmental resources, but we
cannot simply say that the community is, or is not, the best; that
the government is, or is not, the best; or that the market is, or is
not, the best. It all depends on the nature of the problem that we
are trying to solve.
Challenge two that we also need to be working on is the
development of a multidisciplinary, multiple-tier framework for
analysing social-ecological systems. And what we have done here
is identify and analyse four very large encompassing variables
that are at what we call a ‘focal level’. These generate together
an action situation in which individuals and groups interact and
the future of the commons
72 73
the future of the commons
there is a kind of worried reaction at its complexity. This looks
very complex. When you start thinking about what is involved in
a resource system, you need to know what sector you are talking
about (for example, forest, pasture, fish). You need to know where
the clear boundaries for the resource are (for example, how are
the boundaries defined if the resource is mobile?). You need to
overgeneralising as they do in the literature, suggesting, for
example, that all resources should be privately owned or that all
resources should be government owned. If you read the original
work on the tragedy of the commons, that was Garrett Hardin’s
conclusion. And in many contemporary textbooks, the Hardin
argument is repeated.
There is also a problem of over-specification. Researchers can
fall into the trap of pretending that their own cases are completely
different from other cases. They refuse to accept that that there
are lessons that one can learn from studying multiple cases. In
reality, to diagnose why some social-ecological systems do self-
organise in the first place and are robust, we need to study similar
systems over time. We need to examine which variables are the
same, which differ and which are the important variables so that
we can understand why some systems of natural resource manage-
ment are robust and succeed and others fail.
The importance of second-tier variables
Thus, part of our need is to look beyond the first tier of variables
and to begin to develop the language more thoroughly by going
on to examine a second tier of variables. Many of the second tiers
have third and fourth tiers – but I am not going to get down to
that level tonight: we are working on that diagnostic framework
further. You can see a version of this in my 2009 Science article,
and Mike McGinnis and I are currently working on a paper that is
looking at all this.
Figure 2 shows the second-tier variables that are important
under each first-tier variable for a social-ecological system. I am
going to warn you that when people see this for the very first time,
Figure 2 Second-tier variables of an SES
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
*Motorway and trunk road completions for England; traffic statistics for Great Britain.
Source: Transport Statistics Great Britain, 1986–2011 editions.
Social, Economic, and Political Settings (S)
S1 – Economic development. S2 – Demographic trends. S3 – Political stability.
S4 – Government resource policies. S5 – Market incentives. S6 – Media organisation.
Related Ecosystems (ECO)
ECO1 – Climate patterns. ECO2 – Pollution patterns. ECO3 – Flows into and out of focal SES.
Resource Systems (RS)
RS1 – Sector (e.g., water, forests, pasture, fish)
RS2 – Clarity of system boundaries
RS3 – Size of resource system
RS4 – Human-constructed facilities
RS5 – Productivity of system
RS6 – Equilibrium properties
RS7 – Predictability of system dynamics
RS8 – Storage characteristics
RS9 – Location
Resource Units (RU)
RU1 – Resource unit mobility
RU2 – Growth or replacement rate
RU3 – Interaction among resource units
RU4 – Economic value
RU5 – Number of units
RU6 – Distinctive characteristics
RU7 – Spatial and temporal distribution
Action Situations: Interactions (I)
I1 – Harvesting
I2 – Information sharing
I3 – Deliberation processes
I4 – Conflicts
I5 – Investment activities
I6 – Lobbying activities
I7 – Self-organising activities
I8 – Networking activities
I9 – Monitoring activities
I10 – Evaluative activities
Governance Systems (GS)
GS1 – Government organisations
GS2 – Nongovernment organisations
GS3 – Network structure
GS4 – Property-rights systems
GS5 – Operational rules
GS6 – Collective-choice rules
GS7 – Constitutional rules
GS8 – Monitoring and sanctioning rules
Actors (A)
A1 – Number of actors
A2 – Socioeconomic attributes of actors
A3 – History of use
A4 – Location
A5 – Leadership/entrepreneurship
A6 – Norms (trust-reciprocity)/social capital
A7 – Knowledge of SES/mental models
A8 – Importance of resource (dependence)
A9 – Technology used
Outcomes (O)
O1 – Social performance measures
(e.g., efficiency, equity, accountability,
sustainability)
O2 – Ecological performance measures
(e.g., overharvested, resilience,
biodiversity, sustainability)
O3 – Externalities to other SESs
the future of the commons
74 75
the future of the commons
Questions that can be addressed in our research
framework
We can address three broad sets of questions within this research
framework. The first set examines the patterns of interactions
and outcomes that you might expect from a given set of rules
for the governance and use of a particular resource system. This
includes the question of how much overuse there will be; what
kind of conflict there is likely to be among those governing the
system; and whether a system with a particular set of attributes
is likely to collapse or not. In other words, we are looking to find
which rules generate sustainable outcomes for particular kinds
of resources and looking at how to distinguish different kinds of
resources that require different rules for their management. What
we have learned is that the rules that are often used with regard
to grasslands and pastoral institutions often generate overuse and
collapse. We need to understand which ones do that and why.
We need to understand which rules generate adaptation. And we
need a framework of that sort to develop good research and good
theories as we move along.
The second type of question is for a particular resource in a
particular setting. What is the likely endogenous development of
different governance arrangements, use patterns and outcomes
with and without externally imposed rules or financing? This
helps us to answer the important question of whether we need to
impose institutions from outside.
We have been studying irrigation systems and forestry
resources around the world. I have just finished a paper with an
Indian colleague looking at the lakes in Bangalore in an urban area
and comparing their sustainability. We need to know when we
can expect the local people to be able to develop their own rules
know how big the resource is, what kind of human-constructed
facilities there are, and so on. Similarly, if you are going to talk
about a governance system, we need to know whether we are
talking about government organisations and about the kind of
non-governmental organisations that could be involved in the
governance system. We also need to think about the various kinds
of property rights systems, the monitoring and sanctioning rules,
and so on – all these things are very important. Then there are
very important problems relating to the attributes of the resource
units. For example, there is a difference between fish that move
independently and fish that move in channels, and a difference
between both of these types of resources and, for example, trees,
which do not move at all.
And then there are the attributes of the kinds of actors
involved. How many are there? What kind of socio-economic
attributes do they have? What is their history of use of the
resource? Where are the actors – are they in a similar location to
the location of the resource, or in places far away? What kind of
leadership is there? And so on.
This framework for the management of the commons is a
broad framework, just like when you learn economic theory
more generally. You do not need to look at all the variables in an
economic theory for all the questions that you are going to look at.
You need to learn how to pick out the variables that are important
for the analysis of particular questions.
This approach does give us a sense of some of the variables
that have been identified repeatedly as being important when
determining whether people are able to govern a resource and do
so sustainably. They are useful for that purpose.
the future of the commons
76 77
the future of the commons
natural resources are managed. If the variation is across only one
or two variables, you do not need a large number of studies. But
when you find more than a hundred different com binations of
variables, as we have, you need large, large studies.
One of the initial things that we have been doing over time
has been to study these cases and these combinations of vari-
ables. We developed a database early on in which we coded a lot
of information about irrigation systems and fisheries. I thought
that I was going to be able to analyse a series of cases using statis-
tical analysis, but found out that I had to move up in my level
of generality and look at a broader way of thinking about the
problem. Instead of the details of a boundary rule, we had to look
at whether they had a boundary rule at all. Instead of the details of
collective-choice mechanisms that they might use, we had to ask
whether they had the right to make their own rules and so on.
Design principles for the management of natural
resource systems
Back in the 1980s, my co-researchers and I were struggling to try
to find statistical relationships between features of social-ecolog-
ical systems and outcomes. I developed a series of rules that were
more general than specific, having failed to find the specific rules
that were always successful in terms of producing sustainable
outcomes for the management of a natural resource. I called these
general rules ‘design principles’. At times, I think that I should
have called them something else because people confused that
term with the idea that we are trying to design something from the
beginning. However, I was really undertaking a study of robust-
ness of systems that already existed. I presented the principles,
so that we know when to worry about whether a particular situ-
ation is one in which we are going to need to impose rules from
outside. In what situations are the local people going to develop
well-tailored rules of their own and how do we predict that they
are going to do so? This depends on the autonomy of people living
in a particular setting and using a resource, and their history.
The third type of question is how robust and sustainable is a
particular configuration of users, resource systems, resource units
and governance systems to external and internal disturbances? In
other words, we need to look at the long-term sustainability both
of resource units and governance, what kind of disturbances –
such as climate change or population change – we are potentially
going to see and whether we need to worry about them.
So all three of these are part of a long-term and big research
programme, but all of them are enhanced by having a common
framework for understanding social-ecological systems and the
management of natural resources.
In researching these problems, a major challenge is to find
comparable data over time for testing theories. This is another
situation where challenges in terms of doing research are exacer-
bated by very tall walls between disciplines in terms of approaches
and language. People do studies coming from one academic
dis cipline and those studies can be very hard for someone in a
different discipline to understand. As such, we need a common
taxonomy of core variables in the social-ecological framework that
will help us build more empirical research that we can all study.
Individual researchers have written a large number of indi-
vidual case studies, but there has not been as much accumulation
of scientific knowledge as we need. We need a large number of case
studies because we see such variation between situations where
the future of the commons
78 79
the future of the commons
In terms of monitoring, they distinguished monitoring of
the resource conditions as well as monitoring of users’ actions.
Besides the boundaries and congruence and monitoring, my
original design conditions also talked about graduated sanctions,
conflict-resolution mechanisms and a recognition of the right
of users to make their own rules, and, if it was a larger system,
whether it was nested. They found very strong support for all of
these and no need to distinguish them over time.
One important question is, why do the design principles
work? Why do they enhance institutional robustness? One thing
that we find is that the participants in a system that is charac-
terised by the design principles know that the rules are being
followed by others because they are monitored. A second reason is
that those who are most knowledgeable about the effects of what
is going to happen are the ones who are making the rules. A third
is that they lead to a system where it is possible to resolve conflicts
before they escalate.
We also find that a diversity of governance units trying to
solve a fishery or irrigation or other resource problem stimulates
learning and increases performance over time. And, as you study
these things over time, you see people passing information about
how they are doing and about why what they are doing is working.
We find that both large and small units back each other up. So
that is one of the important sets of findings from our research.
What have we learned?
In general, then, what have we learned? The attributes of the
users that are conducive to their self-organising and managing a
resource sustainably include that the users ask questions and that
which are discussed in great detail, in my 1990 book Governing the
Commons.
I am very pleased to report that Cox, Arnold and Tomas
have finished a very interesting article, published in Ecology and
Society in 2010, where they searched the literature for people who
had overtly studied whether or not the design principles that we
identified actually characterised the case studies that they were
looking at.
People had indeed done studies, and the authors looked
at whether or not the management of a resource was successful
and whether the design principles were helpful in bringing about
that success. Cox, Arnold and Tomas looked at more than ninety
studies and they did find very strong empirical support for the
original design principles. The authors then suggested a better
way of framing the design principles than I had done originally.
For example, when I talked about boundary rules, I did not make
a distinction between a clear set of boundaries of the resource and
a clear set of boundaries for the users. Sometimes systems have
clear boundaries for the resources but not for the users or vice
versa and, in some of the case studies that were reported, that
was a problem. So Cox, Arnold and Tomas crafted and clarified
three of the design principles. They distinguished between clear
boundaries of the resource users (that is the membership) and
clear boundaries of the resource itself. So hopefully we will use
that in our future work.
A second design principle is congruence with local and envir-
onmental conditions. Here, I am talking about the distribution of
benefits and costs to the social structure, and I did not distinguish
between the social part and the ecological part as Cox, Arnold and
Tomas have.
the future of the commons
80 81
the future of the commons
The relationship between larger and smaller units of
governance
We also find that larger regimes can facilitate local self-organisa-
tion so that we are not thinking about little tiny units self-organ-
ising without any relationship to larger units. And very large units
can be important in providing accurate scientific information to
help the smaller units interact. For example, in the groundwater
basin that I studied in southern California, the national United
States Geological Survey has done some important research that
helps local people figure out the boundaries of their resource.
Larger jurisdictions can also provide important conflict reso-
lution. For example, court systems provided by larger jurisdic-
tions are very important for helping resolve basic conflicts. Larger
jurisdictions can provide technical assistance, which is effective
if they view the local users as partners. It is important that they
do not just assume that the locals do not know very much and
tell them what to do! If there is some respect for the local user,
the technical information provided by larger units can be very
helpful. And the larger units can provide mechanisms for backing
up monitoring and sanctioning efforts.
We have also looked at larger units that are donor-assisted
units that are supported through the US government via USAID
and by development agencies of one kind or another. We
conducted a major study of them and produced a book entitled
The Samaritan’s Dilemma. What we found is that, tragically,
they do not have a good foundation based on either theoretical
or empirical knowledge. They frequently encourage a national
government to give resources back to local people. But the
resources have been taken away, degraded and then given back in
a one- or two-hour meeting. I have been to some of those meetings
they view the resource as highly salient. They then usually have a
relatively low discount rate in terms of the benefits obtained from
the resource so that they are not over-exploiting the resource in
the current time period. Over time, the users have developed high
levels of trust and reciprocity and have the autonomy to deter-
mine at least some of their own rules. They are nested in comple-
mentary, multiple-tier systems. Usually in these kinds of settings,
those organising the system have prior organisational experience;
they have well-developed social capital and they have local leaders
who are able to take on that very tough job. They also share some
common understanding about the resource. These are the attrib-
utes that we are finding in systems that are sustainable.
At the same time, we are finding that the rules devised by
self-organising communities differ in important ways from a lot
of our traditional textbook remedies. For example, many of the
textbook recommendations for regulating fisheries, if they are not
for government to regulate them, are for individual transferable
quotas. The key thing, it is argued, is regulating the quantity of
the quota allocated. Yet, what we find in practice in many self-
managed fisheries is that the fishers regulate the time when users
of the resource can go and fish and they regulate the space where
it is appropriate to harvest and the technology that should be
used. The sustainable remedies in practice differ from the tradi-
tional textbook solutions, so those managing resources in practice
are actually using different attributes from those suggested in the
literature. Many of the rules that people develop or their methods
of interrelationship are designed to encourage growth of trust
and reciprocity. They tend to rely on unique aspects of a local
resource and the local culture when developing their approach to
managing the resource.
the future of the commons
82 83
the future of the commons
many people, is that local monitoring is one of the most important
factors affecting resource conditions and the success of resource
management systems in fisheries, pastures, forestry, water and
so on. We now have studies published in Science on our forestry
work, looking at situations where nobody was thinking that local
users could be important monitors. But we examine this because
we have found it so important in many studies. The local people
pay attention to what is happening in the forest if they have some
rights to collect. Local users are in the forest from time to time,
and monitoring is not very expensive when it is done in this way.
If you have to hire government officials to be the monitors, that
is very expensive. And frequently, when you hire government
officials, they cannot be paid very much so you have problems of
corruption.
We are now working with colleagues on the social-ecological
systems framework. We continue to fine-tune the framework, and
will have reports on about ten updated studies in a special issue
that is forthcoming later this year or the beginning of next year in
the journal Ecology and Society.
We are also working on getting definitions of key terms done,
and how this affects the development of theories. We are studying
forestry, water resources and fisheries over time. We are trying to
study which propositions hold with regard to diverse resources on
diverse scales. So, that has given you a very fast overview.
and it is rather incredible. They bring the local people into a hall.
They say ‘now you own x’; they give them a little bit of background
of what they must do now; tell the people that they are respon-
sible; and then walk away.
Frequently in these kinds of situations, the governments retain
formal ownership so that they are not passing on the ownership
but only the management. Furthermore, they expect the users to
perform rapidly what government agencies have not been able to
do for years. So there is a very grim history out there in terms of
donor-assisted handover projects of natural resource systems to
local people.
One of the things that we have repeatedly found is the import-
ance of what we call polycentric systems. This is where systems
exist at multiple levels, with some autonomy at each level.
So, we can think about a region where there is a government
agency responsible for the large region, but there is a lot of local
autonomy in the management of local resources in that region.
If we create a polycentric system, then it retains many of the
benefits of local-level systems because there are people at a local
level making decisions about many of the rules. But it also adds
overlapping units to help monitor performance, obtain reliable
information and cope with large-scale resources. Indeed, I argue
very strongly for the need for polycentric institutions to cope with
climate change.
Conclusion
I have given you a very rapid overview of a vast amount of
research. The final question is, so what? One of the things that
we have found in our large-scale studies, much to the surprise of
questions and discussion
8584
looking at the state of European fish stocks today which are pretty
bad …
professor ostrom: Terrible.
aniol esteban: Terrible. Based on all your experience with the
fisheries system, would you have two or three general rules about
how we can sort out EU Fisheries?
professor ostrom: Well, it is rather tragic because the European
fisheries rules go all the way from the Mediterranean to the
Baltic. And it’s one set of rules for all that. The Baltic is an entirely
different ecological system and it just doesn’t make sense.
There will be an article to be published very soon – I’ve seen
a version in print. The author headed a research team studying
a large number of community-managed fisheries that had
different kinds of rules, and so on. And they were able to look at
community- managed, government-managed and open access.
Open access was terrible. They looked at things like the income
that the fishermen were receiving, how long their seasons were,
a variety of things. And they used very careful measures of the
amount of fish in the water – they went diving and did measure-
ment, very careful measurement. And they found that those fish-
eries that were community controlled were much more successful
on a variety of fronts. And you might find that quite relevant.
The EU could be providing some very broad overarching ways
of conflict resolution, but allowing people to self-organise in ways
that they had done before we outlawed it. We have some similar
problems in some parts of the USA. So it is not just the EU: this is
a very big problem. But it needs a polycentric approach.
4 QUESTIONS AND DISCUSSION
mattia bacciardi: I heard words like ‘flexibility’, ‘adaptability’,
‘trust’, ‘reciprocity’, ‘social capital’, ‘self-organisation’ and they
seem to be actually applied to the society as a whole rather than
just to specific commons such as fisheries and pastures. Wouldn’t
it be possible to interpret your theory as being a theory of social
organisation as a whole?
professor ostrom: Well, at one level the polycentricity aspect is
certainly one that is capable of being widely applied. It isn’t that
there is a single set of rules that will work in all places in a partic-
ular society. So, if we talk about local fisheries that evolved in
Turkey, those rules are quite specific to local inshore fisheries and
to Turkish fishermen and they are quite different from those that
would work in the USA and a variety of other places. So yes, what
we are trying to think through is ways that people facing problems
on diverse scales can self-organise and cope more effectively with
managing those resources over the long run.
aniol esteban: I am very interested in fish. At the New
Economics Foundation we are working a lot on fish. It is a
very interesting year for fish, particularly in Europe where the
Common Fisheries Policy is being reviewed. The question is,
questions and discussionthe future of the commons
86 87
that have signed an agreement to start working on various ways of
reducing greenhouse gases in their cities.
A thousand cities is quite different from just one. And we have
a number of things that are going on that we do need to do at the
global level. I am not arguing against that, but I am very nervous
about just sitting around and waiting and making the argument
that the rest of us can’t do anything at all. So we need global
action, but we can be taking action at multiple scales. And the
cumulative effect of that does reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
speaker: I have a general methodological question about theories
of learning governance which appear in social sciences generally.
There is a problem with learning and transmission of commu-
nication and information in those theories. For example, many
countries spend millions of pounds or dollars on environmental
impact assessments, looking at the cross-border detrimental
impact on the environment of cross-border trade. But there is
no incentive for each system (for example, between Canada and
America) to learn from the other system about what is effective
and what is not.
You talked about diversity and learning. What is it meth-
odologically that you’ve factored in which allows these disparate
systems to learn from each other? How do you get an incentive,
for example with environmental impact assessments, for each
of these countries to learn from each other rather than wasting
millions of pounds of taxpayers’ money down the tube when all
the systems are ineffective.
professor ostrom: One of the ways is trying to enhance asso-
ciations of resource governance. So in Nepal, we now have a
chairman: Yes. I’m not sure that sounds like the EU but anyway
good luck.
hubert schmitz: I am from the Institute of Development Studies
at Sussex. I have two questions. My first one is to what extent is
the framework you set out suitable to come to grips with climate-
change issues? My second question is does your work, the work of
you and your colleagues, give us any handle on the time dimen-
sion? The unprecedented feature of the climate-change debate is
that we are expected to find a solution by certain dates. This is not
the case for many of the other collective action problems that we
have. Do you give us an analytical handle on this time dimension
in any way?
professor ostrom: In the framework we are talking about,
there are a number of characteristics about the resource system
that do affect the time dimension. We have applied the frame-
work to lakes, pasture areas, fisheries and a variety of modest
resources. It has not yet been applied to climate change but it
can be. And my sense is that we have modelled climate change
inappropriately. We have modelled it as if the only externality
of actions is global. And so when you take actions that produce
greenhouse gases, you are producing a single externality and it
goes all the way up.
Well, many of the externalities affect a family, a local neigh-
bourhood, a region, a city, or other units. As more and more
of the local units have begun to recognise that, they have taken
various actions to encourage locals to reduce greenhouse gases.
Now that’s not sufficient but it can be as we get more and more
locals doing it. We now have over a thousand mayors in the USA
questions and discussionthe future of the commons
88 89
everyone around knows quite carefully what they must or must
not do.
In terms of minerals I haven’t thought very much about it.
Minerals in the ground come very close to private goods. But I
would have to do some deep thinking about it. Oil in the ground
has the problem of being a commons even though we have not
treated it as such very much. Most of the resources that I have
looked at are generally renewable. And one of the very difficult
problems about minerals is that they are non-renewable. But I
have not really studied them. It’s a good question.
david dunn: I am very interested in natural resource taxes and I
have been proposing those for a long time but there seems to be
very little information on it. And what you are saying about the
commons is very similar to what I am saying but stretching right
across, into minerals and all the natural resources.
My question really is this. Do we not have to wake up and
really think about taxing the pollution that all the resources
are actually producing? My suggestion is that we need to think
about taxing the resources in a way that reflects scientists’ views
of the environmental damages caused by the various resources
and then tax them at source. This would replace the taxes that
we are paying at the moment: so my proposal is substitution, we
would not be paying more taxes. So I am just wondering if you are
thinking anything along those lines as well.
professor ostrom: If the tax goes to a national government
and is lost in the big volume of tax income and is not in any way
retained to try to affect the source of the pollution, taxing may
make a tiny difference but not a very significant one. It is how
farmer-managed Irrigation System Association and they are
meeting regularly. Each year there’s an award for innovation and
new practices. And there is sharing of both successes and failures.
So the question is, how do people learn? A lot of the learning in
more traditional society occurred in the marketplace. So people
would observe fish coming into the market that were in great
shape and they would ask each other ‘What are you doing?’ And
we can think about the slow evolution of rule systems where
people learn from one that works and can try it out without
changing everything in their own system. So it is a question of
how we create environments where it’s very easy for information
exchange about conditions, size, rules, etc.
chris bain: I work for a British development NGO. Thank you
very much for your framework which I thought was really helpful.
Would you agree that minerals are part of the commons? And, if
so, could the framework help avoid what Professor Paul Collier
calls the plunder of many minerals by arrangements between
corrupt governments in the South and some mining companies?
And, thirdly, would you agree that transparency in the way that
business and governments work is a prerequisite for your frame-
work working?
professor ostrom: Let me turn to the last question. Transpar-
ency is very important. Being able to get a good idea of what is
the boundary, who is involved, what rules are involved is essen-
tial. And successful systems use a variety of mechanisms to keep
the cost of sharing that information as low as possible. If you have
a twenty-page rule document, that’s not very transparent. But
many of the successful systems don’t have huge rule systems but
questions and discussionthe future of the commons
90 91
more senior person a better idea so that it wasn’t all top down.
One of Vincent’s articles in the late 1970s was on science as arti-
sanship discussing how we need to find ways of working as teams.
And so that is partly related to what you are talking about.
If you are going to be doing the kind of research that some of
us are doing where the fieldwork is very exhausting and very chal-
lenging, and you are producing only part of a database, you have
got to have trust; you are building something that is productive
for all of you. There is a similarity with managing a commons.
derek wall: You have made a huge contribution getting us
thinking about property which isn’t private or state; and people
can’t quite cope with that. And you have also flagged up the idea
of usufruct: that you have property rights as long as you maintain
them.
I want to ask you two questions around this. You look at
discrete commons with boundaries or have in the past. I am inter-
ested in ‘inter-commoning’. So I think of North America where
you’ve got indigenous groups with overlapping territories, you
know of similar things in India. So has there been research on
inter-commoning and on how different commons regimes can
overlap? Also, a lot of your work is based on history. What ques-
tions should environmental historians be asking to take forward
research into common pool property?
professor ostrom: Using the framework would be one way.
Some of the history has been about a region – say Africa. But
things that historians have found about Asia are not known by
historians studying Africa. And so there are missing variables
going across. So that is one problem.
we allow resources to go back. So, if a river system, or any of the
resources we might look at, is organised and the taxes are imposed
by a bigger unit but a very substantial proportion goes back to the
unit that is managing the resource for the purpose of reducing the
harm then taxes can make a difference.
nick cowen: Listening to your talk, it struck me that your idea
to solve some of these problems at a research level requires you
to have these multilayered, multidisciplined, multidisciplinary
research projects and teams. I was wondering if, in some ways,
this was actually quite similar to some of the things that you are
studying in that you’re dealing with people who have a number
of different motivations, drawing on common resources and have
different ends in themselves. But, at the same time, they are trying
to reach a common goal. And so I was wondering if you had found
that your analysis was actually useful for studying some of your
own work and potentially how universities and other academic
projects and academic teams operate. This would certainly be very
interesting in my line of work.
professor ostrom: We do interdisciplinary work. We have
frequently had quite a struggle in our own universities and people
have asked why Vincent [Ostrom] and I formed something
called a workshop: the Workshop in Political Theory and Policy
Analysis. It has been interdisciplinary from the beginning, but
the idea was that if you were really going to do good science you
needed seniors, juniors and young people working together.
We had been making furniture with a cabinetmaker in a
workshop. And I watched the whole process of young people
learning the skill – and in some cases a junior person showing a
questions and discussionthe future of the commons
92 93
happened when people got firm rights – sometimes the individual
transferable quota to a particular species. So you have a right to
harvest shrimp or tuna or whatever. And people were throwing
the by-catch over the side of the ship. So they would catch a bunch
of fish, sort through, keep what was the valuable fish for which
they had a quota, and throw everything else away. That is very
destructive, but many, many systems that have tried individual
transferable quotas had that kind of problem.
In British Colombia they developed a new system so that if
you receive a quota you must have a government observer on your
boat. You have to pay the cost of that observer. It is very expensive
but that person then records everything whenever you take fish
out of the west coast ocean. And the temptation to take by-catches
and then throw them away is gone because it’s illegal and there is
an observer.
So sharing information and very close monitoring – you
wouldn’t always want to monitor that closely – is important. In
this case, the profit from the abuse of the rules was very large and
the over-harvesting was immense and so to protect the fishery you
had to do something like this.
linda whetstone: At the end under your ‘So what?’ heading you
wrote and you said: ‘The most effective rule enforcements I have
undertaken in community-governed resources are by the users
themselves.’ You added ‘if they have rights’, which I imagine is
rather crucial. Could you give us one or two examples?
professor ostrom: Again, going back to fishery systems, there
are local inshore fisheries that have evolved their own systems but
they don’t have firm rights. National governments can come along
And the … the very first part of your question … Intellectually
it is a shared commons that we are struggling to understand and
part of the reason for trying to develop a common language is
that, if all of our descriptions use different languages, then we are
not sure of what they mean. And so we are trying slowly but surely
to get a common language. Part of the need for all of those vari-
ables is that, if you are going to be talking about fishery systems,
there are certain of the attributes that are very, very important.
With regard to the resource units there may be differences but,
with regard to the governance and actors it may be very similar to
a water system.
There will be about eight studies in that Ecology and Society
special issue examining diverse kinds of resources using the
framework. And we’re not settled yet. We meet about once or
twice a year and we have been addressing subtle changes so that
we can make it better and better over time.
speaker: I am from a local government think tank. I thought it
was interesting that on one of your slides you asked whether we
need to worry about imposing institutions from the outside. So
I was wondering how you see the dynamic interaction between
exogenous monitoring and imposition of institutions with the
development of local governance structures and local monitoring.
professor ostrom: This is again a polycentric need. We should
find ways of getting information for a large number of small
systems that are aggregated. And we should look at it not always
in terms of the aggregated outcomes. This may not be something
that you can ask locals to do.
Colin Clark’s recent work on fishery systems looked at what
questions and discussionthe future of the commons
94 95
in some of the government programmes that are trying to hand
resources back they do so in a general meeting, and that’s about it.
That doesn’t mean that it isn’t possible in parts of Africa to
really help people evolve better institutions. We have wonderful
colleagues at Makerere University in Uganda who are doing some
excellent studies. And we found in the Kampala area some very
clever evolved institutions that had worked for long periods of
time. Then, all of a sudden, people were very excited about ‘decen-
tralisation’. Many of the government districts were supposedly
decentralised, but what that meant was unclear to the officials and
to the people who had been managing the resource. The resource
had not really been managed by a larger government, but their
presumption was that it had been; and now it was being decen-
tralised to a local area. What they have found is that this process
actually took powers away from locals because these new officials
hired at a local level did not know about evolved systems out there
in the countryside. And it created chaos.
And as we talked earlier about the importance of knowledge
and trust, if you don’t know who is involved and who is going to
be the official that you have to go to when there’s a conflict etc.
then that reduces your capacity to organise. But there are many,
many settings in Africa where people have self-organised and are
doing very well. But it’s rough when governments are adopting
policies that make it difficult to do so.
hilary wainwright: Could applied human creativity be consid-
ered a commons? In a sense, it seems an appropriate area for
going beyond the market and going beyond being treated as a
commodity, but also for going beyond regulation and govern-
ment command. Could your particularly grounded methodology
and say ‘nothing but government-authorised fisheries and fishers
are allowed in our community’ and things that have taken a
hundred years or so to evolve are just eliminated. That’s happened
in fisheries and it’s happened in forestry a lot.
In India, indigenous peoples evolved rules for managing
forest resources over the centuries. Then, when India was first
conquered, the bureaucrats developed and imposed rules, many
of which were learned from German sources (because a great deal
of the early effort of managing forestry was done in Germany).
The Indian government bought into a good deal of that set of
rules and so it kicked people out of areas where they had managed
forests for long periods of time. They declared them government-
owned and then, since they were government-owned, the govern-
ment could decide which parties could use the resource. And
sometimes that meant that it was used privately and a number of
companies came in and harvested like mad and wrecked earlier
systems that had evolved over very long times.
shane mahen: Resource wealth can be both a blessing and a
curse. Unfortunately, across much of Africa, it hasn’t delivered
the prosperity that it is very much capable of. I wanted to know
about your opinion on the framework, politically and economi-
cally, which has been holding back the creation of wealth which
resources can deliver in Africa. In the near future can these extrac-
tive industries be managed to allow a sustainable approach?
professor ostrom: It is very hard after people have been told
that they are stupid and that they don’t understand and you’ve
taken their rights away. You can’t just, all of a sudden, hand it
back and expect that to produce automatic results. As I indicated,
the future of the commons
96 97
5 OSTROM’S IDEAS IN ACTION
Christina Chang
Andean peasant farmers are obviously unlikely to be familiar
with Elinor Ostrom’s ideas on governance of the commons. Yet
their system for managing the local environment to promote their
livelihoods provides an informative case study of her principles
for governing common-pool resources. Applying Ostrom’s ideas
also gives insights to guide interventions by non-governmental
organisations (NGOs), such as CAFOD,1 and more importantly
to guide governments and international institutions which often
design the framework in which these communities operate.
The congruence between Ostrom’s ideas and the way in
which Andean farmers practise should not be surprising as Elinor
Ostrom made several research visits to the area during her career.
The success of the farmers in working in harmony with a difficult
climate and thereby ensuring their own food security could not have
escaped her. The importance of the socio-political organisation in
the success of the farmers’ approach would also not have surprised
Elinor Ostrom (Regalsky and Hosse, 2008). These community-
based approaches to the management of natural resources in the
highland communities of the Andean region in which CAFOD
works are increasingly under threat from often well-intentioned
reforms and innovations, including those promoted by NGOs.
1 CAFOD is a Catholic charity and aid agency that focuses on providing help to the
poorest peoples of the world.
provide a way of thinking about the governance of applied human
creativity – labour – to avoid wastage, exhaustion, to encourage
nourishment and development? Obviously it can’t be treated in
the abstract and it’s different in the sense that it’s individual and
social and it is self-reflexive in a way. But I just wondered whether
work has been part of your thinking.
professor ostrom: No. But we can be thinking about the teams
of people who do solve these problems, having to figure out how
to pay each other and things of this sort. Many of the rules have
to do with who gets resources when, where and how and whether
they have to have shown certain kinds of inputs prior to that. But
we have not actually looked at labour as a commons.
ostrom’s ideas in actionthe future of the commons
98 99
three years and consists of planting potatoes, followed by grains
and finally leaving the land fallow. The rotation order and which
fallow lands are used for grazing are determined communally
according to needs, conditions and availability of appropriate soil
types. This system allows communities to maximise yields under
prevailing conditions, minimise risks by adapting use to several
different microclimates and prevent damage either to crops by
grazing or to soil by inappropriate use (Hervé, 1994).
Communal management of the land also allows the commu-
nity to make best use of their labour resources (CENDA, 2008).
The communities have a rule of ayni or umraqa: that is reciprocity.
Owing to irregular rainfall, combined with a lack of irrigation
systems, farmers may need to call on a larger workforce at unpre-
dictable times. Under the system of umraqa a farmer can call on
relatives and neighbours with whom he has ties to work during
this period, and will later pay them back in an equivalent way. This
overcomes the problem of sporadically needing more intensive
labour in a system based on household working (Calvo et al., 1994).
The ability to undertake collective decision-making – another
of Ostrom’s design principles – is not just a management tool, it is
essential to food security and survival. A good illustration of the
link between the practical and the political is the use of weather
predictions by the community in their planning. Farmers use
animal and plant behaviour, astrological signs and the practice
of rites to forecast whether there will be frost, hail, drought or
floods. However, no single farmer’s prediction is taken as correct;
collect ive decisions are based on combined predictions of the
group of farmers. This proves to be an effective tool in improving
accuracy and managing risk (Morlon et al., 1982). Peruvian
peasant farmers were found to be better than meteorological
The Andean communities with which CAFOD works have
their own normative framework to ensure the right conditions for
their productive strategies. This includes establishing norms for
access to communal resources – notably water, land and biogen-
etic materials (seeds and crop materials) – and norms for regu-
lating coexistence, ownership and the sharing of labour among
families (ibid.). Their system dates back over two thousand years
to pre-Hispanic times (Murra, 1975) and has survived the intro-
duction of plantations and industrial agriculture, partly because
of the isolation of these populations who live at an altitude higher
than three thousand metres. In this situation there is a clearly
defined communal resource as required by Ostrom’s first design
principle.
A further design principle – that rules governing the use
of resources should be adapted to local conditions – is not only
satisfied, but is central to the communities’ success. The rules can
even be interpreted as a codification of centuries of knowledge
of managing their unique local resources and adapting to diffi-
cult climatic conditions in their local environment (Albó, 1989;
Delgado, 2002).
Land is communally owned and its use is communally
decided by the sindicato, made up of the community members. A
soil rotation system allows the community to make the most of
land that is particularly varied in quality. The starting point is a
traditional system of soil classification based on subsoil type,
how rocky the land is, the depth of cover, gradient and altitude.
Communal lands are divided into sections called mantas, aynuqas
(from which the management system often takes its name), aytas
and lames (Harris, 1987). Each year the assembly decides which
sections to cultivate through a rotation cycle which lasts around
ostrom’s ideas in actionthe future of the commons
100 101
For example, agrarian land reform to put in place individual
land titles, promoted notably by the World Bank, is threatening
to disintegrate the community organisation that is the foundation
of management of the productive system in this common territory
with its heterogeneous nature (Schulte, 1996).
Other initiatives involve trying to promote more ‘businesslike’
organising principles in the practices of the Andean communities.
There have been efforts to make farmers think more commercially
– or competitively – and to seek to access markets on better condi-
tions, get better prices than their neighbours, and so on. This
has damaged community relations, generating disputes, damage
by cattle and even laycasqa or spells being cast on neighbours
(Regalsky and Hosse, 2008).
It would be a mistake to believe that this means that these
communities are backward-looking or isolationist. This is simply
not the case. For example, although some innovations, such as
tractors, have not worked well in local conditions – reducing
productivity of the kupaya potato crop in the Raqaypampa region
by over 50 per cent over the course of twenty years (CENDA,
2005) – others have been adopted more happily. Irrigation
methods work well with the soil-rotation system and allow the
farmers to intensify production.
Also, a significant proportion of the production is destined
for market. Though the study is now somewhat dated, as long
ago as 1986/87 a study found that 27 per cent of produce was
sent to market or exchanged for work or other goods or services
(Regalsky and Hosse, 2008).
The productivity of peasant Andean agriculture is founded
in its governance of common resources: rules that are rooted in
centuries of knowledge of what works in local conditions and
organisations at forecasting the effects of El Niño (IECTA, 2007),
and farmers have been found to have successfully and accurately
predicted when rains will arrive several months in advance
(CENDA, 2007, 2008).
The next group of Ostrom’s design principles deals with
enforcement of the governance system: monitoring, conflict reso-
lution and sanctions for those violating rules. Here again, the
Andean farmers’ systems conform to Ostrom’s framework. The
discipline and the control that the community can place on the
land and its use is a fundamental element of the community’s
good functioning. The sindicato in high-altitude areas has the
power, not only to grant lands, but also to take them away if they
are not being used appropriately. For example, a farmer can lose
his land if he fails to use it well or omits to fulfil his communal
obligations. This can happen despite state-allocated ownership
titles (Regalsky and Hosse, 2008).
Ostrom’s final design principles relate to how the commu-
nity’s own organisation fits within a broader reality. She holds
that the community’s attempts at self-determination need to be
recognised by higher authorities and that, where local resources
are part of a larger resource, layers of organisations should build
up from the small, local common-pool resource.
It is the breakdown of these design principles which lies at the
heart of the crisis currently facing Andean farmers. While their
traditions and community rules and practices are not outlawed
by the Bolivian government, they are not supported either. Many
interventions designed to improve their standard of living and
their contribution to progress in one of Latin America’s poorest
countries are not undertaken in sympathy with their strategies
and structures.
ostrom’s ideas in actionthe future of the commons
102 103
References
Albó, X. (1989), Para comprender las culturas rurales en Bolivia.
Bolivia pluricultural y multilingüe, La Paz: CIPCA, MEC,
UNICEF.
Calvo, L. M., P. Regalsky, C. Espinoza and T. Hosse (1994),
Raqaypampa: Los complejos caminos de una comunidad andina,
Cochabamba: CENDA.
CENDA (2005), Raqaypampa: Una experiencia de control territorial.
Crisis agrícola y soberanía alimentaria, Cochabamba: CENDA.
CENDA (2007), ‘Waliq wata kananpaq señas willamun’,
Conosur ñawpaqman, 24: 12, http://www.cenda.org/
periodico/126/126-sep-2007.pdf 11.12.08.
CENDA (2008), ‘Papata iskay m’itapi churana kanqa’,
Conosur ñawpaqman, 25: 12, http://www.cenda.org/
periodico/131/131-octubre-2008.pdf.
Delgado, J. M. F. (2002), Estrategías de autodesarrollo y
gestión sostenible del territorio en ecosistemas de montaña.
Complementariedad ecosimbiótica en el Ayllu de Majsaya Mujlli,
2nd edn, La Paz: Plural.
Harris, O. (1987), Economía étnica, La Paz: Hisbol.
Hervé, D. (1994), ‘Desarrollo sostenible en los Andes altos. Los
sistemas de cultivo con descanso largo pastoreado’, in D.
Hervé, D. Genin and G. Riviere (eds), Dinámicas del Descanso
de la Tierra en los Andes, La Paz: IBTA-ORSTOM.
IECTA (2007), ‘El Niño en la sierra central del Perú’, Revista
electrónica Volveré, http://www.unap.cl/iecta/revistas/
volvere_26/articulo_2_volvere_26.htm 20.7.2008.
Morlon, P., B. Orlove and A. Hibon (1982), Tecnologías agrícolas
tradicionales en los Andes Centrales: perspectivas para el
desarrollo, Lima: UNESCO/UNDP/COFIDE.
around which local communities are organised. To insist that
increasing productivity relies solely on modernisation through
chemical or industrial inputs, or commercial competition, not
only threatens those livelihoods but also the environment and
the very resources on which they depend. Modern technologies
and market principles can enhance or undermine this product-
ivity, depending on whether they respect the community system
founded on governance of local resources or not.
Understanding this is central to CAFOD’s programmes in
Bolivia, where three out of five people in rural areas still live in
extreme poverty and where impacts of climate change and efforts
to exploit the country’s significant natural resources are further
undermining local livelihoods. CAFOD is supporting collabora-
tion between University College London and local partners CIPCA
and CENDA to better understand how this system works and to
make the case for changes in strategies by the Bolivian govern-
ment and others where these are needed.
Ostrom’s design principles not only chime well with CAFOD’s
own Catholic principles of stewardship and the promotion of the
common good, but also with the principle of subsidiarity whereby
central government’s main role is ensuring that the framework
exists to help individuals, families and communities to pursue
their legitimate objectives. It is not the role of government to
displace community mechanisms of governance and organisa-
tion with its own structures. Ostrom’s design principles also
involve the distillation of the practical tools that are actually used
to promote productivity and sustainability in a very unpromising
environment.
the future of the commons
104
Murra, J. (1975), ‘El control vertical de un máximo de pisos
ecológicos en la economía de las sociedades andinas’, in J.
Murra (ed.), Formaciones Económicas y Políticas del Mundo
Andino, Lima: IEP.
Regalsky, P. and T. Hosse (2008), Indigenous Peasant Strategies for
Climate Risk Reduction in the Bolivian Andes, London: CAFOD.
Schulte, M. (1996), Tecnología Agrícola Altoandina, el manejo de
la diversidad ecológica en el Valle de Charazani, La Paz: Plural/
CID.
Director General & Ralph Harris Fellow Mark Littlewood
Editorial Director Professor Philip Booth
Managing Trustees
Chairman: Professor D R Myddelton
Kevin Bell Professor Mark Pennington
Robert Boyd Neil Record
Michael Fisher Professor Martin Ricketts
Michael Hintze Linda Whetstone
Professor Patrick Minford
Academic Advisory Council
Chairman: Professor Martin Ricketts
Graham Bannock Dr Eileen Marshall
Dr Roger Bate Professor Antonio Martino
Professor Alberto Benegas-Lynch, Jr Dr John Meadowcroft
Professor Donald J Boudreaux Dr Anja Merz
Professor John Burton Professor Julian Morris
Professor Forrest Capie Professor Alan Morrison
Professor Steven N S Cheung Paul Ormerod
Professor Tim Congdon Professor David Parker
Professor N F R Crafts Professor Victoria Curzon Price
Professor David de Meza Professor Colin Robinson
Professor Kevin Dowd Professor Charles K Rowley
Professor Richard A Epstein Professor Pascal Salin
Nigel Essex Dr Razeen Sally
Professor David Greenaway Professor Pedro Schwartz
Dr Ingrid A Gregg Professor J R Shackleton
Walter E Grinder Jane S Shaw
Professor Steve H Hanke Professor W Stanley Siebert
Professor Keith Hartley Dr Elaine Sternberg
Professor David Henderson Professor James Tooley
Professor Peter M Jackson Professor Nicola Tynan
Dr Jerry Jordan Professor Roland Vaubel
Dr Lynne Kiesling Dr Cento Veljanovski
Professor Daniel B Klein Professor Lawrence H White
Professor Chandran Kukathas Professor Walter E Williams
Professor Stephen C Littlechild Professor Geoffrey E Wood
Honorary Fellows
Professor Armen A Alchian Professor Chiaki Nishiyama
Professor Michael Beenstock Professor Sir Alan Peacock
Sir Samuel Brittan Professor Anna J Schwartz
Professor James M Buchanan Professor Vernon L Smith
Professor Ronald H Coase Professor Gordon Tullock
Professor David Laidler Professor Basil S Yamey
The Institute of Economic Affairs
2 Lord North Street, Westminster, London SW1P 3LB
Tel: 020 7799 8900
Fax: 020 7799 2137
Email: iea@iea.org.uk
Internet: iea.org.uk
107
The Institute is a research and educational charity (No. CC 235 351), limited
by guarantee. Its mission is to improve understanding of the fundamental
institutions of a free society by analysing and expounding the role of markets in
solving economic and social problems.
The IEA achieves its mission by:
• ahigh-qualitypublishingprogramme
• conferences,seminars,lecturesandotherevents
• outreachtoschoolandcollegestudents
• brokeringmediaintroductionsandappearances
The IEA, which was established in 1955 by the late Sir Antony Fisher, is
an educational charity, not a political organisation. It is independent of any
political party or group and does not carry on activities intended to affect
support for any political party or candidate in any election or referendum, or
at any other time. It is financed by sales of publications, conference fees and
voluntary donations.
In addition to its main series of publications the IEA also publishes a termly
journal, Economic Affairs.
The IEA is aided in its work by a distinguished international Academic
Advisory Council and an eminent panel of Honorary Fellows. Together with
other academics, they review prospective IEA publications, their comments
being passed on anonymously to authors. All IEA papers are therefore subject to
the same rigorous independent refereeing process as used by leading academic
journals.
IEA publications enjoy widespread classroom use and course adoptions
in schools and universities. They are also sold throughout the world and often
translated/reprinted.
Since 1974 the IEA has helped to create a worldwide network of 100
similar institutions in over 70 countries. They are all independent but share the
IEA’s mission.
Views expressed in the IEA’s publications are those of the authors, not
those of the Institute (which has no corporate view), its Managing Trustees,
Academic Advisory Council members or senior staff.
Members of the Institute’s Academic Advisory Council, Honorary Fellows,
Trustees and Staff are listed on the following page.
The Institute gratefully acknowledges financial support for its publications
programme and other work from a generous benefaction by the late Alec and
Beryl Warren.
ABOUT THE IEA
106
Other papers recently published by the IEA include:
Taxation and Red Tape
The Cost to British Business of Complying with the UK Tax System
Francis Chittenden, Hilary Foster & Brian Sloan
Research Monograph 64; ISBN 978 0 255 36612 0; £12.50
Ludwig von Mises – A Primer
Eamonn Butler
Occasional Paper 143; ISBN 978 0 255 36629 8; £7.50
Does Britain Need a Financial Regulator?
Statutory Regulation, Private Regulation and Financial Markets
Terry Arthur & Philip Booth
Hobart Paper 169; ISBN 978 0 255 36593 2; £12.50
Hayek’s The Constitution of Liberty
An Account of Its Argument
Eugene F. Miller
Occasional Paper 144; ISBN 978 0 255 36637 3; £12.50
Fair Trade Without the Froth
A Dispassionate Economic Analysis of ‘Fair Trade’
Sushil Mohan
Hobart Paper 170; ISBN 978 0 255 36645 8; £10.00
A New Understanding of Poverty
Poverty Measurement and Policy Implications
Kristian Niemietz
Research Monograph 65; ISBN 978 0 255 36638 0; £12.50
The Challenge of Immigration
A Radical Solution
Gary S. Becker
Occasional Paper 145; ISBN 978 0 255 36613 7; £7.50
Sharper Axes, Lower Taxes
Big Steps to a Smaller State
Edited by Philip Booth
Hobart Paperback 38; ISBN 978 0 255 36648 9; £12.50
Self-employment, Small Firms and Enterprise
Peter Urwin
Research Monograph 66; ISBN 978 0 255 36610 6; £12.50
Crises of Governments
The Ongoing Global Financial Crisis and Recession
Robert Barro
Occasional Paper 146; ISBN 978 0 255 36657 1; £7.50
… and the Pursuit of Happiness
Wellbeing and the Role of Government
Edited by Philip Booth
Readings 64; ISBN 978 0 255 36656 4; £12.50
Public Choice – A Primer
Eamonn Butler
Occasional Paper 147; ISBN 978 0 255 36650 2; £10.00
The Profit Motive in Education: Continuing the Revolution
Edited by James B. Stanfield
Readings 65; ISBN 978 0 255 36646 5; £12.50
Which Road Ahead – Government or Market?
Oliver Knipping & Richard Wellings
Hobart Paper 171; ISBN 978 0 255 36619 9; £10.00
Other IEA publications
Comprehensive information on other publications and the wider work
of the IEA can be found at www.iea.org.uk. To order any publication
please see below.
Personal customers
Orders from personal customers should be directed to the IEA:
Clare Rusbridge
IEA
2 Lord North Street
freepost lon10168
London sw1p 3yz
Tel: 020 7799 8907. Fax: 020 7799 2137
Email: crusbridge@iea.org.uk
Trade customers
All orders from the book trade should be directed to the IEA’s
distributor:
Gazelle Book Services Ltd (IEA Orders)
freepost rlys-eahu-yscz
White Cross Mills
Hightown
Lancaster la1 4xs
Tel: 01524 68765. Fax: 01524 53232
Email: sales@gazellebooks.co.uk
IEA subscriptions
The IEA also offers a subscription service to its publications. For a single
annual payment (currently £42.00 in the UK), subscribers receive every
monograph the IEA publishes. For more information please contact:
Clare Rusbridge
Subscriptions
IEA
2 Lord North Street
freepost lon10168
London sw1p 3yz
Tel: 020 7799 8907. Fax: 020 7799 2137
Email: crusbridge@iea.org.uk
