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Biology of Apanteles myeloenta (Hymenoptera: Braconidae), a larval parasitoid of carob moth Ectomyelais ceratoniae (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)
Abstract
The carob moth, Ectomyelois ceratoniae (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), is the most important pest of pomegranate orchards (in terms of economic damage) within Iran, and hence, several control procedures, including biolog-ical methods of control, have been attempted as a means of controlling populations of this insect. This re-search was carried out in order to study the biology of Apanteles myeloenta (Hymenoptera: Braconidae), a larval parasitoid of the carob moth. Laboratory studies were conducted to determine larval developmental time, adult longevity, sex ratio, parasite progeny production, and host stage preference of A. myeloenta. At 25 ± 1 °C, immature developmental time (egg to pupa; mean ± SE) was 28.33 ± 0.85 days and 27.46 ± 0.37 days for male and females, respectively. Adult females survived on average 17.5 ± 0.14, 11.7 ± 0.22, 3.4 ± 0.18, and 2.8 ± 0.12 days at 25 C when provided with honey and water, honey only, water only or no food source, respectively. The sex ratio (females to males) of A. myeloenta was 1:3.5 from hosts parasitized in the first instar, 1:3 for second instars and 1:2 for third instar carob moth larvae. Female A. myeloenta typ-ically preferred to parasitize second instar over third or first instar. The oviposition activity peaked on the 7th and 8th days following emergence, when provided with honey, and 10% sucrose solution, respectively.
... Male adult abdomen was smaller in size than female ( fig.1 *->Mean of 10 replications; **-> average of the three culture. *->Mean of 10 replications; **-> average of the three culture *->Mean of 10 replications; **-> average of the three culture [13] and Caballero et al., (1993) [14] studied the biology of Apanteles myeloenta and Cotesia (= Apanteles) telengai on the host of Ectomyelais ceratoniae (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) and Agrotis segetum (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), respectively. However study on the biology of Cotesia sp. that uses silkworm as host, most particularly muga silkworm as host is limited. ...
... udied laboratory rearing and biology of Cotesia flavipes (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) by using Diatraea saccharalis (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) as host whileMcCutcheon et al., (1983) [12] studied the biology of Apanteles ruficrus parasitoid which uses Pseudoplusia includens, Trichoplusia ni, and Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) as its host.Farahani et al., (2012) ...
Cotesia dictyoplocae Watanabe (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) is an endoparasitoid of certain lepidopteran caterpillar. In the present study the endoparasitoid was recorded to parasitize on one of the economically important lepidopteran caterpillar i.e. the caterpillar of muga silkworm, Antheraea assamensis Helfer (Lepidoptera: Saturniidae).The parasitoid causes considerable damage of muga silkworm crop in Assam. Eggs of the endoparasitoid were observed to deposit inside the body of early instar silkworm caterpillar. Mean incubation period of egg of C. dictyoplocae was recorded as 1.17±0.03 days. The larvae after hatching passed their three larval stages within the host caterpillar. Mean larval period, pupal period and adult period of the braconid wasp was recorded as 12.24±0.25 days, 6.14±0.26 days and 8.46±0.22days respectively. Mean developmental time from egg to adult was recorded as 28.06±0.51 days at mean temperature of 22.12±0.25 °C and mean relative humidity of 67.27±0.34%. The sex ratio of male and female was 1:1.4.
... Then, the number of adult parasitoids is counted (Fathipour and Dadpour, 2003;Ranjbare Aghdam and Kamali, 2005). Finally, to evaluate larval parasitoids, after parasitization, the host larval stage is fed until parasitoid cocoons formed (Asadi et al. 2007;Kishani Farahani et al., 2012). ...
Most insect parasitoids are related to two insect orders including Diptera and Hymenoptera, where some of them have a specific host while others have a vast host range. Parasitoids with more than one host species are called oligophagous or polyphagous parasitoids in which host species preference is diverse. On the contrary, parasitoids with host specificity are called monophagous parasitoids which have a high degree of ecological compatibility. Host preference is the most important behavioral characteristic in parasitoids which is influenced by different factors such as host species, host stage, host size, host densities, and intraguild predation. In addition, there are various biotic and abiotic factors involved in determining both host preferences and host specificity by parasitoids within the host selection process which are divided into chemical and physical parameters. The examples include plant volatiles, host habitat, host odors, host movement, sound, and environment color. In any case, host preference and specificity may affect host population growth rate and host-parasitoid population dynamics. To succeed in biological control programs, understanding the parasitoid host preferences and specificity is necessary as they affect mass rearing protocols and can facilitate the explanation of the outcomes observed in the field. Therefore, both host preference and host specificity seem to play an important role in biological control. The current chapter discusses the influence of host preference and host specificity in biological control programs and their role in different biological control methods (importation and augmentation).
... Besides, Apanteles is a cosmopolitan species that even can be found in extreme ecosystem environment for instance Himalaya (Sharma, 1972), Andes (Whitfield et al., 2009) andCanadian Arctic (Fernandez-Triana, 2010). A few possible candidates of Apanteles species were recognized to be used as biological control agent, such as A. ruficrus that potentially to control the population of Mythimna separata (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) (Hill, 1988), A. medicaginis as biological control agent for Colias philodice (Lepidoptera: Pieridae) (Allen and Smith, 1958), A. taragamae as potentially candidate of biological control agent for Maruca vitrata (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) (Dannon et al., 2010), A. cypris to control the population of Cnaphalocrosis medinalis (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) (Zhou et al., 2011) and A. myeloenta as biological control agent for Ectomyelois ceratoniae (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) (Farahani et al., 2012). ...
Genus Apantelesis a cosmopolitan and largest genus in Microgastrinae that can be set as chief example of the subfamily to be studied for. However, highly similar morphological characters intraspecifically lead to difficulty in identifying this genus. In this study, 25 individuals of Apanteles were identified morphologically and molecularly by using error rates approach of barcoding analysis. The phylogenetic of the Apanteles that consisted of five species-groups were studied together with their molecular time divergences by using four molecular markers i.e., COI, 16S, 28S and Cyt B. The species groups are mycetophilus, ultor, merula, merope and ater. The phylogenetic analyses show that each species groups were monophyletic with formation of sister clad for merula and merope-group. The phylogenetic analyses of Apanteles species-group were well resolved and supported by their morphological and taxonomical status. This study is a first record on the phylogenetic of five Oriental Apanteles species-group.
... There are various ways of controlling this pest including: sanitation ( Nay and Perring 2005), sex pheromones as attractants ( Baker et al., 1991), essential oils as repellents ( Shakeri 2004), and the use of various resistant pomegranate cultivars ( Sobhani et al., 2015). Additionally, natural enemies might play an important role in management of this pest to keep the density of carob moth below the economic injury level ( Gothilf 1969Gothilf , 1984Kishani Farahani et al., 2012a, 2012bAleosfoor et al., 2014). However, the generally recommended procedure to control this pest is to remove infested fruits from the orchards at the end of cropping season in order to eliminate overwintering sites ( Sharifi 1981;Behdad 1991). ...
The management of carob moth is a complex and multidimensional process that is only possible when collective action takes place in the pest-affected areas. The non-participation in carob moth management has led to increasing pest problems which unless managed collectively, they impose a serious limitation on pomegranate production and endanger the future of pomegranate orchards in Arsanjan county, Fars province, Iran. The current study aimed to explore why collective action has not taken place, and grounded theory was found to be the most appropriate method, followed up by a structured survey to gain an in-depth understanding of what is happening and why. Qualitative data collected through interviews were analyzed using Straussian grounded theory procedures and techniques, and quantitative data obtained via questionnaires were analyzed using descriptive statistics. The analysis indicated that individual farmers' attempts to manage carob moth had limited benefit. The results revealed that inadequate and unsupportive institutions of all types (cognitive, normative and regulative) kept collective action from occurring. The main factors impeding the participation of the farmers in the management of carob moth were: unsupportive environment for agribusinesses, low income from pomegranate production, negative attitudes towards the government, lack of cooperative culture and prevalence of individualistic behavior, and inadequate knowledge about the pest among the growers. The categories and the relationships found among them assist stakeholders in understanding the root causes behind a lack of collective action in the pest management programs. The results provide powerful lessons for other participation projects and pest control interventions.
... This is not an environmentally friendly method, how ever. More than 10 species of parasitoids and also entomopathogens are reported as natural enemies of the pest, observed mostly on the larvae (Gold ansaz et al., 2008;Kishani Farahani et al., 2012). In addition to these natural enemies, a few additional biocontrol agents are promising; these include entomopathogenic nematodes (Sharifi et al., 2014), entomopathogenic fungi (Moha madiani et al., 2016) or parasitoid wasps (Ebrahimi et al., 2014). ...
Sclerodermus domesticus (Latreille, 1809) (Hym., Bethylidae) was collected from north eastern Iran, in association with larvae of Osphranteria coerulescens (Redtenbacher, 1850) (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae). The bethylids were found as larval ectoparasitoids on the longhorn beetle larvae. This parasitic wasp has gregarious activity with a high reproduction rate and parasitism potential. This is the first record of this parasitic wasp from Iran while O. coerulescens is recorded as a new host for this parasitoid. The parasitoid was identified using classic data accompanied with results of DNA sequences analysis of COI and 28S genes. In addition, we provide knowledge about biology of the parasitoid and present a discussion about its bionomics.
... Biological control programs largely desire female-biased sex ratios because females are the ones responsible for attacking the pests through host feeding or oviposition and not the males and also it is the females who are greatly responsible for building up populations (Chow andHeinz 2005, Ode andHardy 2008). Whereas different species of Apanteles have been shown to have male-biased sex ratios such as Apanteles sesamiae (Cameron) (Shami 1990), Apanteles subandinus, (Blanchard), Apanteles scutellaris (Muesebeck) (Cardona 1975), and A. myeloenta (Farahani et al. 2012) on different hosts, our results show that A. hemara offspring from S. recurvalis were female biased while those from U. ferrugalis produced male-biased sex ratios. Female-biased sex ratios have also been reported on other species of Apanteles like Apanteles flavipes (Shami 1990), A. minator (Ngi-Song et al. 1999, and A. machaeralis Wilkinson (Peter and David 1990) when reared on different hosts. ...
Amaranth is an African indigenous vegetable that is gaining popularity due to its nutritional, medicinal, and economic values. In East Africa, frequent outbreaks of Lepidopteran leaf-webbers, Spoladea recurvalis F. (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) and Udea ferrugalis Hübner (1976) are reported on this crop, causing up to 100% foliage loss. The larval endoparasitoid Apanteles hemara Nixon is also frequently found associated with these pests during the outbreaks, however, its performance on both pests has never been documented. Laboratory studies were therefore carried out to assess the acceptability and suitability of S. recurvalis and U. ferrugalis to A. hemara. Both leaf-webber species were accepted by and suitable for the parasitoid. The mean host searching time and oviposition attempts were neither affected by rearing host nor test host. The total developmental time of A. hemara ranged between 10.6 ± 0.16 and 12.8 ± 0.30 days on both hosts. The sex ratio of the parasitoid was female biased when reared on S. recurvalis but male biased on U. ferrugalis. When offered 50 larvae of leaf-webbers for 24 h, a single female A. hemara achieved parasitism rates from 42.63 ± 5.80 to 44.55 ± 5.95, while a cohort of five females resulted in parasitism rates between 87.25 ± 2.70 and 94.67 ± 1.98 %. There was no significant difference between hosts in regard to progeny fitness at each parasitoid density. The parasitoid also caused significant nonreproductive larval mortalities in the hosts. The implications of these findings for mass rearing of the parasitoid as well as for conservation and augmentative biological control of amaranth lepidopteran leaf-webbers in East Africa are discussed.
... A larval ectoparasitoid, Goniozus legneri Gordh, was discovered on carob moth and navel orangeworm in Uruguay (Gordh 1982 ;Legner and Silveira-Guido 1983 ). The biology of another larval parasitoid of carob moth, Apanteles myeloenta Wilkinson, was characterized in a laboratory study in Iran (Kishani-Farahani et al. 2012a ). This was among the numerous parasitoids found associated with the carob moth identifi ed during a survey conducted in three regions of Iran (Kishani-Farahani et al. 2012b ). ...
Dates are a major food crop across a large band of Africa and Eurasia, and to a lesser extent elsewhere. In most of its growing range, dates are threatened with infestation in the fi eld by a complex of pests including nitidulid beetles and pyralid moths of the Subfamily Phycitinae. They are further threatened with loss in processing and storage by stored product moths along with some beetles. This review examines the biology and life history of these key pests, and best practices for sustainable management of these pests. Future research directions are also briefl y considered.
... A larval ectoparasitoid, Goniozus legneri Gordh, was discovered on carob moth and navel orangeworm in Uruguay (Gordh 1982 ;Legner and Silveira-Guido 1983 ). The biology of another larval parasitoid of carob moth, Apanteles myeloenta Wilkinson, was characterized in a laboratory study in Iran (Kishani-Farahani et al. 2012a ). This was among the numerous parasitoids found associated with the carob moth identifi ed during a survey conducted in three regions of Iran (Kishani-Farahani et al. 2012b ). ...
Stored dates are attacked by insects, birds, rodents, mollusks, mites, bats, and microorganisms, including fungi, causing significant losses to one of the most important fruit crops in the Arab world. Fumigation with methyl bromide has been used extensively to control pests of stored dates; however, due to environmental concerns, methyl bromide use for pest control will be banned by the end of 2015. Nowadays, there are many alternatives to methyl bromide for use against the date moth, which is considered one of the most important insect in stored dates. Aluminum phosphide is another fumigant that is being used commonly in stores worldwide. Another alternative is application of a modified atmosphere to accelerate the death of the insect. Moreover, the use of microwave and ozone are discussed as promising methods in the control of date pests. This chapter provides an overview of the insect pests of stored dates and remedies used to control them.
... The carob moth, Ectomyelois ceratoniae Zeller (Lep.: Pyralidae), is a major pest of pomegranate in Iran that causes quantitative and qualitative reduction of pomegranate yield in all cultivation regions of the country (Mozaffarian et al., 2007;Kishani Farahani et al., 2011, 2012a. In some years, this pest can cause yield losses of up to 80%, and thus constitutes a major threat to the pomegranate industry in Iran (Shakeri, 2004;Kishani Farahani et al., 2011). ...
The behavioural responses of Goniozus legneri were investigated in
a six-arm olfactometer. Among the different odours examined, carob
moth (Ectomyelois ceratoniae Zeller) frass elicited the highest olfactory
responses, while Ephestisa larvae, which were less suitable hosts,
elicited the lowest response. The different preferences to various
odours suggest that Goniozus legneri can discriminate among suitable
and less suitable insect hosts.
... After emergence, the adults were moved to oviposition cages (80 9 50 9 100 cm) for mating and laying eggs. The appeared neonate larvae were then placed in individual Petri dishes (5 cm dia.) containing 1 g of a specific diet (glycerol 130 ml, distilled water 120 ml, yeast 9 g, sugar 80 g, wheat bran 300 g and tetracycline 0.66 g as an antibiotic; Mediouni and Dhouibi 2007), and kept under standard environmental conditions (29 ± 1°C, 75 ± 5 % RH and L:D 16:8 h; Kishani Farahani et al. 2012). The stock culture of Ephestia kuehniella Zeller (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) was originally initiated with samples taken from the infested wheat flour in a bakery in Karaj (Alborz, Iran) in May 2012. ...
The biological control programs supporting
the native species of natural enemies are far more
sustainable than those which use exotic enemies of the
target pest. Little is known about the effects of the
surrounding environment on host selection behavior of
Bracon hebetor Say (Hymenoptera: Braconidae). In
the present study, the effects of the origin of the
parasitoid populations, host species and parasitoid
rearing history on host selection and parasitism
success of B. hebetor were investigated. Several lifehistory
parameters, including the frequency of parasitism,
percentage parasitism, egg load, survival rate
and the offspring sex ratio of the parasitoid were
measured. In terms of both selection and parasitism
success, B. hebetor preferred Ephestia kuehniella
Zeller (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) over Apomyelois
ceratoniae Zeller (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) and
Helicoverpa armigera Hu¨bner (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae),
and A. ceratoniae over H. armigera. When
different populations of B. hebetor were compared,
the B. hebetor population originated from orchard was
the most successful compared with the field and store
populations. In addition, the rearing history was
influential on the parasitism preference and success:
a better performance of the parasitoid was obtained
when it was reared on its original host compared with
an intermediate host, E. kuehniella. The causes and
consequences of these findings were further discussed
in relation with mass rearing of this parasitoid for
biological control programs.
... According to Kishani Farahani et al. (2012a) A. myeloenta is a solitary, koinobiont (parasitoids whose larvae utilize a growing host), synovigenic (they emerge with some immature eggs and need to feed, to sustain egg production) endoparasitoid of the early instars of the carob moth. When their numbers are boosted by augmentative releases (Jervis et al., 2008; Kishani Farahani et al., 2012 a) it can cause a substantial decrease in the overwintering population of carob moth larvae. For the immature development of the parasitoid the host is the sole source of nutrients. ...
... According to Kishani Farahani et al. (2012a) A. myeloenta is a solitary, koinobiont (parasitoids whose larvae utilize a growing host), synovigenic (they emerge with some immature eggs and need to feed, to sustain egg production) endoparasitoid of the early instars of the carob moth. When their numbers are boosted by augmentative releases (Jervis et al., 2008; Kishani Farahani et al., 2012 a) it can cause a substantial decrease in the overwintering population of carob moth larvae. For the immature development of the parasitoid the host is the sole source of nutrients. ...
The carob moth, Ectomyelois ceratoniae (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), is a serious pest and causes a considerable loss of yield of pomegranate in Iran. Apanteles myeloenta (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) is the dominant parasitoid of this pest parasitizing it more than 30% in recent years. This parasitoid is a candidate for augmentative biological control program to reduce the level of the infestation of fruit overwinter. The objective of this research was to optimize the mass production of A. myeloenta. The mean developmental time of females was 28 days and of males 27 days. Pupal development lasted 7 days. The second instar was the preferred host and most heavily parasitized (45%). Wasps that started their development in second instar hosts produced the highest progeny and those that started in third instar hosts survived as adults for longest. The sex ratio (females to males) of A. myeloenta that emerged from carob moth larvae parasitized in the first instar was 1 : 3.5, in the second instar 1 : 3 and in the third instar 1 : 2. The influence of different host ages on the functional response of A. myeloenta to host density was assessed. Logistic regression indicated a type II functional response to different densities of all the stages of the host tested.
Chalcidoidea and Ichneumonoidea (Hymenoptera) are the two most diverse and important groups of parasitic wasps which have been used frequently in biological control programs on a wide range of agricultural and forest pests. This chapter provides an overview of Iranian Chalcidoidea and Icheneumonoidea host associations and discusses those species which have been related or used as biological control agents of some main crop pests. Those species which have been related or used as biological control agents of some main crop pests were discussed. Recent improvements on some species of these superfamilies are summarised.
Lepidopteran pest species attacking date palms and fruits are problematic in stored dates or in the date garden. Three such species, the carob moth, lesser date moth, and raisin moth, have biologies that are timed with the seasonal occurrence of date fruit. Thus they have become primary pests for the date producer and have been the focus of scientific research toward the development of sustainable management. This chapter provides an in-depth coverage of these three insects, with particular emphasis on their distribution, natural history, and management in date gardens.
A review of the genera and species of HymenopteraParasitica and Chrysidoidea reported so far from Reunion Island is provided with host information. Data presented here is based on a review of the existing literature by the authors. The list includes: (1) 156 species of Ichneumonoidea belonging to 65 genera and 25 subfamilies (Braconidae: Agathidinae, Alysiinae, Aphidiinae, Braconinae, Charmontinae, Cheloninae, Doryctinae, Euphorinae, Gnamptodontinae, Microgastrinae, Opiinae; Ichneumonidae: Banchinae, Campopleginae, Cremastinae, Cryptinae, Diplazontinae, Ichneumoninae, Mesochorinae, Metopiinae, Ophioninae, Orthocentrinae, Pimplinae, Tersilochinae, Tryphoninae); (2) 121 species of Chalcidoidea belonging to 56 genera and 8 families (Agaonidae, Aphelinidae, Chalcididae, Encyrtidae, Eulophidae, Eupelmidae, Eurytomidae, Ormyridae, Pteromalidae, Signophoridae, Torymidae and Trichogrammatidae); (3) seven species of Cynipoidea (family Figitidae); (4) six species of Chrysidoidea in three families (Bethylidae, Chrysididae, Dryinidae); (5) five species of Platygastroidea (families Platygastridae and Scelionidae); (6) five species of Diaprioidea (family Diapriidae); (7) four species of Ceraphronoidae (families Ceraphronidae and Megaspilidae); and (8) two species of Evanioidea (family Evaniidae). This review records a total of 306 species.
An annotated list of Braconidae (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonoidea) for all species recorded from the territory of Iran during more than a hundred years (1901–2016) of research is given. A checklist of 780 species in 141 genera belonging to 26 subfamilies of Braconidae known from Iran is listed, among them 34 species are exclusive for the Iranian insect fauna. Host and distributional data in Iran are also provided.
Augmentative releases of native natural enemies are viable strategies for suppression of crop pests. Successful implementation of this approach requires in-depth knowledge of the natural enemy, its host(s), and the agroecosystem. In particular, appropriate mass rearing and release strategies rely on a thorough understanding of the reproductive biology of the natural enemy. In the present study, we evaluated the effects of parasitoid source (host habitat origin), fruit condition (i.e., ease of host access for parasitoid), impact of using an alternative host for rearing, and winter-simulated cold storage of hosts on the reproductive performance of Bracon hebetor. Several life history parameters, including attack behavior, proportion of paralyzed hosts, parasitism, oviposition, offspring sex ratio, and life table parameters were measured. Wasps originating from a pomegranate orchard-Ectomyelois ceratoniae host habitat generally had greater reproductive performance than those sourced from stored dry fruit-Plodia interpunctella or tomato field-Helicoverpa armigera habitats. Hosts infesting intact pomegranate fruit suffered greater levels of attack (e.g., paralysis, parasitism, and oviposition) than did more accessible hosts infesting damaged fruit. However, offspring sex ratio was generally more female-biased in the damaged fruit treatments. The developmental period of B. hebetor larvae and pupae was shorter (mean generation time) on Ephestia kuehniella hosts that had been subjected to a 2-month cold storage period (winter simulation) than untreated control hosts not subjected to cold storage. Sex ratio of offspring did not differ significantly between the treatments. Our studies demonstrated differential effects of wasp population source, and other biotic factors, on the reproductive biology of B. hebetor. Our current understanding suggests that efficacious protection of pomegranate crops with B. hebetor might be accomplished by using a rearing protocol that incorporates parasitoids originating from a pomegranate-E. ceratoniae source, followed by rearing on cold-treated E. kuehniella prior to release. Development of optimal release strategies is a topic for future studies.
Lepidopteran pest species attacking date palms and fruits are problematic in stored dates or in the date garden. Three such species, the carob moth, lesser date moth, and raisin moth, have biologies that are timed with the seasonal occurrence of date fruit. Thus they have become primary pests for the date producer and have been the focus of scientifi c research toward the development of sustainable management. This chapter provides an in-depth coverage of these three insects, with particular emphasis on their distribution, natural history, and management in date gardens.
The carob moth, Ectomyelois ceratoniae (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), is a serious pest and causes a considerable loss of yield of pomegranate in Iran. Apanteles myeloenta (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) is the dominant parasitoid of this pest parasitizing it more than 30% in recent years. This parasitoid is a candidate for augmentative biological control program to reduce the level of the infestation of fruit overwinter. The objective of this research was to optimize the mass production of A. myeloenta. The mean developmental time of females was 28 days and of males 27 days. Pupal development lasted 7 days. The second instar was the preferred host and most heavily parasitized (45%). Wasps that started their development in second instar hosts produced the highest progeny and those that started in third instar hosts survived as adults for longest. The sex ratio (females to males) of A. myeloenta that emerged from carob moth larvae parasitized in the first instar was 1 : 3.5, in the second instar 1 : 3 and in the third instar 1 : 2. The influence of different host ages on the functional response of A. myeloenta to host density was assessed. Logistic regression indicated a type II functional response to different densities of all the stages of the host tested.
The cactus moth, Cactoblastis cactorum (Berg) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), is a pest that threatens native Opuntia spp. in North America. Control tactics developed and implemented against this invasive pest successfully eradicated the moth in Mexico and on barrier islands in the United States. However, with the cancellation of the regional management program in the United States, no control tactics are being implemented to mitigate the expansion of the moth's geographical range. Hence, an integrated approach including biological control is proposed to regulate the population of C. cactorum in North America. Field surveys of the recently described parasitoid, Apanteles opuntiarum Martinez & Berta, were carried out within the C. cactorum native range in Argentina, and laboratory studies were conducted to develop a parasitoid rearing protocol. Apanteles opuntiarum was the most common parasitoid of C. cactorum and their field distributions were similar. In the laboratory, the parasitoid's reproductive success was maximized when one or two female wasps were exposed to 30 host larvae within a 500 ml container. Laboratory reared females were less successful at parasitizing hosts than field collected females. In spite of the success achieved with laboratory rearing, male bias was observed throughout the experiments. Because this bias might be related to the presence of the reproductive parasite Wolbachia, both laboratory colony and field collected individuals were screened and Wolbachia was detected. This study provides useful field and laboratory information on (1) laboratory rearing techniques for A. opuntiarum; (2) developing host specificity test protocols for studies under quarantine conditions; and (3) selecting parasitoid populations that best match the climatic conditions present in the C. cactorum invaded areas of North America.
Carob moth, Ectomyelois ceratoniae Zeller (Lep.: Pyralidae) is considered as the most important pest of pomegranate in Iran causing serious damages up to 80% at pre and post harvesting stages. In this study larval parasitoids of carob moth were collected from three regions of production sites of pomegrante namely: Varamin, Qom, and Saveh during 2007. Eight species were collected from Varamin, 7 species from Qom and 4 collected from Saveh. The braconid, Apanteles myeloenta Wilkinson was the most prevalent species among the collected parasitoids which could be found in all the sites of study. The emergence peak of parasitoids occurred at the end of the cropping season (September). Parasitism started in Varamin from Aug., being continued until Oct. It prevailed from July until Oct in Qom and from Aug. until Oct. in Saveh. The highest diversity of parasitoids and the most parasitism percentage level was observed in Varamin. The highest percentage of fruits attacked by E. ceratoniae was found in the near harvest, period, starting in Oct. The percentage of infested fruits in the agricultural season was approximately 69.25% in Varamin, 47% in Qom and 56.25% in Saveh during October. This is the first report of parasitism of carob moth larvae by all species belonging to Ichneumonidae, Chelenus sp. (Hym.: Braconiade) and Fischeria bicolor (Dip.: Tachinidae) in the world. According to the obtained results, diversity of parasitoids and parasitism percentage of carob moth larvae is so considerable that many further studies on their control, and the conservating methods of the valuable natural treasures that can fall prey to them should be conducted.
The effect of different concentrations of fructose and glucose on the longevity of the boll weevil, Anthonomus grandis grandis Boheman, ectoparasitoid Catolaccus grandis (Burks) was tested. Parasitoid females feeding sugar concentrations of 30% had a significantly increased longevity compared with females feeding 50 and 70% sugar solutions. Host-feeding on boll weevil larvae did not significantly increase longevity. In the absence of a carbohydrate source, host-feeding was ineffective maintaining C. grandis alive for >2.5 d. Dissections showed that C. grandis is a synovigenic and autogenous parasitoid, but providing C. grandis females with diets supplemented with amino acids and boll weevil haemolymph did not increase oögenesis. Females with oviposition experience, on the other hand, produced 4 times as many eggs as did inexperienced females regardless of the quality of the adult diet provided. However, adult nutrition was important for egg production after host contact. Catolaccus grandis females experienced in oviposition produced significantly more eggs when a supplemental diet was provided in the absence of host-feeding opportunities. Exposure of the parasitoids to encapsulated weevil larvae for at least 2 d before the field release is recommended.
Carob moth, Ectomyelois ceratoniae (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) is the most important pest of pomegranate,
Punica granatum (Punicaceae), in Iran. The most recommended procedure to control of this pest is
collecting and destroying infested fruits in the orchards at the end of cropping season to eliminate
overwintering sites. In order to determine the parasitoid species and the parasitism percentage during
fall-winter season (2006e2007) a study was conducted in three commercial pomegranate orchards in
Varamin, Qom, and Saveh, (central Iran). Our results revealed that E. ceratoniae had numerous parasitoids
from the families Braconidae and Ichneumonidae. Apanteles myeloenta Wilkinson (Hymenoptera: Braconidae)
was the most prevalent species among the collected parasitoids in all studied sites. More
parasitoids were found in fruits on trees than those on the ground. Fruits on the ground were more
infested than fruits on trees. According to our results collecting and destroying the infected fruits in the
orchards at the end of cropping season, had negative effects on parasitoids population and diversity.
The effects of fiood od the fecundity and longevity of the adults of hymenopterous parasites vary remarkably, not only between species that are host feeders and those that are not host feeders, but also within these groups. It is known, for example, that the females of Itoplectis conquisitor (Say) develop only few eggs without feeding on body fluids of their host. In the present investigations it is shown that the females of Scambus buolianae (Htg.) are not able to deposit any eggs without first feeding on the tissues of their host. Such information is important for the successful establishment of newly-imported parasites.
A simple and inexpensive rearing procedure for Ectomyelois ceratoniae (Zeller) yielded mature, 45 mg female larvae 16 days after the eggs hatched. The average period from egg to adult was 26.2 days and some 69% of viable eggs yielded adults. The rate of increase was 20.7.
For many species, the offspring sex ratio increases with one or more of the following: maternal age at ovipositing or number of days since insemination; age of the male parent or number of times he has copulated; extreme temperature; decreasing host size, age, or quality; female wasp density; and number of progeny per host. Other factors which affect offspring sex ratios in some species include number of hours since insemination; genetic factors; maternal size; maternal diet; polyembryony; photoperiod and relative humidity; host sex; and host density. These factors may affect offspring sex ratios through females manipulating fertilization of their eggs or through other mechanisms, such as differential mortality or changes in sperm availability. Host-size models predict a negative relationship between offspring sex ratio and host size. These models assume that host size has a greater effect on the reproductive success of females than of males. Local mate competition models predict a positive relationship between offspring sex ratio and female density. A major assumption of these models is that males mate primarily in their natal area. -from Author
Ectomyelois ceratoniae (Zeller),a carob moth, is a date pest that was recently introduced into the Coachella Valley of California. Infestation of the current season's crop of 'Deglet Noor' dates by this moth or by nitidulid beetles does not occur in the khalal stage of development of date fruits unless summer rains occur. Rain and accompanying high relative humidity results in fruit cracks, fungus infection, and susceptibility to insect infestation of khalal stage dates. In summers without rain, significant nitidulid populations fail to develop. In dry summers, E. ceratoniae oviposits on fallen dates of the previous season that are lodged in frond axils. They begin to oviposit on the new crop when the rutab or ripening stage begins. The appearance of the rutab stage is forecast by the development of a glossy finish on khalal dates and is the time when the first insecticide treatment should be applied. Commercial treatments are applied exclusively by powerful dusting equipment that delivers a dust stream through a hand-directed tube. Only insecticides of low toxicity to the operator can be used. During three seasons, trials were made of various application schedules of a malathion (5%)dust. In a summer with rain-induced nitidulid populations, four applications at 2-wk intervals adequately controlled both beetles and moths. Treatment should begin just ahead of the development of the rutab stage of fruit development. In rainless summers, three treatments applied at 3-wk intervals successfully controlled E. ceratoniae. Early initiation of the treatment schedule did not improve control.
Effects of age of Trichoplusia ni (Hübner) on rate of development of Hyposoter exiguae (Viereck), a solitary endoparasitoid, and the relationships of parasitism to growth and developmental patterns of the host were determined.
Hosts parasitized prior to the sixth day of age initially developed similarly to nonparasitized individuals, but from the 6th day parasitized larvae grew slower. The maximum weight of these larvae was about one-seventh that of nonparasitized individuals. Growth patterns of larvae parasitized after the sixth day of age are almost immediately observable. Parasitized individuals gain little or no weight as compared with normally developing larvae. The maximum weights of these larvae were one-fifth to one-third the weights of nonparasitized larvae.
Parasitoid development time was significantly negative when correlated with host age. Those starting their development in 1-day-old hosts required 13.85 days to complete development, whereas parasitoids starting development in 10-day-old hosts required only 7.4 days to complete development. Developmental rate changes most dramatically from one- to four-day-old hosts, by more than four days. In hosts five-ten days old development differed by approximately one day.
We tested the hypothesis that the host larval instars preferred by the adult female of two parasitoids of the spruce budworm, Choristoneura fumiferana (Clemens), also are the most suitable for immature survival, growth, and development. The hypothesis was supported for the tachinid Winthemia fumiferanae Tothill but not for the braconid Meteorus trachynotus Viereck. W. fumiferanae preferred the sixth over the fifth host instar for oviposition; the sixth instar also was the most suitable for the traits investigated. In addition to host instar, host sex also influenced larval development and pupal weight of this parasitoid. M. trachynotus preferentially approached sixth instars of the host, but second to sixth instars were attacked with equal frequency. Survival of this parasitoid was high in all instars tested, but development time from egg to pupa decreased and cocoon weight increased in older instars. M. trachynotus, a bivoltine two-host parasitoid, is more flexible in its host selection behavior and developmental biology than W. fumiferanae, a univoltine single-host parasitoid. For M. trachynotus, developmental flexibility and host regulation appeared to be important adaptive mechanisms, widening the range of spruce budworm instars suitable for parasitism. Nevertheless, greater adjustment to the spruce budworm is indicated for W. fumiferanae, in that this univoltine parasitoid is better synchronized in the field with its most suitable host instar than the bivoltine parasitoid, M. trachynotus.
Introduction.Various moth species can attack date fruit. This pest
causes up to 30% date yield loss in Morocco. This study set out to identify the date
moth species and their parasitoids, by specifying their relative importance, and to
indicate the factors governing the date infestation. Materials and methods. Surveys
were conducted during the years 1997 and 1998 in 16 sites distributed in the main Tafilalet
palm groves. Samplings were carried out on date bunches and on dates fallen on the ground.
The infested fruit number was counted and placed in hatchers until the moth adult and their
parasitoid exited. Results and discussion. Three moth species are able to develop on the
date fruit in the field with different incidences. The main pest is Ectomyelois ceratoniae.
Plodia interpunctella and Ephestia figulilella are secondary pests. The date infestation
varies from one year to another, rainy years supporting the moth swarm. The damage caused
by the moth depends on the date palm variety. The Bou feggous early variety with a thin
epidermis is more subject to infestations. The bunch sacked allowed reduction of the date
infestation. E. ceratoniae populations can be also limited by two parasitoids:
Phanerotoma ocuralis on the bunch and Bracon hebetor in the fallen date. Conclusion.
The application of some cultivation techniques could help farmers to significantly
reduce the infestation of dates in the field.
Although an effective parasitoid of agromyzid leafminers, Diglyphus isaea (Walker) (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) is an expensive biological control agent in terms of production costs. In part, these costs arise from the production of male-biased offspring sex ratios. Here, we present a mass-rearing technique that will increase the proportion of females produced and reduce the need for frequent releases in biocontrol programs. By presenting female D. isaea groups of sequentially larger leafminer hosts to attack, we are able to generate progressively more female-biased sex ratios. After three days of providing increasingly larger hosts, we were able to reduce the sex ratios produced by individual females from 57% male to 36% male; sex ratios produced by groups of females dropped from 64% male to 45% male. Several attributes of D. isaea sex allocation allow us to manipulate sex allocation behavior. First, D. isaea is a solitary idiobiont; resources available to each offspring are present at the time of attack allowing the ovipositing female to accurately assess host quality. Host size positively affects both male and female wasps. Females laid more daughters in larger hosts and more sons in smaller hosts. We show that the observed relationship between host size and offspring sex ratio is due to maternal sex allocation decisions rather than differential mortality. Furthermore, assessment of the size threshold was relative to prior host encounters rather than an absolute assessment. Our simple memory model suggests that while females are influenced most strongly by recent encounters, females also base their assessment of the host-size threshold on prior host encounters. Ó 2002 Elsevier Science (USA). All rights reserved.
The presence of natural enemies of the carob moth was investigated on carob trees, acacias and citrus trees in the various
regions of Israel. The highest number of parasite species was found on carob trees, while only a few were observed on acacias
and a single one on citrus. A list is given of the natural enemies of the carob moth.
Ils ont été étudiés sur le Carroubier, l'Acacia et les agrumes dans diverses régions d'Israel. Le nombre le plus élevé d'espèces
de parasites a été relevé sur le Carroubier, tandis que quelques-unes seulement ont été trouvées sur l'Acacia et une seule
sur les agrumes.
Sur le Carroubier, le pourcentage de Teignes parasitées a été plus bas dans la plaine côtière que dans l'intérieur du pays,
où il atteignit 50%. Les parasites notés le plus souvent ont été:Phanerotoma flavitestacea
Fi. [Braconidae] etClausicella suturata
Rond. [Tachinidae] et les moins fréquents:Habrobracon brevicornis
Wesm.,Apanteles lacteus (Nees),Apanteles sp.,Anisopteromalus mollis
Ruschka,Pristomerus vulnerator
Panz.,Horogenes sp.,Gelis sp.,Brachymeris aegyptiaca Ms.,Antocephalus mitys (Walk.)Perilampus tristis (Mayr. var.).
Des œufs parasités parTrichogramma spp. ont été trouvés également.
Le degré de parasitisme de la Teigne sur l'Acacia était comparativement bas et les quelques espèces rencontrées furent:Phanerotoma flavitestacea
Fi.,Perisierolla gallicola
Kieff.
Herpestomus arridens
Frav. etPyemotes ventricosus (Newp.).
Le parasitisme sur le agrumes a été pratiquement nul; la présence dePyemotes ventricosis (Newp.) sur une larve de la Teigne n'a été enregistrée qu'une seule fois.
Une liste des ennemis naturels de la Teigne du Carroubier est présentée.
A lab rearing technique was standardised for Apanteles taragamae Viereck (Hymenoptera: Braconidae), the early larval parasitoid of the coconut leaf-eating caterpillar, Opisina arenosella Walker on the alternate host Corcyra cephalonica Stainton (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae). The parasitoid took 23.3±3.2days to complete the egg to adult period. Adult longevity
for males and females was 15.3±4.6 and 13.8±4.6days respectively. Fecundity was 14.8±4.3 eggs per female. The percentage
parasitism was 60.6±5.7 on the alternative host C. cephalonica and 64.6±5.5 on the natural host O. arenosella. Eight- to ten-day-old caterpillars were the ideal stage of C. cephalonica for rearing A. taragamae. The results indicated the amenability of rearing A. taragamae on C. cephalonica in the laboratory.
Pentalitomastix plethoricus
Calt. was imported to Israel to aid in the biological control ofEctomyelois ceratoniae (Zell.). Two to 3 years following release in almonds the parasite was found established onE. ceratoniae with 12–15% parasitism. In carob plantations, on the other hand, 3 to 5 years after release the parasite was not recovered
fromE. ceratoniae. We suggest that the type of host plant — almond in this case — is a determining factor for establishment of the parasiteP. plethoricus.
Pentalitomastix plethoricus
Caltagirone, parasite polyembryonnaire, a été importé de Californie en Israël pour aider dans la lutte biologique contreEctomyelois ceratoniae (Zeller), nuisible au fruit. Le parasite a été élevé en masse surE. ceratoniae et libéré dans des plantations de caroubier et d'amandier. Deux et 3 ans après sa libération le parasite a été retrouvé sur
des amandiers où il a parasité 12% à 15% des chenilles deE. ceratoniae. C'est un degré de parasitisme élevé en comparaison avec le faible taux de parasitisme, environ 1%, deE. ceratoniae par des parasites indigènes. Dans des plantations de caroubiersP. plethoricus n'a pas été retrouvé. Il semble donc que la plante-hôte joue un rôle décisif dans l'établissement de ce parasite.
Aphidius ervi (Haliday) (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) is a solitary aphid endoparasitoid. Adults feed on honeydew and possibly on other sugar sources such as nectar. Sugar sources can vary qualitatively and quantitatively according to biotic factors and environmental conditions. Experiments were conducted to determine the influence of quantitative variations of sugar sources on survival, feeding behavior, and consumption of A. ervi. A 1:1 glucose–fructose mixture was tested in a range of concentrations (0–70% (w/v)). The lifetime of both sexes increased significantly with increasing sugar concentration. The optimal lifetime was achieved by insects fed with 50 and 70% (w/v) of sugar solution for males and 70% (w/v) for females. Behavioral studies showed that sugar concentrations had a significant influence on feeding duration: for males and females feeding duration increased with sugar concentration. Longevity primarily depended on the concentration of the sugar solution, rather than the quantity of sugar solution ingested. In the last experiment, we studied the effect of feeding intervals on the lifetime of A. ervi females. Females fed with a 50% (w/v) 1:1 glucose–fructose mixture continuously or twice a day lived eight times longer than unfed parasitoids. In contrast, females fed every two days lived only half as long as those fed daily. We can thus conclude that females need at least two food intakes per day to attain maximum longevity. Our results provide insight into the nutritional requirements of A. ervi under laboratory conditions. Such information can be a basis to improving the longevity of this biocontrol agent by sugar feeding in the field and in greenhouses.
The effect of dietary supplements on the longevity of male and female Gonatocerus ashmeadi, G. triguttatus and G. fasciatus (Hymenoptera: Mymaridae), was determined in the laboratory. Treatments included: water only, 3:1 honey–water solution, floral and extra-floral nectars from five different plants (excised stems from Fagopyrum esculentum, Lobularia maritima, Phacelia tanacetifolia, Anethum graveolens and Vicia faba), honeydew from Coccus hesperidum and Homalodisca vitripennis (formally H. coagulata), a commercially available food supplement (Eliminade) and citrus foliage. Additionally, the sugar composition of each food resource was determined using HPLC and whole flower extracts. Honey–water and F. esculentum nectar significantly increased longevity of male and female G. ashmeadi, G. triguttatus, and G. fasciatus up to 1860%, 1323% and 1459%, respectively, when compared with water. For both sexes and all three parasitoid species, survival on citrus foliage, H. vitripennis excrement, and P. tanacetifolia flowers was equivalent to that on water only. The longevity of G. ashmeadi and G. triguttatus was up to 539% higher on Eliminade compared with water only, however there was no significant effect of Eliminade on survival of G. fasciatus. Coccus hesperidum honeydew increased survival times up to 665% for all mymarid species compared with citrus foliage alone. HPLC analysis indicated that food resources most beneficial to Gonatocerus parasitoids possessed a high proportion of glucose (up to 44%) and fructose (up to 53%), suggesting that sucrose may not be as important for parasitoid survival. Citrus and P. tanacetifolia flowers contained favorable proportions of glucose and fructose, but the inability of Gonatocerus spp. to benefit from this may be related to flower morphology which could prevent access to nectar.
Fourteen naturally occurring sugars were individually tested with respect to their effect on Cotesia glomerata longevity. Parasitoids kept with solutions of either sucrose, glucose and fructose lived for >30 days. This constitutes a factor 15 increase in life span in comparison to control individuals kept with water only. Stachyose, mannose, melezitose, melibiose, maltose and erlose increased parasitoid longevity by a factor of 11.2-6.9. Solutions of galactose and trehalose had a marginal, but still significant effect. Lactose and raffinose did not raise parasitoid longevity, while rhamnose actually reduced parasitoid survival. In an additional experiment, the relationship between quantity of sugar consumption and longevity was established for all 14 sugars. To study the effect of an unsuitable sugar in sugar mixtures, a range of glucose:rhamnose mixtures was tested. Even at 20% of the sugar mixture rhamnose suppressed the nutritional benefit of the 80% glucose. The nutritional suitability of the sugars shows a positive correlation with the previously reported gustatory response towards the individual sugars. Patterns of sugar utilization are discussed with respect to hydrolytic enzymes and carbohydrate biochemical characteristics. Our findings for C. glomerata are compared to patterns of sugar utilization reported for other species. The comparison between C. glomerata and its host Pieris brassicae reveals that the parasitoid is capable of utilizing a range of sugars that are unsuitable to its herbivorous host. This specificity opens up opportunities to select food supplements for biological control programs that selectively target the antagonist, without concurrently enhancing herbivore fitness.
Dates, Phoenix dactylifera L., undergo a natural fruit abscission during the summer in California date gardens. Many of the abscised dates become lodged in the date bunch, and we demonstrated that carob moth, Ectomyelois ceratoniae (Zeller), prefer to use these dates as a reproduction host compared with dates that fall to the ground. We also found that abscised fruit shaken onto the ground had significantly fewer live carob moth larvae than fruit that remained in bunches in the tree. Mortality in the dropped fruit was attributed to predation by two native ant species, the fire ant Solenopsis aurea Wheeler, and the California harvester ant, Pogonomyrmex californicus (Buckley), in concert with extreme summer ground temperatures. Dates that fell in the full sunlight rapidly increased in temperature, which resulted in larvae either exiting the fruit (exposing them to ants) or dying in the fruit. Removal of abscised dates from bunches may provide a possible management strategy for carob moths in California date gardens.
The success of biological control is partly mediated by the longevity and reproductive success of beneficial insects. Availability of nectar and honeydew can improve the nutrition of parasitic insects, and thereby increase their longevity and realized fecundity. The egg parasitoid, Anaphes iole, showed strong gustatory perception of trehalulose, a carbohydrate found in homopteran honeydew. Chromatographic analysis demonstrated that enzymatic hydrolysis of sucrose, a common nectar sugar, proceeded at a faster rate than that of melezitose, a sugar common in aphid honeydew. A long-term bioassay showed that longevity was greater at 20 degrees C than at 27 degrees C, and at both temperatures survival was generally greatest for wasps provisioned with the three major nectar sugars, sucrose, glucose, and fructose. Patterns of food acceptance and utilization showed that A. iole accepted and utilized a broad range of sugars found in nature, including those found in nectar as well as honeydew. Glucose, fructose, and several oligosaccharides composed of these monosaccharide units appear to be more suitable for A. iole than other sugars tested. Evidence suggests that individual fitness benefits afforded by food sources are important for a time-limited parasitoid, and that continued investigations on the interface between nutrition and biological control are warranted for A. iole.
Large scale production and application of Trichogramma wasps for biological control of pomegranate moth Ectomyelois ceratoniae in Yazd province. Proceeding of 13th Iranian plant protection congress. Junior College of Agriculture
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- M Ziaii
Nasrollahi, A.A., Shojai, M., Ziaii, M., 1998. Large scale production and application of
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A review on investigations on pomegranate neck worm in Iran In: A pro-ceeding on evaluation of finding and current problems associated with Spectrobates ceratoniae management in pomegranate. Ministry of Jihad-e-Agriculture, organiza-tion of research and education
- M Shakeri
Shakeri, M., 2004. A review on investigations on pomegranate neck worm in Iran. In: A pro-ceeding on evaluation of finding and current problems associated with Spectrobates ceratoniae management in pomegranate. Ministry of Jihad-e-Agriculture, organiza-tion of research and education, pp. 20–45.
Experiments with synthetic sexpheromones for the control of the raisin moth, and for monitoring the carob moth in date plantations
- M Kehat
- D Blumberg
- E Dunkelblum
- L Anshelevich
Kehat, M., Blumberg, D., Dunkelblum, E., Anshelevich, L., 1995. Experiments with synthetic sexpheromones for the control of the raisin moth, and for monitoring the
carob moth in date plantations. Alon Hanotea 49, 284-290.
Evolution and Diversity of Sex Ratio in Insects and Mites
- B H King
King, B.H., 1993. Sex ratio manipulation by the parasitoid wasps. In: Wrensch, D.L., Ebbert,
M. (Eds.), Evolution and Diversity of Sex Ratio in Insects and Mites. Chapman and Hall,
New York, pp. 418-441.
Landmark examples in classical biological control
- L E Charnov
Charnov, L.E., 1981. Landmark examples in classical biological control. Annu. Rev.
Entomol. 19, 213-232.
Comparison of the calling behavior and some biological characters of three different geographic populations of Ectomyelois ceratoniae under laboratory conditions
- M Ziaaddini
- S H Goldansaz
- A Ashouri
- A R Ghasempor
Ziaaddini, M., Goldansaz, S.H., Ashouri, A., Ghasempor, A.R., 2010. Comparison of the
calling behavior and some biological characters of three different geographic
populations of Ectomyelois ceratoniae under laboratory conditions. J. of Iran. Plant
Protec. Sci. 41, 81-93.