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Abstract

The interests in the consumption of pepper fruits (Capsicum annum L.) is, to a large extent due to its content of bioactive compounds and their importance as dietary antioxidants. Peppers are used as a colourant, flavourant, and/or as a source of pungency. Peppers can be used fresh, dried, fermented, or as an oleoresin extract. It has both nutritional and nutraceutical importance. It contains an anticoagulant that helps prevent the blood clots that can cause heart attacks. Bell Pepper is good source of vitamin C. The benefits resulting from the use of natural products rich in bioactive substances has promoted the growing interest of food industries. Among the antioxidant phytochemicals, polyphenols deserve a special mention due to their free radical scavenging properties. Antioxidant compounds and their antioxidant activity in 4 different colored (green, yellow, orange, and red) sweet bellpeppers (Capsicum annuum L.) were investigated.The free radical scavenging abilities of peppers determined by the 2, 2~-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) method. Natural antioxidants are preferred because synthetic antioxidants are considered carcinogenic. Antioxidants present in the (Capsicum annuum L.), protect the food or body from oxidative damage induced by free radicals and reactive oxygen.
PAK. J. FOOD SCI., 21(1-4), 2011:45-51
ISSN: 2226-5899
Antioxidant Potential of Bell Pepper (Capsicum annum L.)-A Review
Muhammad Nadeem*, Faqir Muhammad Anjum, Moazzam Rafiq Khan, Muhammad Saeed, Asad Riaz
National Institute of Food Science and Technology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad-Pakistan
Corresponding Author:
mnadeem11@gmail.com
Abstract
The interests in the consumption of pepper fruits (Capsicum annum L.) is, to a large extent due to its content of bioactive
compounds and their importance as dietary antioxidants. Peppers are used as a colourant, flavourant, and/or as a source of
pungency. Peppers can be used fresh, dried, fermented, or as an oleoresin extract. It has both nutritional and nutraceutical
importance. It contains an anticoagulant that helps prevent the blood clots that can cause heart attacks. Bell Pepper is good
source of vitamin C. The benefits resulting from the use of natural products rich in bioactive substances has promoted the
growing interest of food industries. Among the antioxidant phytochemicals, polyphenols deserve a special mention due to
their free radical scavenging properties. Antioxidant compounds and their antioxidant activity in 4 different colored (green,
yellow, orange, and red) sweet bellpeppers (Capsicum annuum L.) were investigated.The free radical scavenging abilities of
peppers determined by the 2, 2~-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) method. Natural antioxidants are preferred because
synthetic antioxidants are considered carcinogenic. Antioxidants present in the (Capsicum annuum L.), protect the food or
body from oxidative damage induced by free radicals and reactive oxygen.
Key words: Bell Pepper, Capsicum annum, Natural Antioxidants, Health benefits, dietary antioxidants
Introduction
Capsicum has its beginning since the beginning of
civilizations. It is a part of human diet since 7500 BC. It
was the ancient ancestors of the native peoples who took
the wild chili Piquin and selected for the many various
types known today. Native Americans had grown chili
plants between 5200 and 3400 BC. This places chilies
among the oldest cultivated crops of the Americas
(Bosland, 1996). The genus Capsicum is one of the first
plants being cultivated in the New World with beans
(Phaseolus spp.), maize (Zea mays L.), and cucurbits
(Cucurbitaceae) (Heiser, 1973). In the sixteenth century,
Capsicum annuum and Capsicum frutescens were widely
distributed from the New World to other continents via
Spanish and Portuguese traders while the other species
are little distributed outside South America (Andrews,
1995). Capsicum annuum is mostly used commercially.
Genus Capsicum is a member of family Solanaceae and
has five species that are commonly recognized as
domesticated: Capsicum annuum, Capsicum baccatum,
Capsicum chinense, Capsicum frutescens, and Capsicum
pubescens. However there are approximately 20 wild
species that have been documented (Heiser, 1973). The
classification system for this genus is somewhat
confusing in the literature. In Spain, the Castilian word
‘pimiento’ refers to any Capsicum species, but in the
USA, ‘pimiento’ or ‘pimento’ refers only to thick-walled,
heart-shaped, non-pungent fruits from the species
Capsicum annuum. The Hungarians call all Capasicum
annuum fruits ‘paprika’, but paprika is defined in the
world market as a ground, red powder derived from dried
fruits with the desirable colour and flavour qualities. The
word ‘chile’ is the common name for any Capsicum
species in Mexico, Central America and the Southwestern
USA. In Asia, the spelling ‘chilli’ is more common and is
always associated with highly pungent varieties of
Capsicum annuum and Capsicum frutescens, while the
non-pungent sweet bell peppers are referred to as
‘Capsicums’ and it is native to Maxico. In American
English, it is commonly known as the Chili Pepper or
Bell Pepper. In British English, they are all called
Peppers, whereas in Australian and Indian English, there
is no commonly used name encompassing all its forms,
the name Capsicum being commonly used for bell
peppers exclusively. In Pakistan, it is locally known as
Shimla Mirch (Grubben and Denton, 2004). Pungent
fruits of all cultivated Capsicum species as a collective
class are called ‘chillies’ in the Food and Agriculture
Organization (FAO) Yearbook (Anon, 1997). Bird’s eye
chillies are grown primarily in East Africa, but they are
merely small-fruited, highly pungent forms of Capsicum
annuum or Capsicum frutescens. Different varieties of the
genus Capsicum are widely grown for their fruits, which
may be eaten fresh, cooked, as a dried powder, in a sauce,
or processed into
oleoresin (Poulos, 1993). Three major products traded on
the world market for use in food processing are paprika,
oleoresin, and dried chilli (both whole and in powdered
form).
• Oleoresin: A viscous liquid derived by polar solvent
extraction from ground powder of any Capsicum species;
there are three types of oleoresin: paprika (used for
colour), red pepper (used for colour and pungency), and
Capsicum (used for pungency).
• Paprika: A ground, bright red, usually non-pungent
powder used primarily for its colour and flavour in
processed foods; all paprika varieties are C. annuum;
paprika fruits are used to produce paprika oleoresin.
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• Chilli: Any pungent variety of any Capsicum species,
but primarily C. annuum; chilli varieties may be used to
produce red pepper oleoresin or Capsicum oleoresin.
• Pepper(s): Generic term describing the fruits of any
Capsicum species, both pungent and non-pungent.
Peppers are used as a colourant, flavourant, and/or as a
source of pungency. Peppers can be used fresh, dried,
fermented, or as an oleoresin extract. They can be used
whole, chopped, coarsely ground, or finely ground, with
or without seeds. Various types of processed products
containing primarily peppers include pickled fruits, chilli
sauce, chilli powder (also known as cayenne powder),
crushed red pepper flakes, fermented mash, paprika, and
three types of oleoresin. Other processed products that
contain a significant proportion of peppers include fresh
and processed salsas, curry powders, barbecue
seasonings, chili powder (a mixture of chilli powder,
oregano, cumin, and garlic powder), and many other
foods (Govindarajan, 1986).
The main source of pungency in peppers is the chemical
group of alkaloid compounds called capsaicinoids
(CAPS), which are produced in the fruit. The atomic
structure of CAPS is similar to piperine (the active
component of white and black pepper, Piper nigrum) and
zingerone (the active component of ginger, Zingiber
officinale). Capsaicin (C18H27NO3), trans-8-methyl-N-
vanillyl-6-nonenamide), is the most abundant CAPS,
followed by dihydrocapsaicin, with minor amounts of
nordihydrocapsaicin, homocapsaicin,
homodihydrocapsaicin, and others. Capsaicin is a white
crystalline, fat-soluble compound formed from
homovanillic acid that is insoluble in water, odourless,
and tasteless (Andrews, 1995). Varieties of chilli differ
widely in CAPS content. The amount of CAPS in a given
variety can vary depending on the light intensity and
temperature at which the plant is grown, the age of the
fruit, and the position of the fruit on the plant. The first
test developed to measure pungency was the Scoville test,
first developed in 1912 by Wilbur Scoville. It measures
‘heat’ as Scoville heat units (SHU) in a given dry weight
of fruit tissue. Sweet peppers have 0 SHU, chillies with a
slight bite may have 100 to 500 SHU, and the blistering
habaneros have between 200,000 and 300,000. The red
colour of mature pepper fruits is due to several related
carotenoid pigments, including capsanthin, shown in
Figure, capsorubin, cryptoxanthin, and zeaxanthin, which
are present as fatty acid esters. The most important
pigments are capsanthin and its isomer capsorubin, which
make up 30–60% and 6–18% respectively, of the total
carotenoids in the fruit. The intensity of the red color is
primarily a function of the amount of these two pigments;
the Hungarian and Spanish varieties used for paprika
have very high amounts of capsanthin and capsorubin
compared to other varieties (Govindarajan, 1985).
CAPS in oleoresins are very stable compounds and
generally do not break down, even during processing at
high temperatures and during long storage periods. CAPS
in dry products (fruits, powder, etc.) are not as stable as
in oleoresins. The temperature at which the fruits are
dried affects the CAPS content. For example, drying ripe
fruits at 60ºC to a final moisture content of 8% decreases
CAPS content approximately 10%. If the fruits are held
for extended periods of time at 60ºC after reaching 8%
moisture content as much as 50% of the CAPS may be
lost. Once the fruits are dried, they typically lose 1–2%
CAPS/month under cold (~16ºC) storage, and even more
when stored under ambient conditions. Ground powder
can lose as much as 5% CAPS/month depending on the
fineness of the grind and the storage temperature
(Bensinger, 2000). The red colour of paprika and chilli
powder, on the other hand, is not as stable as oleoresin
and CAPS, and much work has been done to optimize the
processing and storage conditions for dried chillies and
paprika to maximize the colour intensity for the longest
period of time (Garcia-Mompean et al., 1999).
Peppers in food processing are used as food colorant, as
source of pungency in food, as source of flavour, as
source of pain relief for pharmaceutical use and as
repellent. In many cases two or more of these properties
are included in the same product; for example, paprika
may be a source of color, pungency, and flavor.
People whose diets are largely colourless starches, such
as rice or maize, use peppers to add color to their bland,
achromatic diets. In various processed products paprika,
paprika oleoresin, red pepper oleoresin, and dried chilli
may all serve as a source of red color, but paprika and
paprika oleoresins are the primary source of red color.
Paprika is used in many products where no pungency is
desired, but only the color, flavor, and texture of a finely
ground powder is desired. These include processed
lunchmeats, sausages, cheeses and other dairy products,
soups, sauces, and snacks such as potato chips. Paprika
oleoresin is used as a color and flavor additive in many
products where the texture is important and small
particles of paprika powder would be undesirable
(Govindarajan, 1986).
Paprika is also important for its flavor in many products
in addition to its color. Dried chilli is also valued for its
contribution to flavor in chilli sauces and chilli powders.
The flavoring principle is associated with volatile
aromatic compounds and color. As a general rule, when
the color of paprika or chilli powder fades, the flavor also
disappears.
Peppers are well-known for their health benefits.
Herbalists have long promoted peppers for their health-
enhancing effects. These include clearing the lungs and
sinuses, protecting the stomach by increasing the flow of
digestive juices, triggering the brain to release endorphins
(natural painkillers), making your mouth water, which
helps to neutralize cavity-causing acids, and helping
protect the body against cancer through antioxidant
activity (Andrews, 1995).
CAPS stimulate sensory neurons in the skin and mouth
cavity, creating a sensation of warmth that increases to
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severe pain (type C nociceptive fibre pain) with higher
doses. The neurons produce the neuropeptide Substance P
(SP), which delivers the message of pain. Repeated
exposure of a neuron to capsaicin depletes SP, reducing
or eliminating the pain sensation in many people
(Caterina et al., 1997). Thus the use of CAPS in pain
relief has two modes of action: the sensation of heat,
which may help sore muscles and arthritic joints feel
better, and the depletion of SP, which reduces the pain
sensation in the exposed area. Peppers have been reported
to contain an anticoagulant that helps prevent the blood
clots that can cause heart attacks (Andrews, 1995). Foods
containing CAPS increase the thermic effects of food
(TEF). The TEF is the slight increase in the body’s
metabolic rate after consumption of a meal. A meal
containing foods with CAPS can increase the body’s TEF
up to 25% for three hours (Andrews, 1995). The role of
CAPS in triggering the brain to release endorphins
(natural painkillers) is well-known. As more CAPS are
consumed, the body releases more endorphins, causing
one to feel a mild euphoria – a natural high. Regular
consumption has only a slight desensitizing effect. The
Hungarian scientist Albert Szent-Gyorgyi won the 1937
Nobel Prize for isolating ascorbic acid, better known as
vitamin C, from peppers. Peppers are also high in vitamin
A, vitamin E, and potassium, and low in sodium. One
hundred grams of fresh red chilli pepper has 240 mg of
vitamin C (five times higher than an orange), 11,000 IU
of vitamin A, and 0.7 mg of vitamin E. Vitamin C is
sensitive to heat and drying but vitamin A is very stable,
and paprika and dried chilli both contain relatively high
amounts of this important nutrient (Govindarajan, 1986).
The chemical composition of foods is highly complex
and comprises both volatile and non-volatile substances.
Some of these substances contribute to the flavour of
foods. Since the aroma component (volatile flavour) is
usually responsible for the characteristic flavour of foods,
the volatile compounds have received most attention (van
Ruth et al., 2003). In the bell pepper 63 compounds were
identified and included alcohols, aldehydes, ketones,
acids, esters and sulphur- and nitrogen-containing
compounds. The five most abundant compounds were 3-
methylbutanal, 2-methylbutanal, 3-methylbutyric acid,
acetone and hexanal (Chitwood et al., 1983).
Chemical constituents with antioxidant activity found in
high concentration in plants (Velioglu et al., 1998)
determine their considerable role in the prevention of
various degenerative diseases (Diplock et al., 1998). Bell
Pepper is good source of vitamin C and E, provitamin A,
ascorbic acid and carotenoids (5.8 µgm/gm of fresh green
wt.) (Materska and Perucka, 2005). Sweet peppers
contain a very rich polyphenol pattern, which includes
hydroxycianmates, flavonols and flavones (Marin et al.,
2004). All these have great antioxidant activity. Natural
antioxidants are preferred because synthetic antioxidants
are considered carcinogenic (Branen, 1975).
Nutrition and health benefits
A wonderful combination of tangy taste and crunchy
texture, bell peppers are the Christmas ornaments of the
vegetable world with their beautifully shaped glossy
exterior that comes in a wide array of vivid colors
ranging from green, red, yellow, orange, purple, brown to
black. Although peppers are available throughout the
year, they are most abundant and tasty during the months
of August and September (GMF, 2008).
Bell peppers offer a number of nutritional values. They
are excellent sources of vitamin C and vitamin A. They
also are a source of vitamin B6, folic acid, beta-carotene,
and fiber. Red peppers also contain lycopene, believed
important for reducing risk of certain cancers (GMF,
2008).
The proximate chemical composition of green bell pepper
include dry mater (9.92%), total fat (0.33g), protein (0.99
g) , carbohydrate (10.63g), dietary fiber (2.73g) , vitamin
C (133.00mg), calories (46.79cal), energy (195.58kj)
(Durucasu and Tokusoglu, 2007).
Bell pepper have many health benefits like the protect us
against free radicals, reduce risk of cardiovascular
disease, promote optimal health, promote lung health,
protect us against rheumatoid arthritis and seeing red may
mean better eyesight (Ensminger and Esminger, 1986).
Essential oil functionality
The chemical composition of foods is highly complex
and comprises both volatile and non-volatile substances.
Some of these substances contribute to the flavor of
foods. Since the aroma component (volatile flavor) is
usually responsible for the characteristic flavor of foods,
the volatile compounds have received most attention
(Taylor et al., 2001). The fruits of Capsicum species have
a relatively low volatile-oil content which has been
reported to range from about 0.1 to 2.6% in paprika and
similar large forms of C. annutn. The initial volatile-oil
content of the freshly picked fruit is dependent largely
upon the species and cultivar grown and the stage of
maturity at harvest. The eventual volatile- oil content of
the dried product, however, may be lower and is
dependent upon the drying procedure, the duration and
condition (whole or ground) of storage. Paprika powder,
for example, usually contains less than 0.5% of volatile
oil (van Ruth et al., 2003).
In the early stages of aroma research, most emphasis has
been on development of methods to establish the
chemical identity of the aroma constituents. The
analytical task is rather complicated, as the fraction of
aroma compounds of a simple food may be composed of
50–200 constituents, and these compounds are present in
trace quantities. The large number of aroma chemicals
complicates the task even further. Aroma science has
benefited from the progress in the analysis techniques
over the last decades, which led to long lists of volatiles
(>6000) determined in foods (Maarse and Visscher,
1991).
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Initially, the total volatile composition of a food was
measured, for which extraction and distillation methods
were employed, in combination with gas chromatography
(GC). Later it appeared that the concentration of volatile
compounds in a food does not necessarily reflect their
concentration in air, as the concentration in air not only
depends on the concentration in the food product but also
on the interactions between the food matrix and the
volatiles. The sensory perception of aroma is determined
by the concentration of volatile compounds in the air
phase. Therefore, headspace concentrations usually relate
better to sensory properties than concentrations in the
food product. Analysis methods, therefore, shifted from
analysis of the compounds in the food to analysis of the
volatile compounds in the air around the food (the
headspace). Static and dynamic headspace measurements
have become extensively used. This type of analysis
developed further with the use of in-mouth analogues and
in-mouth and in-nose measurements (van Ruth, 2001).
Indications that only a small fraction of the large number
of volatiles occurring in food actually contributes to the
aroma (Guth and Grosch, 1999) led to an interesting
technique: gas chromatography–olfactometry (GC–O).
The technique involves the sniffing of the gas
chromatographic effluent by assessors in order to
associate odour activity with eluting compounds,
sometimes with a part of the effluent split to an
instrumental detector. It is well known that many
detectors are not as sensitive as the human nose for odour
active compounds (Acree and Barnard, 1994)
The last few years have seen research groups developing
methods to measure the change of the aroma profiles of
foods during the time course of eating. Collection of air at
the nostril(s) of subjects is the usual practice. Initially,
these time–intensity measurements were conducted by
trapping volatile compounds for short time intervals (e.g.
15 s). Absorbents and cryo-trapping have been used
success-fully in combination with GC–mass spectrometry
(GC–MS) (Taylorand and Linforth, 2000).
Color and pungency are the main quality parameters for
assessing Capsicum varieties (Govindarajan et al., 1987).
However, the majority of research has been focused on
using aroma as an important parameter for assessing the
quality of fresh fruits and vegetables (Guadayol et al.,
1997). In the bell pepper 63 compounds were identified
and included alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, acids, esters
and sulphur- and nitrogen-containing compounds. The
five most abundant compounds were 3-methylbutanal, 2-
methylbutanal, 3-methylbutyric acid, acetone and hexanal
(van Ruth et al., 2003). The volatile compound fractions
of the pepper species have previously been isolated and
more than 200 compounds were identified after hydro
distillation and dynamic headspace sampling (purge and
trap) procedures (Pino et al., 2006),
Later on characteristic volatile flavor compounds in
healthy peppers (Capsicum annuum L.) were evaluated
using a solvent-free solid injector coupled with a-gas
chromatography-flame ionization detector (SFSI-GC-
FID) and the results of evaluation were confirmed using
GC–mass spectrometry (GC–MS). These compounds
were compared with those obtained from peppers that
were naturally infected or artificially inoculated with
Colletotrichum spp. Parameters influencing the
vaporization efficiency, including the injector
temperature, pre-heating time and holding time, were
optimized to improve the analytical efficiency. A total of
96 compounds (excluding eight capillary compounds), 17
of which were identified in healthy peppers, 49 of which
were found in naturally infected peppers, and 61 of which
were identified in artificially inoculated peppers, were
separated and identified under the optimal conditions of
an injector temperature of 250~C and 7-min preheating
and holding times. Acetic acid and 2-furanmethanol were
the major compounds detected in the volatiles of the
healthy and diseased peppers. The major compound
detected in both the healthy and naturally infected
peppers was 3-hydroxypyridine, while hexadecanoic acid
was the primary compound identified in the artificially
inoculated peppers (In-Kyung Kim et al., 2007).
Antioxidants potential of Bell Pepper
Antioxidant means "against oxidation." Antioxidants
work to protect lipids from peroxidation by radicals. They
inhibit or delay the oxidation of other molecules by
inhibiting the initiation or propagation of oxidizing chain
reactions. Antioxidants are effective because they are
willing to give up their own electrons to free radicals.
When a free radical gains the electron from an
antioxidant it no longer needs to attack the cell and the
chain reaction of oxidation is broken (Dekkers et al.,
1996). There are two basic categories of antioxidants,
namely, synthetic and natural. In general, synthetic
antioxidants are compounds with phenolic structures of
various degrees of alkyl substitution, where as natural
antioxidants of plant region are classified as vitamins,
phenolic compounds, or flavinoids (El-Ghorab et al.,
2007).
Antioxidants protect the food or body from oxidative
damage induced by free radicals and reactive oxygen
species by (1) suppressing their formation; (2) acting as
scavengers; and (3) acting as their substrate. Synthetic
antioxidants such as butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) and
butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) have been used as
antioxidants since the beginning of this century.
Restrictions on the use of these compounds, however, are
being imposed because of their carcinogenicity (Ito et al.,
1983).
There are two lines of antioxidant defense within the cell.
The first line, found in the fat-soluble cellular membrane
consists of vitamin E, beta-carotene, and coenzyme
(Kaczmarski et al., 1999). Of these, vitamin E is
considered the most potent chain breaking antioxidant
within the membrane of the cell. Inside the cell water
soluble antioxidant scavengers are present. These include
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vitamin C, glutathione peroxidase, superoxide dismutase
(SD), and catalase (Dekkers et al., 1996).
Natural antioxidants are extensively studied for their
capacity to protect organism and cells from damage
induced by oxidative stress (Dorman et al., 2008).
The supplementation of human diet with spices or herbs,
containing especially high amounts of compounds
capable of deactivating free radicals. The benefits
resulting from the use of natural products rich in
bioactive substances has promoted the growing interest of
food industries (El-Ghorab et al., 2008).
Cultivars and growing conditions seem to play an
important role in affecting the metabolism of antioxidant
components and antioxidant capacity. Red sweet pepper
(Capsicum annuum L.) is a vegetable known for its rich
antioxidant content. Fresh sweet peppers have
exceptionally high ascorbic acid, a 100 g serving
supplying 100% of the current RDA of 60 mg/ day
(Simmone et al., 1997).
Bell peppers, among vegetables, have become extremely
popular for the abundance and the kind of antioxidants
they contain. Among the antioxidant phytochemicals,
polyphenols deserve a special mention due to their free
radical scavenging properties. These compounds whose
levels vary strongly during growth and maturation are
also important because of their contribution to pungency,
bitterness, colour and flavour of fruits (Estrada et al.,
2000).
The attractive red color is due to the various carotenoid
pigments, which include β-carotene with pro-vitamin A
activity and oxygenated carotenoids such as capsanthin,
capsorubin and cryptocapsin, which are exclusive to this
genus and are shown to be effective free radical
scavengers (Matsufuji et al., 1998). Red peppers also
contain moderate to high levels of neutral phenolics or
flavonoids, namely quercetin, luteolin and capsaicinoids
(Hasler, 1998).
Ten cultivars of red sweet peppers grown over two
consecutive years were compared with regard to ascorbic
acid, total reducing content, β-carotene, total antioxidant
activity and free radical scavenging activity. Cultivar
Flamingo had the highest ascorbic acid content followed
by cultivars Bomby and Parker. All cultivars fulfilled
100% RDA requirement for vitamin C. Torkel and
Mazurka excelled in terms of β-carotene. Flamingo had
the highest total reducing content and antioxidant
activity. There was no effect of harvest year on
antioxidant activity; however, ascorbic acid, total
reducing content (mainly phenolics) and β-carotene
differed significantly. A weak correlation was observed
between total reducing content and antioxidant activity as
measured by ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP)
and free radical (1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl, or
DPPH) scavenging assays (Deepaa et al., 2006).
Changes in total phenolics, antioxidant activity (AOX),
carotenoids, capsaicin and ascorbic acid were monitored
during three maturity stages in 10 genotypes of sweet
pepper (green, intermediate and red/ yellow). All the
antioxidant constituents (phenolics, ascorbic acid and
carotenoids) and AOX, when expressed on fresh weight
basis in general, showed an overall increasing trend
during maturity in all the genotypes studied. On dry
weight basis, phenolic content declined in majority of the
genotypes during maturity to red stage. With maturation,
most of the cultivars showed a declining trend with
regard to capsaicin content while total carotenoids and β-
carotene content increased significantly (Deepaa et al.,
2007).
Antioxidant compounds and their antioxidant activity in 4
different colored (green, yellow, orange, and red) sweet
bellpeppers (Capsicum annuum L.) were investigated.
The total phenolics content of green, yellow, orange, and
red peppers determined by the Folin-Ciocalteau method
were 2.4, 3.3,3.4, and 4.2 µmol catechin equivalent/g
fresh weight, respectively. The red pepper had
significantly higher total phenolics content than the green
pepper. Among the 4 different colored peppers, red
pepper contained a higher level of β-carotene (5.4 µg/g),
capsanthin (8.0 µg/g), quercetin (34.0 µg/g), and luteolin
(11.0 µg/g). The yellow pepper had the lowest β-carotene
content (0.2 µg/g), while the green one had undetectable
capsanthin and the lowest content of luteolin (2.0 µg/g).
The free radical scavenging abilities of peppers
determined by the 2,2~-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl
(DPPH) method were lowest for the green pepper (2.1
µmol Trolox equivalent/g) but not significantly different
from the other 3 peppers (Sun et al., 2007).
Conclusion
Nutritionally, sweet peppers are good source of mixture
of antioxidants including ascorbic acid, carotenoids,
flavonoids and polyphenols it is essential that
compositional studies in plant food be carried out to take
into account various factors such as cultivars, seasons and
pre- and post-harvest conditions that may affect the
chemical composition of plant foods.
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... One such study focused on the assessment of total phenolic content across these color variants. The findings indicated that the total phenolic content varied across the different colored peppers, with green peppers exhibiting 2.4 μmol catechin equivalent/g fresh weight, yellow peppers showing 3.3 μmol catechin equivalent/g fresh weight, orange peppers displaying 3.4 μmol catechin equivalent/g fresh weight, and red peppers boasting the highest content at 4.2 μmol catechin equivalent/g fresh weight (Nadeem et al., 2011) [26] . These detailed analyses shed light on the significant antioxidant potential inherent in bell peppers, particularly highlighting the role of polyphenols in contributing to their health benefits and sensory attributes. ...
... One such study focused on the assessment of total phenolic content across these color variants. The findings indicated that the total phenolic content varied across the different colored peppers, with green peppers exhibiting 2.4 μmol catechin equivalent/g fresh weight, yellow peppers showing 3.3 μmol catechin equivalent/g fresh weight, orange peppers displaying 3.4 μmol catechin equivalent/g fresh weight, and red peppers boasting the highest content at 4.2 μmol catechin equivalent/g fresh weight (Nadeem et al., 2011) [26] . These detailed analyses shed light on the significant antioxidant potential inherent in bell peppers, particularly highlighting the role of polyphenols in contributing to their health benefits and sensory attributes. ...
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... Red pepper carotenoids have over 50 dif ferent structures (Arimboor et al., 2015). Capsanthin, capsorubin, and their isomers are the most impor tant pigments, accounting for 3060% and 618% of the total number of carotenoids in peppers, respec tively (Nadeem et al., 2011). It is also reported that capsanthin contributes 45.27% of total carotenoid, while antherazanthin and capsorubin contribute 8.95% and 11.45%, respectively (Ko et al., 2022). ...
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... Red pepper carotenoids have over 50 dif ferent structures (Arimboor et al., 2015). Capsanthin, capsorubin, and their isomers are the most impor tant pigments, accounting for 3060% and 618% of the total number of carotenoids in peppers, respec tively (Nadeem et al., 2011). It is also reported that capsanthin contributes 45.27% of total carotenoid, while antherazanthin and capsorubin contribute 8.95% and 11.45%, respectively (Ko et al., 2022). ...
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The colour qualities of hot red pepper are the major issue in pepper value chain. Due to poorly coordinated scientific evidence, information on the factors causing colour loss and the inhibition mechanism is not well known. Therefore, this review paper aimed to summarize the inhibition mechanism of stored red hot pepper bleaching through appropriate postharvest technologies and practices. The information in this paper was gathered from a variety of sources, including journal articles, books, book chapters, workshop proceed ings, FAO reports, and AOAC official methods of analysis. According to these studies, carotenoids, surface colour, and extractable colour (ASTA value) are the primary colourants that define hot red pepper. The findings demonstrate that lowtemperature drying methods, such as open sun drying, are best for preserving the red hot pepper powder's colour quality, while higher tempera tures cause the colour to darken. Blanching, the use of desiccants (CaCl 2), and chemical dipping are pretreatments that preserve the best colour quality by hastening the drying time. Similarly, storage of red hot pepper powder at lower temperatures (5 o C) resulted in less colour degradation. In other words, materials used for packaging that have a high barrier to light, moisture, and air, such as laminated aluminium, amber or black polyethylene, and highdensity polyethylene, maintained a higher level of colour quality. Through their influ ence on drying and processing times, breeding technologies, varieties, and maturity level also impact colour quality. In conclusion, the colour quality of red hot pepper is highly influenced by environmental, biological, and process ing methods. It is, therefore, critical to use appropriate drying and pretreat ment techniques, storage time, wellmanaged storage temperature, appropri ate processing methods and packing materials, and improved agronomic prac tices for the sustainable management of colour fading and adulteration that can occur throughout the value chain.
... Beans were associated to tomato and red www.nature.com/scientificreports/ bell pepper, two vegetables particularly rich in carotenoids 34,35 . Vitamin D-enriched oil was also added to the test meals. ...
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Volatiles from three cultivars of Capsicum annuum—Jalapeño, Anaheim and Fresno—were analyzed by GC (gas chromatography) and by an experienced panel of judges. The Jalapeño volatiles were further measured by MS (mass spectroscopy) and by sniffing of the GC eluate. Agitation of the chopped, fresh fruit by swirling of the container increased nasal irritation, which interfered with descriptive analysis of the aroma. Without agitation, varietal differences were more apparent. Discriminating terms included ‘rose’ for Jalapeño > Fresno > Anaheim, ‘grassy’ for Anaheim > Fresno and Jalapeño and ‘garbanzo beans’ for Anaheim > Fresno and Jalapeño. All varieties possessed aromas described as green, green-vegetable, floral and apple. GC and GC/MS analyses indicated the presence of esters, alcohols, ketones and pyrazines which have been described previously as having green, fruity and floral aromas. Several monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes were tentatively identified. ‘Green-like’ terms were used almost exclusively when sniffing of the GC eluates from Jalapeño. ‘Green pepper’ frequently was used to describe volatiles in the retention index range where the 2-alkyl-3-methoxypyrazines would be expected to elute. Absence of floral- or apple-like aromas, similar to those perceived in the fresh fruit, may have been due to separation of compounds which interact to create these qualities, or to changes attributable to the extraction procedures.
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Cultivars and growing conditions seem to play an important role in affecting the metabolism of antioxidant components and antioxidant capacity. Ten cultivars of red sweet peppers grown over two consecutive years were compared with regard to ascorbic acid, total reducing content, β-carotene, total antioxidant activity and free radical scavenging activity. Cultivar Flamingo had the highest ascorbic acid content followed by cultivars Bomby and Parker. All cultivars fulfilled 100% RDA requirement for vitamin C. Torkel and Mazurka excelled in terms of β-carotene. Flamingo had the highest total reducing content and antioxidant activity. There was no effect of harvest year on antioxidant activity; however, ascorbic acid, total reducing content (mainly phenolics) and β-carotene differed significantly. A weak correlation was observed between total reducing content and antioxidant activity as measured by ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) and free radical (1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl, or DPPH) scavenging assays.
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The antioxidant ability of capsanthin and the fatty acid esters was examined by measuring the free radical-oxidation of methyl linoleate. To assess radical scavenging effect, the production of methyl linoleate hydroperoxides and the decomposition of capsanthins in reaction solution were measured by HPLC. Capsanthin suppressed hydroperoxide formation as well as β-carotene, lutein, and zeaxanthin. Interestingly, capsanthin decomposed more slowly than the other carotenoids, and the radical scavenging effect of capsanthin was found to last longer. Also, the capsanthin esterified partially and/or totally with fatty acids (mono- and/or diesterified capsanthin), isolated from paprika color, suppressed oxidation of methyl linoleate in a similar manner as nonesterified capsanthin. This finding suggests that the radical scavenging ability of capsanthin was not influenced by esterification, that is, the ability would contribute to the polyene chain, especially conjugated keto group. It was first found that esterified (monoesterified and diesterified) capsanthins also were good radical scavengers. Keywords: Capsanthin; esterified capsanthin; esterification; antioxidant activity; radical scavenging ability
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The steam volatile components of Yucatan Habanero chile pepper (Capsicum chinense Jack. cv. Habanero) at two ripening stages (green and orange) were analyzed using GC and GC/MS. Both samples had several compounds in common. One hundred and two compounds were identified, from which (E)-2-hexenal, hexyl 3-methylbutanoate, (Z)-3-hexenyl 3-methylbutanoate, hexyl pentanoate, 3,3-dimethylcyclohexanol, and hexadecanoic acid were found to be the major constituents. During Habanero chile pepper maturation, the majority of volatile compounds decreased or even disappeared, some of them with green odour notes while esters, which have fruity odour notes, increased at the same time.
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Changes in total phenolics, antioxidant activity (AOX), carotenoids, capsaicin and ascorbic acid were monitored during three maturity stages in 10 genotypes of sweet pepper. In an attempt to explain the variations during maturity stages (green, intermediate and red/yellow), the data was expressed both on fresh and dry weight basis. All the antioxidant constituents (phenolics, ascorbic acid and carotenoids) and AOX, when expressed on fresh weight basis in general, showed an overall increasing trend during maturity in all the genotypes studied. On dry weight basis, phenolic content declined in majority of the genotypes during maturity to red stage. This decline was significant (P<0.05) in Parker, Torkel, HA-1038 and Flamingo. Genotype Flamingo and Golden Summer had the highest phenolic content of 852.0 mg 100 g−1 and 720.5 mg 100 g−1, at their final red and yellow maturity stages, respectively. With maturation, most of the cultivars showed a declining trend with regard to capsaicin content while total carotenoids and β-carotene content increased significantly. Anupam was a promising genotype in terms of both total carotenoids and β-carotene content. Ascorbic acid content declined progressively with advancing maturity. Genotype HA-1038 had the maximum content (3030 mg 100 g−1 dwb) at the green stage. AOX in general, increased with maturity and registered a 1.30–1.95fold increase from green to red stage.The study proposes the nutritional significance of consuming sweet peppers at the red maturity stage because of enhanced functional properties. Overall genotype Flamingo and Anupam represent superior genotypes for both nutrition and germplasm improvement.
Article
Most bell pepper fruits are green at the unripe stages, and they become red as they ripen. However, the fruits of new varieties may be white, yellow, orange, red, purple, brown, or black. Ascorbic acid, provitamin A carotenoids, proximate composition, and 11 mineral elements were evaluated in these unusually colored bell peppers (Capsicum annuum L.). Over a 2-year period, peppers were grown at the same location following current recommendations for bell pepper production. The fruits were harvested at the unripe and fully colored stages. For each variety, total ascorbic acid and provitamin A contents were determined on two independent samples by microfluorometry and HPLC, respectively. Minerals and proximate composition were determined by AOAC methods. Ascorbic acid (P< 0.001), provitamin A (P< 0.001), protein (P< 0.001), and some minerals (P< 0.001) were affected by genotypes and color stages (R2= 0.96), but fat or moisture was not (P> 0.05). Ascorbic acid increased as color developed in some cultivars, but remained unchanged or decreased in others. Black, purple, and white peppers contained lower ascorbic acid levels compared to the green, yellow, red, brown, or orange peppers. Provitamin A increased as color developed in most cultivars except for yellow varieties. Brown peppers had the highest provitamin A activity compared to other colored peppers.