Content uploaded by Erik G. Hansen
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Erik G. Hansen on Jan 19, 2021
Content may be subject to copyright.
Business Cases for
Sustainability and the Role of
Business Model Innovation
Developing a Conceptual Framework
Stefan Schaltegger*, Florian Lüdeke-Freund & Erik G. Hansen
Centre for Sustainability Management (CSM)
Leuphana Universität Lüneburg
Scharnhorststr. 1
D-21335 Lüneburg
Fax: +49-4131-677-2186
csm@uni.leuphana.de
www.leuphana.de/csm/
* Corresponding author, email schaltegger@uni.leuphana.de
2011
© Stefan Schaltegger, Florian Lüdeke-Freund, Erik G. Hansen, 2011. All rights reserved. No
part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any
form or by any means: electronic, electrostatic magnetic tapes, photocopying, recording or
otherwise, without the permission in writing from the copyright holders.
Centre for Sustainability Management (CSM)
Leuphana University of Lueneburg
Scharnhorststr. 1
D-21335 Lueneburg
Centrum für Nachhaltigkeitsmanagement (CNM)
Leuphana Universität Lüneburg
Scharnhorststr. 1
D-21335 Lüneburg
Tel. +49-4131-677-2181
Fax. +49-4131-677-2186
E-mail: csm@uni.leuphana.de
www.leuphana.de/csm
ISBN 978-3-942638-03-6
CONTENTS III
CONTENTS
Abstract ......................................................................................................................................... IV
1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 6
2. What is a business case for sustainability? ................................................................................. 7
3. Drivers of business cases for sustainability ................................................................................. 9
4. From business cases to business models for sustainability ....................................................... 12
4.1 The links between corporate sustainability strategy and business case drivers............... 13
4.2 The links between business model and business case drivers ........................................ 15
5. The role of business model innovation ...................................................................................... 18
5.1 Introducing business model innovation ................................................................................ 18
5.2 Degrees of business model innovation................................................................................. 19
6. An integrated framework of sustainability strategy, business case drivers and business model
innovation ..................................................................................................................................... 20
7. Discussion and outlook ............................................................................................................. 23
References ................................................................................................................................... 25
IV TABLES
TABLES
Table 1: Interrelations between corporate sustainability strategies and business case drivers…...15
Table 2: Interrelations between business model and business case drivers...................................18
Table 3: An integrated framework of the business case for sustainability based on sustainability
strategies, business case drivers, and business model innovation..................................................23
ABSTRACT V
ABSTRACT
A considerable body of literature deals with the creation of economic value while increasing
corporate environmental and social performance. Some publications even focus on the business
case for sustainability which is targeted towards increasing corporate economic value through
environmental or social measures. The existence of a business case for sustainability is, however,
mostly considered to be an ad hoc measure, an add-on to core business, or simply a coincidence.
As a contrast to these views this paper argues that to support a systematic, ongoing creation of
business cases for sustainability may require business model innovation. A framework for business
model innovation is proposed as a means to strategically create business cases on a regular basis
as an inherent, deeply integrated element of business activities.
Keywords
business case for sustainability; business case drivers; business model; business model
innovation; radical innovation; sustainability strategies; strategic management; framework;
conceptual model
6 SCHALTEGGER, LÜDEKE-FREUND AND HANSEN
1. INTRODUCTION
Companies have without doubt a large influence on the economy and life in general. No
sustainable development is possible without a sustainable development of corporations. Corporate
management is therefore a crucial actor in shaping the future development of companies as well
as the economy and society. Management activities are based on managerial decisions derived
from reference points such as corporate visions and strategies which shape the business model
and the organizational development of a company. Unsustainable management decisions
neglecting social and environmental issues impede the whole corporate organization from
improving in sustainability terms. Corporate sustainability strategies are thus of crucial importance
to sustainable development but also for successfully directing a company through sustainability
related social, legal, political and economic requirements under conditions of market competition.
The fact that companies are founded and run for economic purposes requires management to
develop most of its societal engagement in relation to the economic goals of the corporation.
Corporate sustainability strategies are therefore challenged to recognize both, market sustainability
as well as social and environmental sustainability equally (Parnell, 2008). To achieve this
integration is the target and purpose of a business case for sustainability.
This paper proposes that a business case for sustainability can be created by addressing business
case drivers. It furthermore argues that to strategically create business cases (plural!) for
sustainability on a continuous basis requires an innovative business model which supports the
management of voluntary social and environmental activities in addressing the business case
drivers in a systematic manner. To achieve this it can be necessary to adapt or even radically
change a company‟s business model, i.e. to engage in business model innovation, to let these
drivers unfold their full potential in terms of business success and contributions to sustainable
development.
The paper is structured as follows. After a discussion of what can be understood by a business
case for sustainability (Section 2), business case drivers are discussed with regard to sustainability
(Section 3). Section 4 deals with the role the business model and strategy can exert on the
creation of business cases. This analysis provides the basis to discuss business model innovation
as a strategic driver for the systematic on-going creation of business cases for sustainability
(Section 5). Finally, Section 6 introduces a business case framework that integrates corporate
sustainability strategies, business case drivers, and business model innovation. The discussion in
Section 7 summarises the core findings of this paper and highlights the framework‟s strengths and
weaknesses.
WHAT IS A BUSINESS CASE FOR SUSTAINABILITY? 7
2. WHAT IS A BUSINESS CASE FOR SUSTAINABILITY?
A business case, or what scholars in business ethics often call “enlightened self-interest” (see e.g.
Carroll, 1991, p.43; Frederick, 1978/1994, p.151; Garriga and Melé, 2004, p.53; Mintzberg, 1983,
p.4; Tracey et al., 2005, p.330), is mostly described by a situation where economic success is
increased while performing in environmental and social issues. The role of creating a business
case for sustainability has been discussed for many years (e.g. Dyllick and Hockerts, 2002;
Epstein and Roy, 2003; Holliday et al., 2002; Perceva, 2003; Schaltegger and Wagner, 2006;
Steger, 2004). One line of discussion is whether creating business cases of sustainability is
sufficient to achieve corporate sustainability and sustainable development (Dyllick and Hockerts,
2002). Others elaborate on the question whether environmental and social activities and
performance are only a side effect of pure economic rationality (e.g. Eden, 1994). Corporate
sustainability “is promoted if profitable, for example, because of an improved reputation in various
markets” (Marrewijk, 2003, p. 102).
This paper focuses on a third perspective which deals with links between voluntary environmental
and social activities and corporate economic success, and how these links can be managed,
advanced, or innovated in order to improve economic success through voluntary social and
environmental activities.
On a general level, the link between environmental and economic performance has been a topic of
debate in the literature for more than fifteen years (see e.g. Burke and Logsdon, 1996; Edwards,
1998; Griffin and Mahon, 1997; Hamilton, 1995; Heinze et al., 1999; Margolis and Walsh, 2003;
Pava and Krausz, 1996; Porter and van der Linde, 1995a; 1995b; Russo and Fouts, 1997; Wagner
and Schaltegger, 2003). Whereas in the beginning most of the debate was about whether a
positive link or a business case exists or not (see e.g. Esty and Porter, 1998; Hart and Ahuja,
1996; Reinhardt, 1999), research has shifted for the last couple of years towards the question what
kind of links exist between voluntary environmental and social engagement and business success
(Holme and Watts, 2000; Lankoski, 2000; 2006; Margolis and Walsh, 2003; Martin, 2002; Pearce,
2003; Reinhardt, 2000; SustainAbility, 2001; Wagner et al., 2002; Wagner, 2007).
One conclusion of this research is that it is an illusion to believe that any kind of automatic
relationship exists between voluntary societal activities and business success (Schaltegger and
Synnestvedt, 2002; Steger, 2004; Wagner, 2007). Theoretical and empirical research indicates that
most companies seem to have potential for one or several business cases for sustainability
(Schaltegger and Wagner, 2006; Steger, 2004). However, this potential is often not recognized
because of distorted accounting and management information systems (Wallmann, 1995) and
other organizational rigidities (Steger, 2004). As a consequence, management is challenged to find
approaches to realise potential business cases through adequate sustainability management. A
business case for sustainability has to be created – it does not just happen.
A business case for sustainability – as a difference to just a conventional business case or a busi-
ness case of sustainability – has the purpose to and does realize economic success through (not
8 SCHALTEGGER, LÜDEKE-FREUND AND HANSEN
just with) an intelligent design of voluntary environmental and social activities. A business case for
sustainability is thus characterised by three requirements which have to be met.
Firstly, the company has to realize a voluntary or mainly voluntary activity with the intention to
contribute to the solution of societal or environmental problems. These are intended activities for
the society or the natural environment which are not just a reaction to legal enforcement or
dominated by legal requirements or which would be expected for economic reasons as part of
conventional business behaviour anyhow.
Secondly, the activity must create a positive business effect or a positive economic contribution to
corporate success which can be measured or argued for in a convincing way. Such effects can be
cost savings, the increase of sales or competitiveness, improved profitability, customer retention or
reputation, etc. The cause and effect relationship can be direct or indirect, however, must not be
speculative but rather based on a sound business argumentation.
Thirdly, a clear and convincing argumentation must exist that a certain management activity has
led or will lead to both, the intended societal or environmental effects, and the economic effect. A
business case for sustainability is characterised by creating economic success through (and not
just along with) a certain environmental or social activity.
Considering these three characteristics of a business case for sustainability may provide some
explanation for the different views about the role, value and effects of a business case with regard
to sustainable development. The question for example, whether creating business cases is
sufficient to achieve corporate sustainability and sustainable development (Dyllick and Hockerts,
2002) is justified if management does not have the initial intention to solve social or environmental
problems, if environmental and social activities are only a side effect of pure economic rationality
(e.g. Eden, 1994), or if the company just tries to leverage economic performance with coincidental
sustainability contributions (Marrewijk, 2003, p.102). However, accepting or increasing profit of
(coincidental) sustainability activities is fundamentally different from planning and realizing
voluntary social and environmental activities through which economic performance is created or
increased.
To create a business case for sustainability requires strategic management to identify, create and
strengthen the links between non-monetary social and environmental activities on the one hand
and business or economic success on the other hand. Furthermore, in order to achieve such
business cases the formulation and implementation of corporate strategies have to change,
compared to strategies that only strive for “market sustainability” through competitive advantages
in the sense of the resource based theory of the firm, for example (cf. Parnell, 2008; Stead and
Stead, 2008). That is, strategic objectives and measures, and sometimes even the business model
of a firm, have to be oriented towards a Triple Bottom Line (e.g. Elkington, 1998; Norman and
MacDonald, 2004). Based on these key assumptions this paper asks how strategic sustainability
management can contribute to create and manage business cases for sustainability, what drivers it
has to address in order to create a business case for sustainability, and how business model
innovation can serve as a framework for this endeavour.
DRIVERS OF BUSINESS CASES FOR SUSTAINABILITY 9
3. DRIVERS OF BUSINESS CASES FOR SUSTAINABILITY
To discuss and manage business cases for sustainability requires some understanding of the
relationship between voluntary societal activities and corporate economic success. Various models
have been proposed to analyse these links theoretically and empirically (for overviews see e.g.
Salzmann et al., 2005; Schaltegger and Wagner, 2006).
Earlier work on this issue mostly assumed that the optimum level of environmental or social
performance for a firm may be just achieving legal compliance with regulation. This “traditionalist”
view argues that firms face a trade-off between (better) environmental or social performance on the
one hand and (worse) economic performance or competitiveness on the other (e.g. Wagner, 2007;
Walley and Whitehead, 1994; Palmer et al., 1995; Simpson and Bradford, 1996; Xepapadeas and
De Zeeuw, 1999).
Whereas reactionary people will maintain that any kind of voluntary activity outside the narrower
focus of economic measures will hamper profit (Hemphill (1997) calls this perspective the
“minimalist” view), modernist and innovative observers of business reality will find examples of
profit increasing or business supporting measures. Most of the more recent research on the links
between voluntary sustainability measures and corporate economic success emphasizes the
possibility of win-win- or triple-win potentials (e.g. Eyring et al., 2011; Holme and Watts, 2000;
Lankoski, 2000; 2006; Margolis and Walsh, 2003; Martin, 2002; Pearce, 2003; Porter and Kramer,
2011; Reinhardt, 2000; Schaltegger and Synnestvedt 2002; SustainAbility, 2001; Wagner et al.,
2002; Wagner, 2007).
Examples can of course be found for both effects, such as end-of-pipe measures creating costs
and reducing profitability on one side, or the sales success and profitability of green products on
the other side. The economic return of a certain environmental or social performance will vary
whether cost-driving or profit-driving activities have been chosen and designed.
In other words, there is no general answer to whether it pays to be green (e.g. Reinhardt, 1999;
2000), but it is rather a management challenge to create societal engagement in a way that it
contributes to business and economic success. It depends on what kind of measures is chosen. A
business case for sustainability has to be created and managed – it does not just happen.
The fact that business case potentials are often overseen, even by well-informed corporate
professionals, and the necessity to identify and analyse business case potentials and to manage
them in a structured way is maybe most apparent in production where cleaner production
approaches have had difficulties to spread on a wide basis for the last decades even in companies
with large cost saving potentials (e.g. Montalvo and Kemp, 2008; Montalvo, 2008). Furthermore,
sustainability potentials are often overseen due to a lack of integration with processes of strategy
formulation and, related to this, due to lock-in effects of established company business models
which set boundaries to variations of corporate behaviour (e.g. Johnson, 2010).
However, even if the most profitable measures are chosen, the success will at some point have its
culmination and decline because no company will have an unlimited number of profit-increasing
10 SCHALTEGGER, LÜDEKE-FREUND AND HANSEN
voluntary social or environmental activities in a given business model (Schaltegger and
Synnestvedt, 2002). The core question and the basis for any management of a business case for
sustainability is thus how profit increasing societal activities, rather than cost increasing measures,
can be identified and integrated with the core business approach of a company. This is where
managing a business case for sustainability links in with strategic sustainability management and
business model innovation (see e.g. Porter and Kramer, 2011). The first linking step is the
discussion of drivers of a business case.
The drivers of a business case for sustainability are variables which directly influence economic
success and therefore are related to the drivers of a conventional business case (for an overview
of performance drivers see Olve et al., 1999). However, the links between voluntary sustainability
activities and economic success are often different and therefore also the kind of influence a social
or environmental activity has on the economic drivers. Among the core drivers of a business case
for sustainability are:
Costs and cost reduction (see e.g. Christmann, 2000; Epstein, 1996)
Sales and profit margin (see e.g. Porter and van der Linde, 1995a; 1995b)
Risk and risk reduction (see e.g. Schaltegger and Wagner, 2006; Loew et al., 2011)
Reputation and brand value (see e.g. Jones and Rubin, 1999; Marrewijk, 2003)
Attractiveness as employer (see e.g. Ehnert, 2009; Revell et al., 2010)
Innovative capabilities (see e.g. Cohen and Winn, 2007; Pujari, 2006; Schaltegger and
Wagner, 2011)
All voluntary social and environmental projects and activities can be analysed in terms of their
influence on these drivers. Furthermore, other drivers such as market entry or development can
play an important role depending on the circumstances and the company´s strategy (e.g. Porter
and van der Linde, 1995b). Current empirical research shows that these six main drivers are by no
means randomly compiled. For example, Collins, Roper, and Lawrence (2010) identified reputation
and brand, employees‟ demands, risk management and potential cost reductions as most
important drivers to be recognized when adopting environmental and social initiatives. While these
authors analyzed small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) from New Zealand, Revell and
colleagues found similar drivers in their empirical research on SMEs in the UK (Revell and
Blackburn, 2007; Revell et al., 2010). Their sample data from 2006 and 2007 illustrates that at this
time owner-managers were still somehow sceptical about the potential to create business cases
based on positive environmental contributions. Still, at the same time, Revell, Stokes, and Chen
(2010) identify the drivers that might contribute to business success when striving for
environmental reform in business: cost reductions (e.g. through resource efficiency) are seen as
the most promising driver, followed by aspects such as dealing with regulatory risks, attracting and
retaining staff, attracting new customers and increasing market share, as well as attaining good
publicity.
An important issue which is often neglected when assessing the business or economic effect of
societal activities is that their path of influence (or cause-and-effect link) can be quite indirect,
involving non-market links and actors such as political initiatives, NGOs, etc. In addition, these
relationships can be stochastic which makes their management more difficult (e.g. Edwards, 1998;
Griffin and Mahon, 1997; Lankoski, 2000; 2006; Salzmann et al., 2005). The variety of possible
DRIVERS OF BUSINESS CASES FOR SUSTAINABILITY 11
relationships and the different character of sustainability issues requires firstly to distinguish
different strategic positions towards integrating the societal and environmental dimensions with
business (e.g. Aragón-Correa and Rubio-López, 2007; Bhimani and Soonwalla, 2005; Epstein,
2003; Parnell, 2008; Schaltegger and Wagner, 2011), and secondly to clarify if and how specific
socially or environmentally relevant projects or activities influence the business model of a firm
(e.g. Birkin et al., 2009a; Birkin et al., 2009b; Eyring et al., 2011; Porter and Kramer, 2011; Stubbs
and Cocklin, 2008). This provides a basis for the discussion of interrelations between business
cases for sustainability, sustainability-oriented strategies, and business model management.
12 SCHALTEGGER, LÜDEKE-FREUND AND HANSEN
4. FROM BUSINESS CASES TO BUSINESS MODELS FOR SUSTAINABILITY
Neither theoretical nor empirical research offers sufficient answers to the question what a
sustainable business model might be (e.g. Stubbs and Cocklin, 2008). Moreover, the integration of
the business model with sustainability evokes significant conceptual challenges: On the one hand
the integration of economically relevant sustainability aspects with corporate business success is a
multidimensional task (e.g. Hansen et al., 2009; Stead and Stead, 2008; Schaltegger, 2011;
Wagner, 2007), while on the other the business model of a firm is a somehow elusive idea of how
business is conducted in order to create and capture economic value (e.g. Mäkinen and
Seppänen, 2007; Teece, 2010; Zott et al., 2011).
Mapping the links between both concepts may, however, be worthwhile to get from business cases
for sustainability, which can be based on single and event-driven occasions, to business models
for sustainability, which instead can serve as a kind of template for reproducing business cases on
a regular basis. Moving from single to continuous business case creation may be supported by a
business model rationale which positions sustainability as an integral part of the company´s value
proposition and value creation logic.
Theoretical considerations suggest that various approaches to integrating sustainability aspects
into a business model as well as extending it should exist and that these should be directly related
to the degree to which environmental and social aspects have become ingrained into the corporate
sustainability strategy that underlies the business model. In general, it seems obvious that as
environmental and social issues gain relevance in the strategy, more extensive business model
modifications have to be conducted; both, with regard to modifications of existing models as well
as the development of new ones from sketch.
In the conceptual framework proposed here, the business case drivers have the character of
intermediating variables which link the corporate sustainability strategy with the “architectural”
business model level of a firm (for general interrelations between business strategy and business
architecture see e.g. Osterwalder, 2004; Teece, 2010). To map the links between business case
drivers, corporate sustainability strategies, and business models, the following three questions are
crucial:
Does a corporate sustainability strategy comprise activities and projects which explicitly
address the business case drivers?
Does the way of addressing these drivers conform to the characterization of a business
case for sustainability?
Does the way a corporate sustainability strategy addresses business case drivers lead to or
require business model modifications or business model innovations in order to achieve
economic success?
To offer a management approach that identifies the crucial links between the drivers of a business
case for sustainability, the corporate sustainability strategy and the business model, two types of
interrelations have to be characterised: first, links between corporate sustainability strategies and
FROM BUSINESS CASES TO BUSINESS MODELS FOR SUSTAINABILITY 13
business case drivers, and, second, links between business case drivers and the business model.
Thus, management decisions can be supported by answering the question whether a business
case for sustainability requires a modified or even a completely new business model.
4.1 The links between corporate sustainability strategy and business case drivers
Various taxonomies and typologies of sustainability strategies have been established representing
a continuum ranging from defensive to proactive approaches. Many of these strategies are based
on Carroll‟s seminal work on social responsiveness categories (Carroll, 1979; see also Wartick and
Cochrane, 1985). These, in turn, mostly developed from the basic strategies and philosophies
identified earlier by McAdam (1973), Wilson (1975), and Davis and Blomstrom (1975). Due to its
generic character the scale proposed by Wilson often serves as a point of orientation for
managerial approaches and receives wide acceptance amongst scholars in the area of
sustainability and CSR (see e.g. Azzone and Bertelè, 1994; Henriques and Sadorsky, 1999;
Roome, 1992; Wartick and Cochrane, 1985; for a more detailed review of taxonomies and
typologies see Buysse and Verbeke, 2003). He defines reactive, defensive, accommodative, and
proactive postures of responsiveness (Wilson, 1975), a continuum which Henriques and Sadorsky
(1999) also call the “RDAP scale”. As the reactive strategy entirely neglects environmental and
social issues, only the three strategy types defensive, accommodative, and proactive are helpful in
analyzing strategy and business case driver interrelations.
These three strategies are related to the above introduced business case drivers as follows (similar
links between corporate performance and environmental strategies were established by, for
example, Aragón-Correa and Rubio-López, 2007; Henriques and Sadorsky, 1999; and Roome,
1992):
Defensive (limited integration): Defensive strategic behaviour is often a reaction on
(perceived) cost-constraints. Managers deal with sustainability issues in a rather narrow,
reactive manner. The main motivation behind defensive strategies is not to gain competitive
advantage with sustainability performance, but the need to comply with legislation (also
termed “compliance strategy”; Roome, 1992, p.18). Defensive strategies are directed
towards the protection of the existing business and revenue generating rationale (“business
logic”; Prahalad and Bettis, 1995). Efficiency and cost-related aspects are addressed as well
as communication and public relations to reduce reputational and legislative risks.
Accommodative (integration): This strategy reflects a rather cautious modification of internal
processes and the modest consideration of environmental or social objectives such as
environmental protection, eco-efficiency, or occupational health and safety. Managers are
willing to use sustainability management systems and tools to control the organization and
are partly aware of the need for organizational change which requires some involvement
and training of employees (comparable to Roome‟s “compliance-plus strategy”; Roome,
1992; pp.18-19). Overall, accommodation strategies integrate environmental or social
objectives in most of the business processes and maybe partly in the product range,
however, without questioning the revenue logic or the core business as such.
14 SCHALTEGGER, LÜDEKE-FREUND AND HANSEN
Proactive (full integration): Proactive strategies integrate environmental or social objectives
as part of the core business logic in order to contribute to sustainable development of the
economy and society. The core business and thus all business processes and the full
product range are directed towards sustainability, as is the revenue logic. Therefore, central
concepts such as the definitions of costs and risks are modified to account for negative
externalities, i.e. social costs and risks. Efficiency and cost-related aspects are addressed
as well as customer issues, sustainability-oriented innovation capabilities and societal “non-
market” issues. A proactive strategy pursues business and sustainability goals
simultaneously and strives for business leadership through outstanding sustainability
performance (this refers to what Roome calls “commercial and environmental excellence”
and “leading edge”; Roome, 1992, p.19).
Table 1: Interrelations between corporate sustainability strategies and business case drivers
Corporate sustainability strategy
Core drivers of business cases
for sustainability
Defensive
Accommodative
Proactive
Costs and cost reduction
Mainly cost and efficiency-
oriented compliance
activities (often “low
hanging fruit” only)
Cost and efficiency-
oriented activities actively
pursued and linked to
sustainability issues when
possible
Cost and efficiency-
oriented activities actively
created to achieve
sustainability goals; cost
concept includes external
social costs
Sales and profit margin
Products or product
communication are
adapted to reduce risks of
sales decrease
Sustainability-oriented
customer segments are
partly acknowledged and
served with specific
products (besides existing
conventional product lines)
Market-oriented strategies
to gain competitive
advantage by making
sustainability-oriented
products and services
become the core of the
company‟s portfolio
Risk and risk reduction
Sustainability issues seen
as sources of risk;
activities aim at risk
reduction (in contrast to
precaution)
Sustainability and risk
management seen as
complementary and
opportunity-creating
concepts
Sustainability and risk
management seen as
complementary and
opportunity-creating
concepts; risk concept
includes social risks
Reputation and brand value
[Reputational activities,
rather reactive and mainly
oriented towards risk
reduction]
Sustainability activities
have limited potential to
contribute to reputation
and brand due to mainly
internal focus
Sustainability activities
contribute to reputation
and brand as they are
boundary-spanning and
integrating stakeholders
Attractiveness as employer
Increased salaries to
retain and attract
personnel
Further education and
innovative positions
limited; sustainability units
may exist
Further education,
innovative positions, social
attention (e.g. towards
families) increase
attractiveness to highly
skilled workforce
Innovative capabilities
Innovations to obscure
non-performance with
regard to sustainability
(e.g. “greenwashed”
products)
Process, product, and
organizational innovations
limited by boundaries of
existing business logic
Sustainability-oriented
process, product, and
organizational innovations
transform business logic;
sustainability problems
and stakeholders are
considered a key source
of innovation
FROM BUSINESS CASES TO BUSINESS MODELS FOR SUSTAINABILITY 15
As can be seen from Table 1, different sustainability strategies put different emphases on the
single business case drivers. Consequently, every sustainability strategy is supposed to affect the
business model of a company differently. Before mapping the links between strategy and business
model (which is an ongoing and controversial debate amongst strategy scholars; e.g. Casadesus-
Masanell and Ricart, 2010), the latter has to be linked to the business case drivers. Based on
these links, every modification or development of the business model with the strategic intention to
support voluntary environmental and social activities contributing to these drivers can be regarded
as an approach towards a business model for sustainability.
4.2 The links between business model and business case drivers
Progress in corporate sustainability is a venture based on normative and strategic foundations
which have to be translated into practical operations through adequate concepts and instruments
which help guide managers and entrepreneurs (see e.g. Schaltegger and Burritt, 2005;
Schaltegger and Wagner, 2006). The above outlined interrelations between corporate sustainability
strategies and the business case drivers illustrate this requirement once more. Beyond that, it is
also a question of how to change the existing, i.e. dominating, business logic of a company, which
is a common theme in strategic management and organization studies (several “mainstream”
authors address this topic from a business model perspective; see e.g. Chesbrough, 2007; 2010;
Johnson, 2010; Johnson et al., 2008; Mitchell and Coles, 2003; 2004a; 2004b; Teece, 2010). Thus,
the impacts of striving for corporate sustainability through the respective strategies on the business
logic of a company represented by the business model, and vice versa, have to be studied (only a
limited number of authors deal with this type of sustainability-oriented organizational change; see
e.g. Birkin et al., 2009a; Birkin et al., 2009b; Stubbs and Cocklin, 2008).
Two different causalities between sustainability strategies and the business model may be
considered. First, if a company implements a strategy aiming at the business case for sustainability
(e.g. Schaltegger and Wagner, 2006) the business model may have to change (directly or
indirectly); i.e. the need for improved business case drivers (e.g. the need to improve cost
structures due to more expensive but environmentally friendly production inputs) may have an
effect on the business model configuration (see Table 2). Second, and vice versa, the business
model also determines and constrains corporate strategy and the business case for sustainability.
The business model is often interpreted as a determining factor of corporate behaviour and thus
business opportunities (e.g. Baden-Fuller and Morgan, 2010; Chesbrough, 2010; Elkington, 2004
[who calls the business model the “DNA of business”]; Wirtz, 2011; Yip, 2004; Zott et al., 2011); i.e.
the business model in turn influences business strategy and operative outcomes (such as cost
structures).
In other words, a company which tries to improve its sustainability performance has to change its
business model, however incremental or radical, which can turn out to be the decisive (i.e. limiting
or supporting) factor for succeeding in creating one or many business cases for sustainability
(concerning different intensities of business model modification and innovation see e.g.
Chesbrough, 2007; 2010; Mitchell and Coles, 2003; Yip, 2004). Despite its fundamental
16 SCHALTEGGER, LÜDEKE-FREUND AND HANSEN
significance, the business model has been neglected in academic and practitioner-oriented
literature on corporate sustainability and corporate sustainability management.
Therefore, in order to map out interrelations between business case drivers and the business
model, a general business model concept has to be introduced. Four central pillars can be
identified when reviewing relevant literature (Ballon, 2007, p.8; emphases added):
“the products and services a firm offers, representing a substantial value to a target
customer (value proposition), and for which he is willing to pay;
the relationship the firm creates and maintains with the customer, in order to satisfy him and
to generate sustainable [here: long-term] revenues;
the infrastructure and the network of partners that are necessary in order to create value
and to maintain a good customer relationship; and
the financial aspects that can be found throughout the three former components, such as
cost and revenue structures.”
From a strategic management perspective a business model primarily focuses on the value
created for customers (e.g. Wirtz, 2011). Therefore, a company has to manage its partnerships,
activities, and resources, i.e. its infrastructure, to offer adequate value configurations for products
and services, whereas activities and resources are both company-owned and acquired from
partners (e.g. Amit and Zott, 2010; Zott and Amit, 2011). To address customer segments
communication and distribution channels as well as diverse customer relationships have to be
established. Finally, the financial aspects refer to optimizing revenue streams from customers as
well as infrastructure costs in order to appropriate economic value for the company (e.g.
Osterwalder, 2004). Osterwalder‟s business model concept was among the first to include a
thorough definition and a representation based on these four pillars and their relationships (ibid.);
meanwhile, variations of this concept can be found throughout the present literature (e.g. Johnson
et al., 2008; Johnson, 2010; Wirtz, 2011; Chesbrough, 2010).
Understanding these four pillars is crucial for managing a business model and it is even more
important for understanding business model innovation (e.g. Chesbrough, 2010; Teece, 2010;
Wirtz, 2011; Zott et al., 2011). Whilst the four business model pillars describe the logic of
companies in more general terms, when it comes to sustainability-oriented business model
innovation it is essential to understand and manage the links between these pillars and the
business case drivers – which in turn influence whether a business case is created or not. Table 2
shows possible interrelations between the business model pillars and business case drivers.
FROM BUSINESS CASES TO BUSINESS MODELS FOR SUSTAINABILITY 17
Table 2: Interrelations between business model and business case drivers
Generic business model pillars
Core drivers of
business cases for
sustainability
Value Proposition
(VP)
Customer
relationships (CR)
Business
infrastructure (BI)
Financial aspects
(FA)
Costs and cost
reduction
Products and
services with lower
energy or
maintenance costs
for customers
Cost-efficient
contracting
relationships,
closed-loop service
systems
Costs of new
products and
services can be
lowered through
partnerships
Balancing cost
reductions for
customers and cost
structures of new
products and
services to increase
profitability
Sales and profit
margin
Environmentally
and socially
superior products
and services
require modified or
new VPs to turn
into sales and
profits
Higher customer
retention and cu-
stomer value as a
result of
sustainability-
oriented, service-
intense
relationships
New products and
services may
require strategic
partnerships (e.g.
co-opetition) to
overcome market
barriers
New products and
services and/or
new customer
relationships
contribute to
diversified revenue
streams
Risk and risk
reduction
Lowering societal
risks through
products and
services can create
value to certain
customer segments
Service-
relationships
reducing
sustainability risks
for customers result
in higher customer
loyalty
Resources,
activities, and
partnerships set up
in order to minimize
internal and
external risks
Improved risk and
credit rating
resulting from
lowered
sustainability risks
Reputation and
brand value
Sustainability as
distinctive element
of good corporate
reputation
Sustainability as
marketing feature
of the brand
increasing
customer loyalty
Strategic
partnerships with
sustainability
leaders can
increase reputation
and brand value
Sustainability
performance
leading to a good
rating and the
consideration in
sustainability
indices and funds
Attractiveness as
employer
A companies‟
offerings and VPs
allowing for
personal
identification to
attract employees
Better customer
service as a result
of higher employee
motivation
Attractiveness as
principal can
enhance the quality
of activities,
resources, and
partnerships
Reduced costs for
HR acquisition, less
fluctuation costs
and lower
compensation costs
Innovative
capabilities
Unfolding the full
sustainability-
potential of inno-
vations enables
modified or new
VPs
Innovative products
and services
creating solutions
to sustainability
problems,
improving customer
retention
To allow for
innovations to
unfold may require
new activities,
resources, and
partnerships
Higher innovation
potential and
expectations for
profitable
innovations leading
to an increase of
shareholder value
As Table 2 shows, the different business model pillars are differently affected by the business case
drivers. That is, based on the chosen sustainability strategy, different drivers are addressed which
in turn requires different degrees of business model innovation.
18 SCHALTEGGER, LÜDEKE-FREUND AND HANSEN
5. THE ROLE OF BUSINESS MODEL INNOVATION
5.1 Introducing business model innovation
Despite the fact that business model research is a rather young field of management studies (e.g.
Baden-Fuller and Morgan, 2010; Zott et al., 2011), a broad discourse on business model
innovation has evolved for the last decade (e.g. Chesbrough and Rosenbloom, 2002; Chesbrough,
2007; 2010; Mitchell and Coles, 2003; 2004a; 2004b; Demil and Lecoq, 2010; Johnson, 2010;
Johnson et al., 2008; Teece, 2010; Zott et al., 2011). According to the literature review conducted
by Zott, Amit, and Massa there is consensus on some core issues of research on business model
innovation. Scholars seem to agree that the business model is not only a facilitator of technological
and organizational innovations, but can become itself subject to strategic innovation in order to
share and leverage resources such as knowledge, managerial and entrepreneurial skills, or to
enable reconfigurations of the underlying value chain or value network (e.g. Schweizer, 2005;
Wirtz, 2011). From this perspective the business model is a strategic asset to improve firm
performance (e.g., Afuah, 2004; Casadesus-Masanell and Ricart, 2010; Chesbrough, 2007;
Hamel, 2000; Magretta, 2002), and, more fundamentally, may define a leadership agenda on
strategic business model management and innovation (e.g. Chesbrough, 2010; Doz and Kosonen,
2010; Smith et al., 2010). However, the current discourse nearly fully ignores issues of corporate
sustainability (exceptions are e.g. Johnson and Suskewicz (2009) with regard to eco-innovations
and Yunus et al. (2010) with regard to social entrepreneurship).
To fill this gap, a basic understanding of what constitutes business model innovation has to be
related to corporate strategies, the above defined drivers and the concept of the business case for
sustainability. The framework introduced by Mitchell and Coles (2003) provides an appropriate
starting point. In a longitudinal study on 100 public companies they analysed that outperforming
companies shared one common feature:
“... it was clear that perennial top performers were frequently making fundamental
improvements in several dimensions ... of their business models at once for serving their
customers, end users and other important stakeholders (such as employees, partners,
suppliers, distributors, lenders, shareholders, and the communities the company serves).
The most effective companies were making these multidimensional business model shifts
every two to four years.” (Mitchell and Coles, 2003, p.16)
The most important finding of their study refers to what might be termed a strategic leverage effect
of business model innovation: In line with Porter (1996), Mitchell and Coles (2003) identified cost
and differentiation strategies to be driving outperformance, whereas the really new insight was that
top performers were using business model innovations to amplify their strategic effectiveness. Amit
and Zott (2010) draw comparable conclusions from different studies among thousands of CEOs
who see business model innovation as top priority compared to product or process innovations
which often create only short-term competitive advantages. Amit and Zott go even further and
completely separate business model innovation from product and process innovation and claim
THE ROLE OF BUSINESS MODEL INNOVATION 19
that it is less costly, more effective, and the appropriate approach in times of capital scarcity, such
as the latest global economic downturn.
5.2 Degrees of business model innovation
Based on Mitchell and Coles‟ study a typology of business model innovation is proposed including
the four stages of adjustment, adoption, improvement, and actual redesign:
Business model adjustment refers to changes of only one (or a minor number of) business
model element(s), excluding the value proposition; i.e. modifications of customer
relationships, business infrastructure, or the financial pillar alone constitute adjustments.
Business model adoption refers to changes that mainly focus on matching competitors‟
value propositions. This requires changes to products and/or services, but sometimes also
parts of the customer relationships pillar and the business infrastructure as these elements
can be part of the value proposition as well (Osterwalder, 2004).
Business model improvement takes place, put simply, when most of the business model
elements are changed. That is, simultaneous changes of a major number of elements, such
as customer relationship approaches, infrastructure elements such the business network,
and the financial logic are required to replace an existing model.
Business model redesign exists when an improvement leads to a completely new value
proposition. While a business model might be improved without changing the value
proposition to the market (e.g. shifting from own production to process licensing), a redesign
replaces the underlying business logic and offers new products, services or product-service
systems (Devisscher and Mont, 2008). An example is a car manufacturer who develops
from a sole product vendor to a mobility provider, for example, by offering car-sharing or
even ride-sharing services (Hansen et al., 2010).
The strategic leverage effect of business model innovation increases the effectiveness of business
strategies. Against this background, the following section presents an integrated framework by
bringing together sustainability strategies (and the related business case drivers) and the four
degrees of business model innovation.
20 SCHALTEGGER, LÜDEKE-FREUND AND HANSEN
6. AN INTEGRATED FRAMEWORK OF SUSTAINABILITY STRATEGY, BUSINESS CASE
DRIVERS AND BUSINESS MODEL INNOVATION
In the previous chapters we have argued that, firstly, environmental and social activities aiming at
business cases for sustainability can be attributed to a continuum of generic sustainability
strategies (defensive, accommodative, and proactive). Furthermore, to create business cases
these strategies should address, i.e. support, the main drivers of business success (costs and cost
reduction, sales and profit margin, risk and risk reduction, reputation and brand value,
attractiveness as employer, as well as innovative capabilities; cf. Table 1). Secondly, modifications
or even further development of a company‟s business model may be necessary to fully unfold the
business case potential of these sustainability strategies and the drivers they address (cf. Table 2).
Summarizing these links, the present chapter introduces an integrated framework for the business
case for sustainability by combining sustainability strategies, the degrees of business model
innovation and business case drivers. This framework is intended to help practitioners and
researchers to identify how a given sustainability strategy must be combined with a certain degree
of business model innovation (cf. Table 3):
Defensive strategies with slight degrees of business model adjustment or adoption protect
the current business model. They only touch few business case drivers and these in a
modest way and thus do not create substantial business cases for sustainability.
As a contrast, proactive strategies leading to (actual) business model redesign address
many business case drivers strongly and continuously, with the effect of regular creations of
business cases for sustainability.
Accommodative strategies, positioned in between these two rationales, go along with a
change and some improvement of the business model, thus exerting some influence on
business case drivers by experimenting within the current model. The influence of
accommodative strategies, however, is less fundamental and lasting as that of proactive
strategies.
AN INTEGRATED FRAMEWORK 21
Table 3: An integrated framework of the business case for sustainability based on sustainability strategies, business case drivers, and business model
innovation
Sustainability
strategies
Degree of
business model
innovation
Effects of addressed drivers
of business cases for sustainability
Contribution
to business
cases
Defensive
Business model
adjustment*
Mainly cost and efficiency-oriented measures aim for low-hanging fruits and thus only
require moderate (if any) business model changes. Accordingly, only a minor number of
business elements (excluding the value proposition) are affected. Sustainability issues
are primarily perceived as risks leading to protective behaviour, while reputational
activities are of a rather cosmetic nature.
Business model
adoption*
Accommodative
Business model
improvement
Cost and efficiency-oriented measures are pursued actively and partly linked to
sustainability issues. Together with sustainability-oriented risk management this can
require very basic changes like renewing production processes, changing value network
partners, or approaching new market segments. A general orientation towards external
addressees in terms of reputation, brand, and attractiveness to employees can require
basic changes in customer relationships and business processes.
Proactive
Business model
redesign
As proactive strategies feature radical changes to the core business logic of a company,
a major number of business model elements will be affected. Sales and profits are
improved by environmentally and socially outstanding products and services, leading to
not yet available value propositions. Cost and efficiency-oriented measures are applied
to support the new products and services and to gain competitive advantage through
sustainability performance, which in turn pays in terms of risk management, reputation
and corporate brand value. As innovative drivers unfold their full potential the company
becomes increasingly attractive to high-skilled employees.
* Mitchell and Coles, on which this classification is based, themselves reduce the lowest two degrees of business model innovation to one category (cf.
Mitchell and Coles, 2003, p.17)
Business Case for Sustainability
22 SCHALTEGGER, LÜDEKE-FREUND AND HANSEN
The framework should also help to identify possible conflicts between the chosen corporate
sustainability strategy and the degree of business model innovation. For example, if an ambitious,
proactive sustainability strategy is chosen, but the degree of business model innovation is
constrained to a business model adoption (e.g. through green “me-too” products), frictions will
inevitably occur as the business model will be too rigid to fully implement the sustainability strategy
and develop the related business case drivers. A textbook example for this situation is the greening
strategy of Shell, “Responsible Energy” (e.g. Backer, 2009). Understanding these relationships
might help to identify and adjust wrong expectations towards the payoff of social and/or
environmental measures, what otherwise would lead to the management‟s disappointment. Further
developing the understanding of these linkages may also help to prevent greenwashing, as it helps
external stakeholders to earlier detect dissonances in a company‟s approach.
DISCUSSION AND OUTLOOK 23
7. DISCUSSION AND OUTLOOK
A business case of sustainability is often described as a situation where economic success is
increased while performing in environmental and social issues. As a distinct difference to this view
(see Section 2), a business case for sustainability is created only if economic success through
voluntary social and environmental activities is achieved. Given that such a business case does
not happen, but has to be managed actively, core requirements of a business case for
sustainability are voluntary social and environmental activities which are based on intended
management activities to improve sustainability through which a positive economic effect is
created.
To intentionally manage business cases for sustainability requires a good understanding of how
the drivers of a business case can be positively influenced with societal and environmental
activities. The main identified business case drivers are costs and cost reduction, sales and profit
margin, risk and risk reduction, reputation and brand value, attractiveness as employer, and
innovative capabilities (see Section 3).
Furthermore, sustainable development requires more than coincidental, ad hoc or eclectic creation
of a business case now and then. A strategic, i.e. systematic, coherent, and continuous,
management of business cases for sustainability may rather require a more fundamental change
and development of the business model of the company. Investigating the interrelations between
the corporate strategy and the drivers of a business case for sustainability (see Section 4.1) on one
hand, and the business model and the drivers of a business case on the other hand supports the
argument that business model innovation may be key to create a strategic leverage effect (see
Section 5.1).
Based on the understanding of a business case for sustainability introduced in Section 2, a
business model for sustainability can be defined as supporting voluntary, or mainly voluntary,
activities which solve or moderate social and/or environmental problems. By doing so it creates
positive business effects which can be measured or at least argued for. A business model for
sustainability is actively managed in order to create customer and social value by integrating
social, environmental, and business activities.
Business model innovations as a result of business model management can be broad or focused.
Based on Carroll´s distinction between defensive, accommodative and proactive strategies
(Carroll, 1979) and Mitchell and Coles‟ business model innovation hierarchy (Mitchell and Coles,
2003) a basic typology of sustainability-oriented business model innovation was developed:
defensive strategic management to protect the current business model; accommodative strategic
management to experiment within the given business model; and proactive strategic management
leading to business model redesign. These strategies address the business case drivers with
different intensities and focus, and thus differ in how likely and systematically a business model for
sustainability will be achieved, with accommodation and proaction being the most focused and
promising.
24 SCHALTEGGER, LÜDEKE-FREUND AND HANSEN
However, despite the promises of business model innovations being the next big step of strategic
management (e.g. Voelpel et al., 2004 Johnson, 2010), it has to be recognized that this kind of
innovation often faces significant barriers. Chesbrough (2010) reviews central hurdles identified
from previous academic research: conflicts with the current business model, conflicts with the
underlying asset configuration, and missing clarity about the “right” model to exploit an innovation
(ibid., pp. 358-359). Conflicts with the prevailing model can origin in two major sources: firstly, the
resistance of managers being afraid that the acknowledgement of their personal contribution to the
company might decrease if the modus operandi changes, and secondly, the influence of the
dominant business logic on the information that flows into and circulates within the company.
These inherent conflicts can result in strong resistance since managers prefer to do what they
have always done and with what they have been successful (given the existing incentives) (e.g.
Chesbrough, 2010; Prahalad and Bettis, 1995) and since organizations tend to learn what they
already know (e.g. Argyris, 1999; Kim, 1993; Levitt and March, 1988). As a consequence the
current underlying asset configuration of the business model may not be changed. Asset allocation
and exploitation are key strategic issues directly related to managers decision-making and
information availability. Accommodative and proactive business model innovations might be
blocked because of allocation principles in favour of existing technologies with high gross margins:
“As the firm allocates its capital to the most profitable uses, the established technology will be
disproportionately favored and the disruptive [i.e. the new] technology starved of resources.”
(Chesbrough, 2010, p.358)
Furthermore, missing clarity about the “right” business model to exploit innovations may be another
crucial obstacle for sustainability-oriented business model innovation. This failure is closely related
to the influence that the dominant logic exerts on organizational learning and information
availability. In their exemplary article on business model innovation at Xerox, Chesbrough and
Rosenbloom (2002) were able to track back missed business opportunities to the underlying,
dominant business model which created a lock-in effect against technologies which could not be
exploited with the existing business model. Such an example was the very successful Ethernet
protocol developed by 3Com, a company that commercialized a technology that did not match the
Xerox business model. Chesbrough‟s (2010, pp.359-362) conclusion is that creating and adopting
new business models by means of experimentation, effectuation and organizational leadership can
help to overcome these hurdles.
Sustainability-oriented innovations are obviously predisposed to not fit with the dominant logic of
an established business model. However, accommodative and proactive sustainability strategies
may help creating and adopting new business models which support the continuous and
systematic creation of business cases for sustainability.
REFERENCES 25
REFERENCES
Afuah, A. (2004) Business models. A strategic management approach, Boston: McGraw-
Hill/Irwin.
Amit, R. and Zott, C. (2010) Business Model Innovation: Creating Value in Times of Change,
IESE Working Paper, No. WP-870, Barcelona: IESE Business School/University of
Navarra.
Aragón-Correa, J. and Rubio-López, E. (2007) „Proactive Corporate Environmental Strategies:
Myths and Misunderstandings‟, Long Range Planning, Vol. 40, pp.357–381.
Argyris, C. (1999) On organizational learning, 2nd ed., Malden: Blackwell Business.
Azzone, G. and Bertelè, U. (1994) „Exploiting Green Strategies for Competitive Advantage‟,
Long Range Planning, Vol. 27, No. 6, pp.66–81.
Backer, L. (2009) „When Oil and Wind Turbine Companies Make Green Sense Together‟,
Business Strategy and the Environment, Vol. 18, No. 1, pp.43–52.
Baden-Fuller, C. and Morgan, M. (2010) „Business models as models‟, Long Range Planning,
Vol. 43, No. 2/3, Sp. Iss. SI, pp.156–171.
Ballon, P. (2007) „Business modelling revisited: the configuration of control and value‟, The
Journal of Policy, Regulation and Strategy for Telecommunications, Information and
Media, Vol. 9, No. 5, pp.6–19.
Bhimani, A. and Soonwalla, K. (2005) „From conformance to performance: the corporate
responsibilities continuum‟, Journal of Accounting and Public Policy, Vol. 24, pp.165–
174.
Birkin, F., Cashman, A., Koh, S. and Liu, Z. (2009a) „New sustainable business models in
China‟, Business Strategy and the Environment, Vol. 18, No. 1, pp.64–77.
Birkin, F., Polesie, T. and Lewis, L. (2009b) „A new business model for sustainable
development: an exploratory study using the theory of constraints in Nordic
organizations‟, Business Strategy and the Environment, Vol. 18, No. 5, pp.277–290.
Burke, L. and Logsdon, J.M. (1996) „How Corporate Social Responsibility Pays Off‟, Long
Range Planning, Vol. 29, No. 4, pp.495–502.
Buysse, K. and Verbeke, A. (2003) „Proactive environmental strategies: a stakeholder
management perspective‟, Strategic Management Journal, Vol. 24, pp.453–470.
Carroll, A.B. (1979) „A Three-Dimensional Conceptual Model of Corporate Performance‟,
Academy of Management Review, Vol. 4, No. 4, pp.497–505.
Carroll, A.B. (1991) ‟The pyramid of corporate social responsibility: Towards the moral
management of organizational stakeholders‟, Business Horizons , Vol. 34, No. 4, pp.39–
48.
26 SCHALTEGGER, LÜDEKE-FREUND AND HANSEN
Casadesus-Masanell, R. and Ricart, J. (2010) „From Strategy to Business Models and onto
Tactics‟, Long Range Planning, Vol. 43, No. 2/3, Sp. Iss. SI, pp.195–215.
Chesbrough, H. (2007) „Business model innovation it's not just about technology anymore‟,
Strategy & Leadership, Vol. 35, No. 6, pp.12–17.
Chesbrough, H. (2010) „Business model innovation: opportunities and barriers‟, Long Range
Planning, Vol. 43, No. 2/3, Sp. Iss. SI, pp.354–363.
Chesbrough, H. and Rosenbloom, R. (2002) „The role of the business model in capturing
value from innovation: evidence from Xerox Corporation‟s technology spin-off
companies‟, Industrial & Corporate Change, Vol. 11, No. 3, pp.529–555.
Christmann, P. (2000) „Effects of „Best Practices‟ of Environmental Management on Cost
Advantage: The Role of Complementary Assets‟, Academy of Management Journal, Vol.
43, pp.663–680.
Cohen, B. and Winn, M.I. (2007) „Market imperfections, opportunity and sustainable
entrepreneurship‟, Journal of Business Venturing, Vol. 22, No. 1, pp.29–49.
Collins, E., Roper, J. and Lawrence, S. (2010) „Sustainability Practices: Trends in New
Zealand Businesses‟, Business Strategy and the Environment, Vol. 19, No. 8, pp.479–
494.
Davis, K. and Blomstrom, R. (1975) Business and society Environment and responsibility, 3rd
ed., New York: McGraw-Hill/Irwin.
Demil, B. and Lecocq, X. (2010) „Business Model Evolution: In Search of Dynamic
Consistency‟, Long Range Planning, Vol. 43, No. 2/3, Sp. Iss. SI, pp.227–246.
Devisscher, T. and Mont, O. (2008) „An analysis of a product service system in Bolivia: coffee
in Yungas‟, International Journal of Innovation and Sustainable Development, Vol. 3, No.
3/4, pp.262–284.
Doz, Y. and Kosonen, M. (2010) „Embedding Strategic Agility: A Leadership Agenda for
Accelerating Business Model Renewal‟, Long Range Planning, Vol. 43, No. 2/3, Sp. Iss.
SI, pp.370–382.
Dyllick, T. and Hockerts, K. (2002) „Beyond the Business Case for Corporate Sustainability‟,
Business Strategy and the Environment, Vol. 11, No. 2, pp.130–141.
Eden, S. (1994) „Using sustainable development: The business case‟, Global Environmental
Change, Vol. 4, No. 2, pp.160–167.
Edwards, D. (1998) The Link between Company Environmental and Financial Performance,
London: Earthscan Publications.
Ehnert, I. (2009) Sustainable Human Resource Management. A Conceptual and Exploratory
Analysis from a Paradox Perspective, Heidelberg: Physica.
Elkington, J. (1998) „Partnerships from cannibals with forks: The triple bottom line of 21st-
century business‟, Environmental Quality Management, Vol. 8, No. 1, pp.37–51.
REFERENCES 27
Elkington, J. (2004) „Enter the Triple Bottom Line‟, In: Henriques, A. and Richardson, J. (eds.),
The Triple Bottom Line, does it all add up?, (pp.1–16), London: Earthscan Publications.
Epstein, M.J. (2003) „Making the Business Case for Sustainability: Linking Social and
Environmental Actions to Financial Performance‟, Journal of Corporate Citizenship , Vol.
9, pp.79–96.
Epstein, M.J. and Roy, M. (1996) Measuring corporate environmental performance best
practices for costing and managing an effective environmental strategy, Chicago: Irwin
Professional Publ.
Esty, D. and Porter, M.E. (1998) „Industrial Ecology and Competitiveness. Strategic
Implications for the Firm‟, Journal of Industrial Ecology, Vol. 2, No. 1, pp.35–43.
Eyring, M.J., Johnson, M.W. and Nair, H. (2011) „New Business Models in Emerging Markets‟,
Harvard Business Review, Vol. 89, No. 1/2, pp.88–95.
Frederick, W. (1994) „From CSR1 to CSR2. The Maturing of Business-and-Society Thought‟,
Business & Society, Vol. 33, No. 2, pp.150–164.
Garriga, E. and Melé, D. (2004) „Corporate Social Responsibility Theories: Mapping the
Territory‟, Journal of Business Ethics, Vol. 53, No. 1-2, pp.51–71.
Griffin, J. (2000) „Corporate Social Performance: Research Directions for the 21st Century‟,
Business & Society, Vol. 39, No. 4, pp.479–491.
Griffin, J. and Mahon, J. (1997) „The corporate social performance and corporate financial
performance debate: Twenty five years of incomparable research‟, Business & Society,
Vol. 36, No. 1, pp.5–31.
Hamel, G. (2000) Leading the Revolution, Boston: Harvard Business School Press.
Hamilton, J.T. (1995) „Pollution as News Media and Stock Market Reactions to the Toxic
Release Inventory Data‟, Journal of Environmental E conomics and Management, Vol.
28, pp.98–113.
Hansen, E.G., Gomm, M.L., Bullinger, A.C. and Möslein, K.M. (2010) „A community-based
toolkit for designing ride-sharing services: The case of a virtual network of ride access
points in Germany‟, International Journal of Innovation and Sustainable Development,
Vol. 5, No. 1, pp.80–99.
Hansen, E.G., Große-Dunker, F. and Reichwald, R. (2009) „Sustainability Innovation Cube – A
Framework to Evaluate Sustainability-Oriented Innovations‟, International Journal of
Innovation Management, Vol. 13, No. 4, pp.683–713.
Hart, S.L. and Ahuja, G. (1996) „Does it Pay to be Green? An Empirical Examination of the
Relationship between Emission Reduction and Firm Performance‟, Business Strategy
and the Environment, Vol. 5, pp.30–37.
Heinze, D., Sibary, S. and Sikula, A. (1999) „Relation Among Corporate Social Responsibility,
Financial Soundness, and Investment Value in 22 Manufacturing Industry Groups‟,
Ethics & Behavior, Vol. 9, No. 4, pp.331–347.
28 SCHALTEGGER, LÜDEKE-FREUND AND HANSEN
Hemphill, T.A. (1997) „Legislating Corporate Social Responsibility‟, Business Horizons , Vol.
40, No. 2, pp.53–58.
Henriques, I. and Sadorsky, P. (1999) „The Relationship between Environmental Commitment
and Managerial Perceptions of Stakeholder Importance‟, The Academy of Management
Journal, Vol. 42, No. 1, pp.87–99.
Holliday, C., Schmidheiny, S. and Watts, P. (2002) Walking the talk: The business case for
sustainable development, Sheffield: Greenleaf.
Holme, R. and Watts, O. (2000) Corporate Social Responsibility. Making Good Business
Sense, Geneva: World Business Council for Sustainable Development.
Jasch, C. (2008) Material Flow Cost Accounting, Dordrecht: Springer.
Johnson, M. (2010) Seizing the white space. Business model innovation for growth and
renewal, Boston: Harvard Business Press.
Johnson, M., Christensen, C. and Kagermann, H. (2008) „Reinventing your business model‟,
Harvard Business Review, Vol. 86, No. 12, pp.50–59.
Johnson, M. and Suskewicz, J. (2009) „How to jump-start the clean tech economy‟, Harvard
Business Review, Vol. 87, No. 11, pp.52–60.
Jones, K. and Rubin, P.H. (1999) Effects of Harmful Environmental Events on Reputations of
Companies, Atlanta: Department of Economics/Emory University.
Kim, D.H. (1993) „The Link between Individual and Organizational Learning‟, Sloan
Management Review, Vol. 35, No. 1, pp.37–50.
Lankoski, L. (2000) Determinants of Environmental Profit, Helsinki: Helsinki University of
Technology.
Lankoski, L. (2006) „Environmental and Economic Performance. The Basic Links‟, In:
Schaltegger, S. and Wagner, M. (eds.), Managing the Business Case for Sustainability,
(pp.46–60), Sheffield: Greenleaf.
Levitt, B. and March, J.G. (1988) „Organizational Learning‟, Annual Review of Sociology, Vol.
14, pp.319–338.
Magretta, J. (2002) „Why Business Models Matter‟, Harvard Business Review, Vol. 80, No. 5,
pp.86–92.
Mäkinen, S. and Seppänen, M. (2007) „Assessing business model concepts with taxonomical
research criteria. A preliminary study‟, Management Research News, Vol. 30, No. 10,
pp.735–748.
Margolis, J.D. and Walsh, J.P. (2003) „Misery Loves Companies. Rethinking Social Initiatives
by Business‟, Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol. 48, pp.268–305.
Marrewijk, M. van (2003) „Concepts and Definitions of CSR and Corporate Sustainability,
Between Agency and Communion‟, Journal of Business Ethics, Vol. 44, No. 2/3, 95–105.
Martin, R. (2002) „The Virtue Matrix: Calculating the Return on Corporate Responsibility‟,
Harvard Business Review, Vol. 80, No. 3, pp.68-75.
REFERENCES 29
McAdam, T. (1973) „How to put corporate responsibility into practice‟, Business and Society
Review/Innovation, No. 6, pp.8–16.
Miles, R.E. and Snow, C.C. (1978) Organizational Strategy, Structure, and Process, New
York: McGraw-Hill.
Mintzberg, H. (1983) „The Case for Corporate Social Responsibility‟, Journal of Business
Strategy, Vol. 4, No. 2, pp.3–14.
Mitchell, D. and Coles, C. (2003) „The ultimate competitive advantage of continuing business
model innovation‟, Journal of Business Strategy, Vol. 24, No. 5, pp.15–21.
Mitchell, D. and Coles, C. (2004a) „Business model innovation breakthrough moves‟, Journal
of Business Strategy, Vol. 25, No. 1, pp.16–26.
Mitchell, D. and Coles, C. (2004b) „Establishing a continuing business model innovation
process‟, Journal of Business Strategy, Vol. 25, No. 3, pp.39–49.
Montalvo, C. (2008) „General wisdom concerning the factors affecting the adoption of cleaner
technologies: a survey 1990-2007‟, Journal of Cleaner Production, Vol. 16, No. 1,
Supplement 1, pp.7–13.
Montalvo, C. and Kemp, R. (2008) „Cleaner technology diffusion: case studies, modeling and
policy‟, Journal of Cleaner Production, Vol. 16, No. 1, Supplement 1, pp.1–6.
Norman, W. and MacDonald, C. (2004) „Getting to the Bottom of Triple Bottom Line‟, Business
Ethics Quarterly, Vol. 14, No. 2, pp.243–262.
Olve, N.-G., Roy, J. and Wetter, M. (1999) Performance Drivers, Chichester: Wiley.
Osterwalder, A. (2004) The business model ontology. A proposition in a design science
approach. PhD Thesis. Universite de Lausanne, Switzerland.
Palmer, K., Oates, W. and Portney, P. (1995) „Tightening Environmental Standards: The
Benefit-Cost or the No-Cost Paradigm?‟, The Journal of Economic Perspectives, Vol. 9,
No. 4, pp.119–132.
Parnell, J. (2008) „Sustainable strategic management: construct, parameters, research
directions‟, International Journal of Sustainable Strategic Management, Vol. 1, No. 1,
pp.35–45.
Pava, M. and Krausz, J. (1996) „The Association Between Corporate Social -Responsibility and
Financial Performance: The Paradox of Social Cost‟, Journal of Business Ethics, Vol. 15,
No. 3, pp.321–357.
Pearce, B. (2003) Sustainability and Business Competitiveness. Measuring the Benefit for
Business Competitive Advantage from Social Responsibility and Sustainability. London:
Forum for the Future.
Perceva, C. (2003) „Towards a Process View of the Business Case for Sustainable
Development: Lessons from the Experience at BP and Shell‟, Journal of Corporate
Citizenship, Vol. 9, pp.117–132.
Porter, M.E. (1996) „What Is Strategy?‟, Harvard Business Review, Vol. 74, No. 6, pp.61–78.
30 SCHALTEGGER, LÜDEKE-FREUND AND HANSEN
Porter, M.E. and Kramer, M.R. (2011) „Creating Shared Value‟, Harvard Business Review,
Vol. 89, No. 1/2, pp.62–77.
Porter, M.E. and Linde, C. van der (1995a) „Toward a New Conception of the Environment-
Competitiveness Relationship‟, Journal of Economic Perspectives, Vol. 9, No. 4, pp.97–
118.
Porter, M.E. and Linde, C. van der (1995b) „Green and Competitive: Ending the Stalemate‟,
Harvard Business Review, Vol. 73, No. 5, pp.120–133.
Prahalad, C.K. and Bettis, R. (1995) „The dominant logic: retrospective and extension‟,
Strategic Management Journal, Vol. 16, No. 1, pp.5–14.
Pujari, D. (2006) „Eco-innovation and new product development understanding the influences
on market performance‟, Technovation, Vol. 26, No. 1, pp.76–85.
Reinhardt, F.L. (1999) „Bringing the Environment Down to Earth‟, Harvard Business Review,
Vol. 77, No. 4, pp.149–157.
Reinhardt, F.L. (2000) Down to Earth: Applying Business Principles to Environmental
Management, Boston: Harvard Business School Press.
Revell, A. and Blackburn, R. (2007) „The Business Case for Sustainability? An Examination of
Small Firms in the UK‟s Construction and Restaurant Sectors‟, Business Strategy and
the Environment, Vol. 16, No. 6, pp.404–420.
Revell, A., Stokes, D. and Chen, H. (2010) „Small Businesses and the Environment: Turning
Over a New Leaf?‟, Business Strategy and the Environment, Vol. 19, No. 5, pp.273–288.
Roome, N. (1992) „Developing Environmental Management Strategies‟, Business Strategy and
the Environment, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp.11–24.
Russo, M.V. and Fouts, P.A. (1997) „A Resource-Based Perspective on Corporate
Environmental Performance and Profitability‟, Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 40,
pp.534–559.
Salzmann, O., Ionescu-Somers, A. and Steger, U. (2005) „The Business Case for Corporate
Sustainability: Literature Review and Research Options‟, European Management
Journal, Vol. 23, No. 1, pp.27–36.
Schaltegger, S. (2011) „Sustainability as a driver for corporate economic success.
Consequences for the development of sustainability management control‟, Society and
Economy, Vol. 33, No, 1, pp.15–28.
Schaltegger, S. and Burritt, R.L. (2005) „Corporate Sustainability‟, In: Folmer, H. and
Tietenberg, T. (eds.), The International Yearbook of Environmental and Resource
Economics 2005/2006, (pp.185–222), Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.
Schaltegger, S. and Synnestvedt, T. (2002) „The Link between Green and Economic
Success‟, Journal of Environmental Management , Vol. 65, pp.339–346.
Schaltegger, S. and Wagner, M. (eds.) (2006) Managing the Business Case of Sustainability,
Sheffield: Greenleaf.
REFERENCES 31
Schaltegger, S. and Wagner, M. (2008) „Types of sustainable entrepreneurship and the
conditions for sustainability innovation‟, In: Wüstenhagen, R., Hamschmidt, J., Sharma,
S. and Starik, M. (eds.), Sustainable innovation and entrepreneurship. New perspectives
in research on corporate sustainability, (pp.27–48), Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.
Schaltegger, S. and Wagner, M. (2011) „Sustainable Entrepreneurship an d Sustainability
Innovation: Categories and Interactions‟, Business Strategy and the Environment, Vol.
20, No. 4, pp.222–237.
Schweizer, L. (2005) „Concept and evolution of business models‟, Journal of General
Management, Vol. 31, No. 2, pp.37–56.
Simpson, R.D. and Bradford, R.L. (1996) „Taxing Variable Cost: Environmental Regulation as
Industrial Policy‟, Journal of Environmental Economics and Management, Vol. 30, No. 3,
pp.282–300.
Smith, W., Binns, A. and Tushman, M. (2010) „Complex Business Models: Managing Strategic
Paradoxes Simultaneously‟, Long Range Planning, Vol. 43, No. 2/3, Sp. Iss. SI, pp.448–
461.
Stead, J. and Stead, W. (2008) „Sustainable strategic management: an evolutionary
perspective‟, International Journal of Sustainable Strategic Management, Vol. 1, No. 1,
pp.62–81.
Steger, U. (ed.) (2004) The Business of Sustainability. Building Industry Cases for Corporate
Sustainability, Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan.
Stubbs, W. and Cocklin, C. (2008) „Conceptualizing a „sustainability business mo del‟‟,
Organization & Environment, Vol. 21, No. 2, pp.103–127.
SustainAbility (2001) Buried Treasure. Uncovering the business case for corporate
sustainability, London: SustainAbility.
Teece, D. (2010) „Business models, business strategy and innovation‟, L ong Range Planning,
Vol. 43, No. 2/3, Sp. Iss. SI, pp.172–194.
Tracey, P., Phillips, N. and Haugh, H. (2005) „Beyond Philanthropy: Community Enterprise as
a Basis for Corporate Citizenship‟, Journal of Business Ethics, Vol. 58, No. 4, pp.327–
344.
Unerman, J., Bebbington, J. and O'Dwyer, B., (eds.) (2007) Sustainability Accounting and
Accountability. London: Routledge.
Voelpel, S., Leibold, M. and Tekie, E. (2004) „The wheel of business model reinvention: how
to reshape your business model to leapfrog competitors‟, Journal of Change
Management, Vol. 4, No. 3, pp.259–276.
Wagner, M. (2007) „Integration of Environmental Management with Other Managerial
Functions of the Firm: Empirical Effects on Drivers of Economic Performance‟, Long
Range Planning, Vol. 40, No. 6, pp.611–628.
32 SCHALTEGGER, LÜDEKE-FREUND AND HANSEN
Wagner, M. and Schaltegger, S. (2003) „How Does Sustainability Performance Relate to
Business Competitiveness?‟, Greener Management International, No. 44, pp.5–16.
Wagner, M. and Schaltegger, S. (2004) „The Effect of Corporate Environmental Strategy
Choice and Environmental Performance on Competitiveness and Economic
Performance. An Empirical Analysis in EU Manufacturing‟, European Management
Journal, Vol. 22, No. 5, pp.557–572.
Wagner, M., Schaltegger, S. and Wehrmeyer, W. (2002) „The Relationship between the
Environmental and Economic Performance of Firms. What does theory propose and
what does empirical evidence tell us?‟, Greener Management International , No. 34,
pp.95–108.
Walley, N. and Whitehead, B. (1994) „It's Not Easy Being Green‟, Harvard Business Review,
Vol. 72, No. 3, pp.46–51.
Wartick, S. and Cochran, P. (1985) „The Evolution of the Corporate Social Performance
Model‟, The Academy of Management Review, Vol. 10, No. 4, pp.758–769.
Wallmann, S.M.H. (1995) „The future of accounting and disclosure in an evolving world: the
need for dramatic change‟, Accounting Horizons , Vol. 9, No. 3, pp.81–91.
Wilson, I. (1975) „What one company is doing about today‟s demands on business‟, In:
George A. Steiner (ed.), Changing business-society interrelationships, Los Angeles
Graduate School of Management, UCLA.
Wirtz, B. (2011) Business Model Management Design, Instruments, Success Factors,
Wiesbaden: Gabler.
Xepapadeas, A. and Zeeuw, A. de (1999) „Environmental policy and competitiveness: The
Porter hypothesis and the composition of capital‟, Journal of Environmental Economics
and Management, Vol. 37, No. 2, pp. 165-182.
Yip, G. (2004) „Using Strategy to Change Your Business Model‟, Business Strategy Review,
Vol. 15, No. 2, pp.17–24.
Yunus, M., Moingeon, B., and Lehmann-Ortega, L. (2010) „Building Social Business Models:
Lessons from the Grameen Experience‟, Long Range Planning, Vol. 43, No. 2/3, Sp. Iss.
SI, pp.308–325.
Zott, C., Amit, R. and Massa, L. (2011) „The Business Model: Recent Developments and
Future Research‟, Journal of Management, Vol. 37, No. 4, pp.1019–1042.
