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Incidence of entanglements with marine debris by northern gannets (Morus bassanus) in the non-breeding grounds
... Entanglement has been seen among Arctic Ocean Whales (Knowlton et al., 2012) and South Coast Fur Seals (Waluda and Staniland, 2013). Gans from Spain (Rodríguez et al., 2013), Japanese pulpits (Matsuoka et al., 2005), and Virginia, USA crabs were also found (Bilkovic et al., 2014). Active fishing gear is where many marine birds, and mammals are killed, although not the number of animals in the sea litter is reported (Read et al., 2006;Žydelis et al., 2013;Tanaka et al., 2013). ...
... Sea birds clogged around the neck, wings, and feet by ropelike materials properly restrict their flight or hunting (Camphuysen, 2001;Rodríguez et al., 2013). Sea turtles, including their hatchlings on beaches, are also vulnerable to interconnection with fishing equipment and debris (Kasparek, 1995;Ozdilek et al., 2006;Triessing et al., 2012). ...
... Sponges, gorgonians, and corals that are usually caught by contagious fishing services eventually die (Bavestrello et al., 1997;Schleyer and Tomalin, 2000;Asoh et al., 2004;Yoshikawa and Asoh, 2004;Chiappone et al., 2005;Pham et al., 2013;Smith and Edgar, 2014). Entanglement causes substantial deaths of northern gannets (Morus bassanus) and has affected about a quadrant of birds recorded in the North Sea for death in 1980 (Schrey and Vauk, 1987), and is still a danger to the life of living things of today (Barnes, 2002;Rodríguez et al., 2013). ...
... Entanglement has been seen among Arctic Ocean Whales (Knowlton et al., 2012) and South Coast Fur Seals (Waluda and Staniland, 2013). Gans from Spain (Rodríguez et al., 2013), Japanese pulpits (Matsuoka et al., 2005), and Virginia, USA crabs were also found (Bilkovic et al., 2014). Active fishing gear is where many marine birds, and mammals are killed, although not the number of animals in the sea litter is reported (Read et al., 2006;Žydelis et al., 2013;Tanaka et al., 2013). ...
... Sea birds clogged around the neck, wings, and feet by ropelike materials properly restrict their flight or hunting (Camphuysen, 2001;Rodríguez et al., 2013). Sea turtles, including their hatchlings on beaches, are also vulnerable to interconnection with fishing equipment and debris (Kasparek, 1995;Ozdilek et al., 2006;Triessing et al., 2012). ...
... Sponges, gorgonians, and corals that are usually caught by contagious fishing services eventually die (Bavestrello et al., 1997;Schleyer and Tomalin, 2000;Asoh et al., 2004;Yoshikawa and Asoh, 2004;Chiappone et al., 2005;Pham et al., 2013;Smith and Edgar, 2014). Entanglement causes substantial deaths of northern gannets (Morus bassanus) and has affected about a quadrant of birds recorded in the North Sea for death in 1980 (Schrey and Vauk, 1987), and is still a danger to the life of living things of today (Barnes, 2002;Rodríguez et al., 2013). ...
Oceanic marine plastic contamination was an increasingly global issue due to increased demand. This has a significant effect not only on marine biodiversity, but also on public safety and numerous infectious diseases found in both aquatic and human species. A huge amount of money was spent worldwide on plastic waste. In the 1940s, plastics development began and is increasing massively. This crucial analysis intends to accomplish goals such as defining plastic materials, origins, detecting aggregation, and validating appropriate techniques to analyze plastic abundance spatio-temporal trends. This further addresses the possible impacts of plastics on marine species, humans, and future chemical emission control strategies together with advice. Plastics are primarily distributed along the coasts and mid-ocean vortex in large amounts. The broad variety of plastics, as eaten by aquatic animals finds their way to the human body through the food chain. Research articles should help learn the origins, deterioration mechanisms, and harmful effects of plastics on both the human body and the ecosystem. Until recently, the science community and politicians have generally ignored plastic waste, but ecological implications, as well as plastic pollution’s economic/health effects, have now gained greater global interest.
... Entanglement has been seen among Arctic Ocean Whales (Knowlton et al., 2012) and South Coast Fur Seals (Waluda and Staniland, 2013). Gans from Spain (Rodríguez et al., 2013), Japanese pulpits (Matsuoka et al., 2005), and Virginia, USA crabs were also found (Bilkovic et al., 2014). Active fishing gear is where many marine birds, and mammals are killed, although not the number of animals in the sea litter is reported (Read et al., 2006;Žydelis et al., 2013;Tanaka et al., 2013). ...
... Sea birds clogged around the neck, wings, and feet by ropelike materials properly restrict their flight or hunting (Camphuysen, 2001;Rodríguez et al., 2013). Sea turtles, including their hatchlings on beaches, are also vulnerable to interconnection with fishing equipment and debris (Kasparek, 1995;Ozdilek et al., 2006;Triessing et al., 2012). ...
... Sponges, gorgonians, and corals that are usually caught by contagious fishing services eventually die (Bavestrello et al., 1997;Schleyer and Tomalin, 2000;Asoh et al., 2004;Yoshikawa and Asoh, 2004;Chiappone et al., 2005;Pham et al., 2013;Smith and Edgar, 2014). Entanglement causes substantial deaths of northern gannets (Morus bassanus) and has affected about a quadrant of birds recorded in the North Sea for death in 1980 (Schrey and Vauk, 1987), and is still a danger to the life of living things of today (Barnes, 2002;Rodríguez et al., 2013). ...
Oceanic marine plastic contamination was an increasingly global issue due to increased demand. This has a significant effect not only on marine biodiversity, but also on public safety and numerous infectious diseases found in both aquatic and human species. A huge amount of money was spent worldwide on plastic waste. In the 1940s, plastics development began and is increasing massively. This crucial analysis intends to accomplish goals such as defining plastic materials, origins, detecting aggregation, and validating appropriate techniques to analyze plastic abundance spatio-temporal trends. This further addresses the possible impacts of plastics on marine species, humans, and future chemical emission control strategies together with advice. Plastics are primarily distributed along the coasts and mid-ocean vortex in large amounts. The broad variety of plastics, as eaten by aquatic animals finds their way to the human body through the food chain. Research articles should help learn the origins, deterioration mechanisms, and harmful effects of plastics on both the human body and the ecosystem. Until recently, the science community and politicians have generally ignored plastic waste, but ecological implications, as well as plastic pollution's economic/health effects, have now gained greater global interest.
... The Northern gannet was the species with more entanglements and also with a higher proneness of entanglement involving fishing hooks compared to the other studied material, with more than 50% of incidents. This species is known to be associated with fishing activities, with several reports of gannets following fishing boats (Votier et al., 2013) and reports of a high incidence of fishing bycatch (Rogan and Mackey, 2007;ICES, 2008;Rodríguez et al., 2013). The diving behaviour of the species in pursuit of food Nelson, 2002;Rodríguez et al., 2013;Lambert et al., 2017;Pettex et al., 2017) is likely the cause of the high rate of entanglements. ...
... This species is known to be associated with fishing activities, with several reports of gannets following fishing boats (Votier et al., 2013) and reports of a high incidence of fishing bycatch (Rogan and Mackey, 2007;ICES, 2008;Rodríguez et al., 2013). The diving behaviour of the species in pursuit of food Nelson, 2002;Rodríguez et al., 2013;Lambert et al., 2017;Pettex et al., 2017) is likely the cause of the high rate of entanglements. Birds may get entangled when they dive-bomb directly into hooks covered with bait. ...
Plastic pollution and the subsequent entanglement of marine animals is a global and increasing problem. In this study we present an analysis of the seabirds recorded as entangled by a rehabilitation centre and an associated marine animal stranding network, along the central coast of Portugal, between 2008 and 2018. Results show a high annual rate of entangled seabirds (average 6.9%) compared to other studies and fisheries related materials are a relevant cause of seabird entanglement (82%) compared to other debris. When comparing age classes, juveniles were more vulnerable to entanglement than other age classes in the species studied. Regarding the rehabilitation of entangled seabirds, the release rate was higher in non-fishing material entanglement cases. In conclusion, this study highlights the impact of fisheries related material on marine fauna and the need for reinforcement of the existing legislation for protecting seabirds and the implementation of mitigation measures associated with fishing activities.
... This impairment can hinder their ability to chase prey, dive for food, or evade predators, making them more vulnerable to starvation or predation. Additionally, reduced mobility can affect their ability to migrate or find suitable nesting sites, further impacting their reproductive success and long-term survival (Rodríguez et al., 2013;Ryan, 2018). Upon admission, both animals were severely debilitated, and the loss of a hind limb had likely impeded their ability to feed. ...
Plastic debris is a significant threat to marine ecosystems, notably affecting seabird populations globally. In this report, the authors document deaths related to plastic ingestion in a Northern Gannet (Morus bassanus, Linnaeus, 1758) and net entanglement in a Yellow-Legged Gull (Larus michahellis, Naumann, 1840) and a Northern Gannet (M. bassanus, Linnaeus, 1758) in Northern Portugal. All three animals died as a result of either plastic entanglement or ingestion. While this report highlights just three cases, it emphasizes the severe negative impacts of plastic on seabirds, ultimately leading to the deaths of these animals.
... En este caso, confunden el plástico con una superficie de agua y hacen intentos de oviposición sobre la superficie del plástico (Boda et al. 2014). Los encuentros macroplásticos-fauna (interacciones o asociaciones) son difíciles de evaluar en campo debido a los sesgos de muestreo y la baja detectabilidad (Rodríguez et al. 2013). Por este motivo, muchos investigadores han optado por realizar experimentos de mesocosmos, los cuales son herramientas científicas ambientales efectivas para cerrar la brecha entre los experimentos a escala de laboratorio y los estudios de hábitat reales sobre las complejidades de los ecosistemas (Blettler et al. 2023). ...
El río Paraná y su planicie de inundación en Argentina se encuentran dentro de las más grandes del mundo. El régimen de inundación y las temperaturas son generalmente consideradas como variables claves, gobernando los procesos ecológicos a través de diversas escalas espaciales y temporales. De forma general, la variación del nivel de agua, conectando y desconectando numerosas vías de acceso hacia nuevos hábitats, interviene en las estrategias alimenticias, reproductivas y en la búsqueda de refugio de los invertebrados acuáticos y terrestres de las zonas ribereñas, especialmente, de los bancos de arena adosados a las márgenes de los ríos.
Los bancos de arena del río Paraná, son zonas de depositación de arenas sobre las márgenes en cauces aluviales, su disposición y permanencia varían espacial y temporalmente de acuerdo a la dinámica fluvial del sistema. Estos ambientes son muy dinámicos y se encuentran afectados directamente por la hidrología del río. Esto permite la identificación de diferentes zonas dentro de cada banco con características morfológicas y sedimentológicas particulares. La elevación topográfica de cada banco propone un gradiente de vegetación asociado a la materia orgánica desde gramíneas y árboles en zonas más altas (alejadas del agua) hasta sedimento arenoso desnudo en zonas cercanas al agua. Todos estos factores hidrológicos, morfológicos, sedimentológicos y vegetales, sumado a las condiciones meteorológicas estacionales (temperatura) determinan la proliferación de ambientes propicios para la colonización de invertebrados acuático-terrestres característicos de los bancos de arena. Por este motivo, estos ambientes pueden ser muy valiosos en términos de servicios ecosistémicos que brindan, pero a su vez se encuentran entre los ambientes más amenazados del mundo.
La presente tesis se focalizó en determinar el rol ecológico de estos ambientes para las comunidades de invertebrados acuáticos y terrestres (según la fase hidrológica del río); determinando de esta manera, efectos e interacciones entre la fauna de invertebrados terrestres y la polución plástica presente en dichos ambientes, así como también, establecer el potencial rol de estos ambientes en la biodiversidad del sistema.
Se detectaron cambios en la composición de la fauna bentónica relacionados directamente con las condiciones hidrológicas (bajante y creciente) del sistema del río Paraná. En este sentido, un ensamble bentónico puede ser reemplazado por otro de acuerdo a los días que pasan con el sedimento expuesto o sumergido y según la situación hidrológica en la que se encuentra el río (rama ascendente o descendente del hidrograma).
Las zonas con sedimentos temporalmente expuestos presentaron una mayor diversidad de invertebrados terrestres que otras zonas del mismo banco (zonas más húmedas o secas), debido a su alta dinámica temporal, afectada por las fluctuaciones hidrométricas propias del río Paraná. En las zonas más cercanas al agua se encontraron pocas especies de invertebrados, sin embargo, la abundancia de estos fue elevada. Durante las fases de creciente del río, las zonas más elevadas en el perfil topográfico fueron colonizadas por especies propias de las otras zonas, sin embargo, cuando descendió el nivel del agua, estas especies volvieron a encontrarse nuevamente en sus respectivas zonas.
La abundancia de desechos plásticos (macro, meso y micro) en los sedimentos dependió del ciclo hidrológico del sistema. Los macro- (> 2,5 cm), meso- (0,5 a 2,5 cm) y microplásticos (<5 mm) tienen diferentes patrones de distribución en los bancos de arena y fueron influenciados de manera diferente por las oscilaciones hidrodinámicas y la intensidad del viento.
Los invertebrados terrestres de los bancos de arena prefieren colonizar sitios con gran cantidad de plásticos. Se detectó que los microplásticos presentes en el sedimento se adhieren accidentalmente al cuerpo de los invertebrados. No se pudo determinar la ingesta de microplásticos por parte de los colémbolos.
Finalmente, toda esta información permitirá describir las diferentes etapas de la sucesión biótica, considerando a la comunidad de invertebrados total desde que los bancos de arena quedaron expuestos hasta que eventualmente fueron inundados en las fases hidrológicas elevadas. De la integración de los resultados físicos, biológicos y antrópicos (plásticos) surgirán los elementos para justipreciar la importancia de los bancos de arena adosados a la margen del río, en el mantenimiento de la complejidad natural de un gran sistema río-planicie aluvial, aspecto clave para la preservación del recurso.
... For example, great cormorants (Phalacrocorax carbo) prefer green objects to build nests and Caspian terns (Hydroprogne caspia) favour white ones in the Delta du Saloum, Senegal (Tavares et al., 2019). By contrast, red was the most common colour of entangled plastics in the bills of Northern gannets (Morus bassanus) in Mauritanian waters (Rodríguez et al., 2013a). Seaweed, seagrass, grass or moss are commonly used by ospreys in other locations (Bierregaard et al., 2020), and Cabo Verdean ospreys might prefer green as it resembles plant material adequate for nest lining. ...
The use of anthropogenic debris as nest-building materials may affect nest function. We study ospreys (Pandion haliaetus) on an island with scarce vegetation and high availability of beached marine debris. We describe the anthropogenic debris in osprey nests, evaluate the factors affecting its prevalence and abundance, and test its potential effects on breeding parameters. We also quantify plastic entanglements among adults and nestlings. Of the 36 studied nests, 92 % included non-natural items, with plastic being the most frequent material (88.9 %). Nests that were bigger and closer to the coast had more anthropogenic items. The abundance of anthropogenic items in nests did not correlate with osprey breeding parameters. We recorded two live entangled adult females, which represent 3.9 % of the adult population. Monitoring the abundance of anthropogenic debris and its effects on wildlife is necessary to guarantee long-term viability of coastal wildlife.
... Furthermore, of the 265 bird species entangled globally, 83% were caught up in fishing gear (Ryan 2018). Additionally, many seabirds use plastic as nesting material, including Double-crested Cormorants Phalacrocorax auritus (Podolsky & Kress 1989) and Northern Gannets Morus bassanus (Montevecchi 1991;Votier et al. 2011;Rodríguez et al. 2013), increasing the risk of plastic entanglement and ingestion for both breeding adults and their chicks (Podolsky & Kress 1989). ...
Plastic debris is ubiquitous in the marine environment, and seabirds are among the most impacted marine vertebrates. Plastic ingestion was investigated in an internationally-important breeding population of Manx Shearwaters Puffinus puffinus on Skomer Island, Wales in 2018–19. Opportunistic necropsies were carried out on a total of 34 birds to collect contents of the gastrointestinal tract: 13 adults from April to July 2019 and 12 fledglings during September 2019, and a further nine opportunistic necropsies carried out from adults from July to September 2018. The presence, quantity, size and colour of plastic in the gastrointestinal tract was investigated. Plastic was found in 71% of Manx Shearwater stomachs (68% of adults, 75% of fledglings). Adults were found to have larger plastic pieces in their gastrointestinal tract than fledglings, and lighter birds had larger pieces of plastic in their tracts than heavier birds. This study shows that Manx Shearwaters on Skomer Island are vulnerable to plastic ingestion, and that adults are likely to pass plastic to their chicks.
... In addition to physical damage (e.g., entanglement, suffocation, hypoxia, anoxia [15,39,[44][45][46][47][48][49][50][51][52]), several studies have reported toxicological damage caused by the presence of contaminants in the environment (e.g., pesticides, phthalates, PCBs and bisphenol A), adsorbed and released by the plastic debris ingested by the biota and their possible movement along the food chain, with consequences that are still not completely understood [24,[53][54][55][56][57][58][59][60][61][62][63][64][65][66][67][68][69][70]. In addition, several plastic items are composed of hazardous monomers and additives (e.g., plasticizer, stabilizer, flame retardants, antioxidants, etc. ( [67,71]), and/or they adsorb chemical pollutants from aquatic environments [53,[72][73][74][75][76][77]. ...
In this paper, we present two novel experimental setups specifically designed to perform in
situ long-term monitoring of the aging behaviour of commercial plastic granules (HDPE, PP, PLA
and PBAT). The results of the first six months of a three year monitoring campaign are presented.
The two experimental setups consist of: (i) special cages positioned close to the sea floor at a depth of
about 10 m, and (ii) a box containing sand exposed to atmospheric agents to simulate the surface of a
beach. Starting from March 2020, plastic granules were put into the cages and plunged in sea water in
two different locations in the sand boxes. Chemical spectroscopic and thermal analyses (GPC, SEM,
FTIR-ATR, DSC, TGA) were performed on the granules before and after exposure to natural elements
for six months, in order to identify the physical-chemical modifications occurring in marine environmental
conditions (both in seawater and in sandy coastal conditions). Changes in colour, surface
morphology, chemical composition, thermal properties and molecular weight, and the polydispersity
of the materials, showed the different influences of the environmental conditions. Photooxidative
reaction pathways were prevalent in the sandbox. Abrasive phenomena acted specially in the sea
environment. PLA and PBAT did not show significant degradation after six months, making the
possible reduction of marine pollution due to this process negligible.
... Plastic debris in the ocean can be ingested by seabirds (Acampora et al., 2014;Bond et al., 2014;Codina-garcía et al., 2013;Mallory et al., 2006;Richardson et al., 2013;Richardson et al., 2012;Richardson et al., 2011), sea turtles (Campani et al., 2013;González et al., 2014), and fishes (Foekema et al., 2013;Wardrop et al., 2016). It is entangled by birds, fur seals, elephant seals, sea lions, and whales (Lawson et al., 2015;Moore et al., 2009;Pendleton, 2004;Rodríguez et al., 2013;Waluda and Staniland, 2013). ...
Ocean life forms are fundamentally well adapted to natural environmental variations, and they can even tolerate extreme conditions for a short time. However, several anthropogenic stressors are causing such drastic changes in the ocean ecosystem. First, the review attempts to outline the impact of climatic and non-climatic stressors on ocean life, and it also outlines the synergistic impact of both stressors. Then the impact on human health caused by the damage of the marine ecosystem has been discussed. Furthermore, the type of prior studies and current mitigation adaptation programs have been presented. Finally, some perspectives about future research and mitigation adaptation are offered.
... gazella) population on Signy Island (Waluda & Staniland, 2013) to 20.16% of northern gannets (M. bassanus) observed off the coast of Mauritania (Rodríguez et al., 2013). In addition to the population specific entanglement rates, the modelled sensitivity of a species is determined by the estimated plastic debris concentrations within the respective potential exposure areas (SI, Table S1). ...
Marine animals have been known to interact with and become entangled in plastic debris for decades. Despite increasing annual input volumes of plastic waste to the natural environment and the threat this constitutes to marine biodiversity, impacts of mismanaged plastic waste generally remain unquantified in environmental impact assessments. In this paper, we develop a Species Sensitivity Distribution (SSD) approach for estimating a spatially differentiated indicator of potential macroplastic entanglement impacts with global coverage of the world’s oceans. This constitutes a key modelling step that contributes towards the inclusion of plastic litter effects in impact assessments. We gathered entanglement incidence data for 20 species of marine mammals, turtles and birds from different populations and marine regions. To capture species-specific sensitivities to entanglement and spatially varying concentrations of plastic debris, concentration–response modelling of field data was used to develop the SSD-based model. This was achieved by linking population specific entanglement records to corresponding regional areas of exposure and an existing global model of plastic debris concentrations. The SSD was further applied to derive an estimate of the Potentially Affected Fraction (PAF) of species on a global scale, highlighting regional hotspots of potential entanglement impacts at current levels of marine plastic pollution. This indicator can be adapted and applied in impact assessments in order to account for potential impacts of mismanaged plastic waste ending up in marine ecosystems.
... Several studies have reported litter presence in seabirds' nests, some of them regarding different species belonging to the Soleidae family, such as Sula leucogaster -common name: Brown Booby -and Morus bassanus -common name: Gannet - (Montevecchi, 1991;Palmer, 2001;Votier et al., 2011;Bond et al., 2012;Lavers et al., 2013;Rodríguez et al., 2013;Verlis et al., 2014;Lyngs, 2015;Merlino et al., 2018). ...
Litter are ubiquitous and increasing in the coastal and marine environments. Entanglement with litter is one of the principal causes of mortality in seabirds, but the population-level consequences are unknown. Currently, all seabirds collect litter for nesting material. Northern Gannets are not the exception and there are several cases where elevated percentages of polymers are part of the life cycle of gannets, especially during breeding. This baseline paper presents an analysis of litter content and its related impacts on the two gannet nests located in South France (Carry-Le-Rouet) and Northwest Italy (Portovenere) from 2017 to 2019. 654 items from both gannet nests were collected with 277 items (42%) being of natural origin, while 377 items (58%) were litter. Most of the nesting material was nautical cordage, which appears to be used preferentially. A more restrictive litter management regulation must be adopted to reduce litter generation from fishing/aquaculture-related activities.
... Several studies have reported litter presence in seabirds' nests, some of them regarding different species belonging to the Soleidae family, such as Sula leucogaster -common name: Brown Booby -and Morus bassanus -common name: Gannet - (Montevecchi, 1991;Palmer, 2001;Votier et al., 2011;Bond et al., 2012;Lavers et al., 2013;Rodríguez et al., 2013;Verlis et al., 2014;Lyngs, 2015;Merlino et al., 2018). ...
Litter are ubiquitous and increasing in the coastal and marine environments. Entanglement with litter is one of the principal causes of mortality in seabirds, but the population-level consequences are unknown. Currently, all seabirds collect litter for nesting material. Northern Gannets are not the exception and there are several cases where elevated percentages of polymers are part of the life cycle of gannets, especially during breeding. This baseline paper presents an analysis of litter content and its related impacts on the two gannet nests located in South France (Carry-Le-Rouet) and Northwest Italy (Portovenere) from 2017 to 2019. 654 items from both gannet nests were collected with 277 items (42%) being of natural origin, while 377 items (58%) were litter. Most of the nesting material was nautical cordage, which appears to be used preferentially. A more restrictive litter management regulation must be adopted to reduce litter generation from fishing/aquaculture-related activities.
... So far, plastic pollution has gained much more attention in marine environments, whereas freshwater and terrestrial ecosystems have been undervalued in terms of scientific researches (Blettler et al., 2018;Malizia and Monmany-Garzia, 2019). Macroplastic-fauna encounters (interactions or associations) are challenging to assess due to sampling and reporting biases (many records of encounters may remain unpublished or are anecdotal and cannot be compared geographically or temporally) and low detectability (many animals are visible only for brief instances, the visibility of the different encounters is unequal, etc.) (Ryan et al., 2009;Rodríguez et al., 2013). Even though encounters have been relatively well addressed in marine environments, few studies have been reported in freshwater or terrestrial ones (Adimey et al., 2014;National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Marine Debris Program, NOAA, 2014). ...
Encounters (or interactions) between plastic debris and wildlife can cause great harm to individuals and populations. The most common encounters are ingestion, entanglement and plastic usage (plastic as nesting material, vector for biota transport and refuge/shelter). Hundreds of plastic-encounters have been reported for marine species. However, there is a lack of studies reporting encounters in other ecosystems, such as freshwater and terrestrial ones.
Based on a citizen science approach, we documented and analyzed 90 different cases of macroplastic-fauna encounters for 44 freshwater and terrestrial species. Herein, we provided evidence (photographically documented) of the negative consequences of macroplastic debris discarded in freshwater and terrestrial environments.
Birds were by far the taxon most frequently reported in encounters (72.2% of the encounters, 30 different species). The dominant type of plastic-fauna encounter was the use of plastic as nesting material (42% of the total cases) and the second one was entanglement (33%). Most of the entanglements had lethal consequences for the organisms involved (almost 60%). Entanglement in ghost fishing gear and bottle (security) rings were particularly dangerous and comparatively frequent in this study.
Some invasive species could benefit from the encounters to the detriment of the environment's health, using plastics as settlement substrata.
Finally, we lay the foundation for creating worldwide lists of non-marine species impacted by encounters with plastic debris.
... In the Sulidae family, gannets and boobies have also been found to use fishing and shipping debris to build their nests which can result in both adults and young becoming entangled (Lavers et al., 2013;Rodríguez et al., 2013;Votier et al., 2011). ...
... Many studies of marine birds or mammals have found that immature individuals are more likely than adults to be entangled in rubbish (e.g. Pemberton et al. 1992;Arnould and Croxall 1995;Hanni and Pyle 2000;Henderson 2001;Rodríguez et al. 2013;Lawson et al. 2015;McIntosh et al. 2015). Similarly, the frequency of litter entanglement of first-year juveniles in our study was significantly greater than (more than double) that of older individuals. ...
The platypus’s tapered shape and benthic foraging habits predispose it to becoming entangled in encircling rings or loops of plastic, rubber or metal rubbish. Based on 54 cases of litter entanglement recorded in Victorian live-trapping surveys, items may encircle the neck (68%), torso (8%), jaw (2%) or be wrapped bandolier-fashion from in front of a shoulder to behind the opposite foreleg (22%). Entanglement frequency was eight times higher in the greater Melbourne region than in regional Victoria, and was significantly greater in first-year juveniles than in older animals and also in adult/subadult females compared with adult/subadult males. Items recovered from carcasses or from rescued animals that were unlikely to have survived without human intervention included elastic hair-ties, fishing line, a hospital identification wristband, an engine gasket and a plastic ring seal from a food jar; all of these items had cut through skin and (in most cases) deeply into underlying tissue. Up to 1.5% of the platypus residing in the greater Melbourne area and 0.5% of those living in regional Victoria are estimated to be at risk of entanglement-related injuries or death at any point in time.
... Plastic polymers are typically persistent and can survive for hundreds of years before being degraded (Thompson et al., 2004). Whilst the plastic remains in the environment, animals can become entangled within plastic fragments (Franco-Trecu et al., 2017;Gregory, 2009;Rodríguez et al., 2013) or ingest (Andrade et al., 2019;Clukey et al., 2017;Li et al., 2016;Poon et al., 2017) them, which can lead to suffocation, starvation, and death (Gregory, 2009;Koelmans et al., 2017;Wilcox et al., 2018). Entanglement and/or ingestion have been documented for at least 557 marine species (Kühn et al., 2015). ...
There is currently a shift from petrochemical to bio-based plastics (bioplastics). The application of comprehensive and appropriately designed LCA studies are imperative to provide clear evidence on the comparative sustainability of bioplastics. This review explores the growing collective of LCA studies that compare the environmental footprints of specific bioplastics against those of petrochemical plastics. 44 relevant studies published between 2011 and 2020 were reviewed to explore important methodological choices regarding impact category selection, inventory completeness (e.g. inclusion of additives), boundary definition (e.g. inclusion of land-use change impacts), representation of biogenic carbon, choice of end-of-life scenarios, type of LCA, and the application of uncertainty analysis. Good practice examples facilitated identification of common gaps and weaknesses in LCA studies applied to benchmark bioplastics against petrochemical plastics. Many studies did not provide a holistic picture of the environmental impacts of bioplastic products, thereby potentially supporting misleading conclusions. For comprehensive evaluation of bioplastic sustainability, we recommend that LCA practitioners: embrace more detailed and transparent reporting of LCI data within plastic LCA studies; adopt a comprehensive impact assessment methodology pertaining to all priority environmental challenges; incorporate multiple plastic use cycles within functional unit definition and system boundaries where plastics can be recycled; include additives in life cycle inventories unless there is clear evidence that they contribute <1% to all impact categories; apply biogenic carbon storage credits only to long-term carbon sinks; account for (indirect) land-use change arising from feedstock cultivation; prospectively consider realistic scenarios of deployment and end-of-life, preferably within a consequential LCA framework.
... Discharge ( Specific evidence -Seabirds can become entangled around the bill, wings and feet with ropelike debris materials, which affects their ability to fly or forage properly (Camphuysen 2001;Rodríguez et al. 2013). Seabirds have also used marine debris such as netting into nests which has the potential to entangle chicks . ...
Vessels involved in commercial marine shipping in Canada engage in the movement of goods or people by sea on the Arctic, Atlantic, and Pacific oceans. To explore the ways that the activities associated with commercial shipping can impact the marine environment, a suite of activity-based Pathways of Effects (PoE) conceptual models were developed. PoE conceptual models describe the pathways (linkages) between human activities, associated stressors, and their effects on endpoints, based on current knowledge. A visual representation of each PoE model is supported by text describing each pathway linkage based on scientific literature or expert opinion. Indigenous and local knowledge were not used in the current work. PoE models are useful tools for the scoping phase of a variety of environmental assessment, such as ecological risk assessment, environmental impact assessment, and cumulative effect assessments as they clearly outline activities and stressors and clarify connections between human activities and potential effects on ecological endpoints, and provide a science-based foundation for decision-making. The objective of these models and their supporting evidence is to provide a systematic review of the effects of shipping-associated activities on marine ecosystems. PoE models have been developed for five activities associated with commercial marine shipping in Canada: 1) anchoring and mooring, 2) vessel at rest, 3) grounding and sinking, 4) movement underway, and 5) discharge (divided into two PoE models: ‘debris’ and ‘other’). The PoEs were developed to be broad enough to be adapted for application in a range of environments and locations and detail the potential stressors and effects that could be considered in an assessment. The activity-based PoE models contain fourteen stressors (e.g., substrate disturbance, vessel strikes) and are related to three effects (change in fitness, mortality, and change in habitat) on ten generic endpoints (e.g., marine mammals, physical habitat). The models only include activities related to the commercial movement of goods and people by vessels, not included in this document are other vessel activities such as fishing, seismic surveying, dredging, port operations (e.g., when at-berth and while berthing). Non-commercial vessels (e.g., recreational vessels) are also not specifically included in these models. Though endpoints have been identified for illustrative purposes here, ultimately the assessor is responsible for comprehensively scoping the specific endpoints (e.g., valued components) and stressors to be considered in any assessment. PoE models do not include any evaluation of the relative or absolute impact from these activities on specific endpoints; this would occur in a subsequent assessment step, such as risk assessment.
... However, for other marine organism investigation of plastic entanglement still not done clearly.Entanglement and ingestion of plastic on the marine organism, give an impact to over 46,000 individuals and 663 species, that can reduce survival rate (Mazur & Hitchcock, 2001).Entanglement majority caused by abandoned or derelict fishing gear or ghost fishing, ropes, plastic bags, or discarded clothes(Francois Galgani, Pham, Claro, & Consoli, 2018;E. Moore et al., 2009;Raum-Suryan, Jemison, & Pitcher, 2009;Rodríguez, Bécares, Rodríguez, & Arcos, 2013;Stelfox, Hudgins, & Sweet, 2016). Kühn et al. (2015) found a high percentage of marine organism entangled by plastic, for example 100% species of sea turtle, 67% species of seals, 31% species of whales, and 36% species of seabirds (Ryan, 2018). ...
Marine pollution due to littering from anthropogenic activities is a serious global environmental problem-the main reason accumulation of debris in the environment, including in the ocean. There is a significant hazard coming from plastic debris. Besides entanglement and ingestion, marine plastics debris has more complex problems and can release additional and by-product chemical substances. If we keep producing and not doing anything, a recent study said by 2050 there would be three times more plastic than fish in the ocean. We only have a limited understanding of marine plastic debris distribution, implication, fate, and behavior. Science is the key to getting the right alternative for processing debris. To prevent marine pollution successfully requires education and outreach programs, strong laws and policies, and law enforcement for government and private institutions. This chapter explores marine plastic debris.
... In the Sulidae family, gannets and boobies have also been found to use fishing and shipping debris to build their nests which can result in both adults and young becoming entangled (Lavers et al., 2013;Rodríguez et al., 2013;Votier et al., 2011). ...
Abandoned, lost or otherwise discarded fishing gear represents a substantial proportion of global marine plastic pollution and can cause significant environmental and socio-economic impacts. Yet little is known about its presence in, and implications for, freshwater ecosystems or its downstream contribution to plastic pollution in the ocean. This study documents fishing gear-related debris in one of the world's largest plastic pollution contributing river catchments, the Ganges. Riverbank surveys conducted along the length of the river, from the coast in Bangladesh to the Himalaya in India, show that derelict fishing gear density increases with proximity to the sea. Fishing nets were the main gear type by volume and all samples examined for polymer type were plastic. Illegal gear types and restricted net mesh sizes were also recorded. Socio-economic surveys of fisher communities explored the behavioural drivers of plastic waste input from one of the world's largest inland fisheries and revealed short gear lifespans and high turnover rates, lack of appropriate end-of-life gear disposal methods and ineffective fisheries regulations. A biodiversity threat assessment identified the air-breathing aquatic vertebrate species most at risk of entanglement in, and impacts from, derelict fishing gear; namely species of threatened freshwater turtle and otter, and the endangered Ganges river dolphin. This research demonstrates a need for targeted and practical interventions to limit the input of fisheries-related plastic pollution to this major river system and ultimately, the global ocean. The approach used in this study could be replicated to examine the inputs, socio-economic drivers and ecological impacts of this previously uncharacterised but important source of plastic pollution in other major rivers worldwide.
... and where the highest amount of their catches is landed, making the area one of the main fishing regions at European and worldwide scales (Vázquez-Rowe et al., 2011). Most of the fishing gears used in this area, such as pelagic or bottom trawl nets, gillnets or longlines, pose a risk of bycatch for large marine vertebrates, such as seabirds and cetaceans Goetz et al., 2015;Rodríguez et al., 2013;Saavedra et al., 2018). HVBAs could help identify areas with the highest risk of interaction with fisheries guiding where to concentrate management and conservation efforts especially aimed at marine megafauna. ...
Effective conservation and management measures are needed to face the unprecedented changes that marine ecosystems, and particularly marine megafauna, are suffering. These measures require the identification of high-value biodiversity areas (HVBAs) which in turn require the identification of the essential ocean variables (EOVs) that shape the environmental envelope of communities (i.e. space defined by a set of environmental variables). The aim of this study was to delineate and characterise the HVBAs for the north and northwestern Spanish seabird and cetacean community taking advantage of the sightings collected during the annual PELACUS oceanographic survey (2007–2016). We used distance sampling methodology to analyse the species detectability based on environmental conditions. Then, we delimitated the HVBAs and identified the EOVs defining the environmental envelope of the community based on a spatio-temporal modelling approach using Generalized Additive Models. Overall, the main environmental variables driving species abundance were the sea surface temperature (SST), the distance to the shelf-break and the chlorophyll-a concentration (Chl-a). The SST and Chl-a were identified as dynamic EOVs due to their highest relative predictor importance, driving the environmental envelope and shaping areas of higher density. HVBAs were located mainly over the northwestern Spanish waters and decreased towards the inner Bay of Biscay remaining spatially stable over the study period. By identifying community-level HVBAs, we can understand the underlying ecological and oceanographic processes driving the spatio-temporal patterns of biological communities, such as those composed by seabirds and cetaceans. This information would identify conservation targets to assist the allocation of management resources. In addition, the location of HVBAs can help to fulfil the emergent need for sound spatial information to support the implementation of marine spatial planning.
... Snapshot counts were used to obtain numbers of flying birds (Tasker et al., 1984). When possible, age was also noted based on plumage identification, classifying juveniles (1 st calendar year), immatures (non-adults), and adults (Rodríguez et al., 2013), as well as flight direction. When massive concentrations of birds occurred, age identification of all individuals was not possible. ...
In marine ecosystems, seabird populations are well monitored, thus allowing their use as indicators of system fluctuations at multiple spatio-temporal scales. Population abundance estimates are essential features of any conservation and management measures and initiatives. Population abundances can be used to delineate the distribution range and foraging grounds of species during both breeding and non-breeding periods, with multi-annual monitoring allowing for the inspection of the temporal variability within key marine areas. Taking advantage of long-term monitoring schemes, we examined the annual abundance patterns of the northern gannet Morus bassanus in their southern European migratory flyway. Here, the presence of a topographical feature (i.e. a submarine canyon system) could influence physical processes (e.g. upwelling, alongshore currents, and riverine inputs), thus oceanographically differentiating canyon and shelf ecosystem within a spatially restricted marine area. We assessed seasonal and long-term trend fluctuations of monthly northern gannet abundance using Generalized Additive Models, yielding only a strong seasonal effect. Moreover, we jointly tested the effect of the phenology and the spatial domain (canyon versus shelf) on northern gannet abundance using Generalised Linear Mixed Models, accounting for the excess of zeros. Gannet abundance was higher during the pre-winter and post-winter migration, corresponding to its southward and northward movements in the NE Atlantic, respectively. The effect of the canyon was only detected during the post-winter migration. By age class, adults were more abundant during the post-winter migration, whereas juveniles and immatures were especially abundant during the pre-winter period. Our results could provide quantitative baseline information of northern gannet spatio-temporal patterns in a migratory and wintering area important for both research and conservation efforts, given the high conservation value of the area within the Natura 2000 network.
... In seabirds, the presence of monofilament yarns in nests can increase the chances of adult or chick entanglement, causing injuries or even death of birds. Within the family Sulidae, M. bassanus, M. serrator and M. capensis have been found dead due to entanglement (Montevecchi, 1991;Norman et al., 1995;Rodríguez et al., 2013;Ryan, 2018). In eight years of monitoring, Votier et al. (2011) observed 525 entangled individuals of M. bassanus. ...
Anthropogenic debris has been affecting fauna in different ways. We investigate the frequency of anthropogenic material in nests of a brown booby (Sula leucogaster) colony in the Saint Peter and Saint Paul Archipelago (SPSPA), Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil in February 2015 and November 2016. The items were classified according to type (threadlike plastic, sheet plastics, hard fragments, foamed synthetics and miscellaneous) and color. In 2015, a total of 30 anthropogenic items were found in 20.4% of the nests. In nests containing debris, miscellaneous items were found in 73.6% of nests. White/clear was the most common color, 52.6% of nests containing debris had items of this color. In 2016, 45 anthropogenic items were observed in 13.3% of the nests. Threadlike plastic was found in 59.2% of nests. Blue/purple was the most common color (55.5%). Even far from the Brazilian coast, the S. leucogaster colony has been affected by marine pollution.
Marine litter and more specifically plastic marine litter is nowadays considered a global issue with unprecedented impact and consequences to the entire marine ecosystem and biota. The current situation that has been created worldwide due to the abundance of plastic litter in the Earth's Seas has been characterized as alarming, necessitating the immediate action for an overall reduction of plastic waste, better collection and recycling schemes and beach-shoreline clean-ups. In this article we attempt to delve into the details of the magnitude of the impact that plastic litter have caused to marine biota via a meta-research analysis, by compiling, combining, analysing and presenting data from various relative works, using primarily scientific and, secondarily, grey literature. Apart from the threats that plastic marine litter pose to the marine ecosystem, they present potential threats to humans, as well, via food chain. Aside from understating the risks and uncertainties contained in the hereby collected and presenting information, this study can provide an evidence base for decision and policy makers into implementing the appropriate action plans for reducing and, in time, mitigating this immense problem.
The Mediterranean Sea is adversely affected by human activities, of which the release of mismanaged waste into the marine environment, primarily plastic pollution, is one of the most omnipresent. The primary goal of this study is to link microplastic ingestion in several bioindicator species and creating hazard maps from microplastics sampled along the seafloor, in the hyperbenthos and along the sea surface layer in Marine Protected Areas (MPA). Considering the connectivity between these layers, the findings of this study identify areas of concern, especially within bay areas, where marine diversity is exposed to microplastic debris ingestion. In terms of exposure to plastic debris, our findings indicate that areas with high species diversity are particularly vulnerable to plastic exposure. The best model integrated the mean exposure of each species to plastic debris across each layer and the nektobenthic species inhabiting the hyperbenthos layer were found to be the most at risk. Furthermore, the cumulative model's scenario indicated a higher risk to plastic ingestion when all habitats were considered jointly. Overall, the findings of this research highlight marine diversity in a Mediterranean MPAs are vulnerable to microplastic pollution, and this study's proposed exposure methodology is applicable to other MPAs.
The present world is now facing the challenge of proper management and resource recovery of the enormous amount of plastic waste. Lack of technical skills for managing hazardous waste, insufficient infrastructure development for recycling and recovery, and above all, lack of awareness of the rules and regulations are the key factors behind this massive pile of plastic waste. The severity of plastic pollution exerts an adverse effect on the environment and total ecosystem. In this study, a comprehensive analysis of plastic waste generation, as well as its effect on the human being and ecological system, is discussed in terms of source identification with respect to developed and developing countries. A detailed review of the existing waste to energy and product conversion strategies is presented in this study. Moreover, this study sheds light on sustainable waste management procedures and identifies the key challenges to adopting effective measures to minimise the negative impact of plastic waste.
With a focus on plastic pollution, this chapter discusses the impacts of marine litter on the natural environment, the people and the economies of Africa. The impacts of marine litter will depend on various factors such as distribution, exposure time, size and type of organism. This chapter focusses on different impacts of marine litter at various scales, from ocean to coast, as well as more localised scales. The emphasis is on the coastal countries of the African continent, where information from Africa is lacking, and relevant data from other regions is used to infer possible impacts. Throughout this chapter, the environmental, social, economic and human impacts are discussed separately, although it should be remembered that these topics are intimately interlinked.
This chapter provides an overview of the international and regional legal and policy frameworks relevant to the prevention and management of marine litter. These instruments set the obligations and guidance for national action of participating countries. Legal and policy responses by governments provide an opportunity to address the many drivers of marine litter across the life cycle, from the design of products to the management of the waste they generate. Public awareness, consumer behaviour and industry engagement also play key roles in preventing marine litter. These interventions alone remain voluntary, fragmented and insufficient to tackle the marine litter problem. The national and/or regional responsibility of parties to prevent marine litter as established by these frameworks is not unique to the countries of Africa, and many of the barriers to effective compliance are shared with developing countries in other regions. The social context in which national implementation measures must operate can be unique to countries or regions. This chapter summarises the duties established by the legal and policy frameworks at the international and regional levels that may be applied to the issue of marine litter. It provides an African context to the barriers and drivers of effective implementation of national measures in compliance with international obligations. The scope of this chapter extends beyond the responsibility to prevent marine pollution, to establish a holistic and integrated duty of governments to provide a healthy environment and sustainable livelihoods as recognised in the global Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The review of these international, regional and national legal and policy frameworks therefore considers the inclusion of these broader principles to underpin prevention and management of marine litter.
What to expect from the African Marine Litter Outlook? The African Marine Litter Outlook provides an overview of marine litter from the African perspective. The Outlook covers: Marine Litter Sources and Distribution Pathways (Chap. 2 ), Impacts and Threats of Marine Litter in African Seas (Chap. 3 ), Legal and Policy Frameworks to address Marine Litter through Improved Livelihoods (Chap. 4 ), and The Way Forward, Building up from on-the-Ground Innovation (Chap. 5 ). This chapter provides the context for marine litter in Africa from a global and regional standpoint. This chapter introduces the concept of marine litter, the importance of the ocean, and the value of the Blue Economy in Africa. The uncertainties created by COVID-19 and its effects on future projections of marine litter are also summarised in this chapter.
Marine litter has been a global concern for many decades. It is important to understand marine litter sources and distribution pathways for the development of targeted and effective interventions and strategies. These have been relatively less researched on the African continent. This chapter focuses on (1) the sources of litter items from macro to nanoscale entering the marine environment and (2) the distribution and accumulation of these items within the environment, focusing on the African marine setting. Case studies are used to showcase specific examples and highlight knowledge/data gaps that need to be addressed within Africa. The potential pathways going forward are discussed and what may be expected in the future, in light of the challenges and successes examined.
This chapter of the African Marine Litter Outlook summarises the previous chapters, their findings, suggestions, and identified barriers to tackling marine litter in Africa. The importance of innovative ground-up solutions tackling waste management across Africa are highlighted in this chapter. The forward approach is then outlined through recommendations. The recommendations are covered in 10 points: 9 of which focus on local sources, with a 10th outlining the global need to tackle transboundary marine plastic litter, originating from sources outside of Africa’s control.
Seabirds’ reliance on the dynamic ocean environment also exposes them to global pollution sources. Major pollution threats include plastics, contaminants, oil spills, and artificial lights at night (ALAN). Plastics and contaminants are harmful because they are ingested directly and secondarily from prey, and they can cause starvation, hormonal changes, and other health problems. Oil disrupts feather structure, adversely affecting flight, waterproofing, and insulation. ALAN causes disorientation, physiological impacts, and can be fatal. Young birds are disproportionately affected because seabird parents offload contaminant burdens into their eggs, feed chicks plastic and contaminant-laden prey, and in colonies near ALAN, fledglings are commonly affected by disorientation and fallouts. Increased chemical and plastic production and increased exposure to light and oil spills may perpetuate adverse effects on long-lived seabirds. Efforts that standardize sampling and reporting methods and that document contaminant baselines and seabirds’ natural histories are the most useful tools to address pollution effects.
Several North Atlantic breeding seabirds, such as the Northern Gannet Morus bassanus, use Western Iberian Waters for wintering and migration. In this study, we aimed at producing absolute population estimates of post-breeding Gannets and evaluating the importance of the study area within the species' migration range. We performed six aerial surveys in September and/or October each year between 2010 and 2015, covering 74,840 km 2 in total. Using line transect methodology, 3,672 Gannet sightings were recorded along 10,496.3 nautical miles (nm). Immature individuals and adults comprised approximately 87% of all sightings. Using Distance sampling, overall abundance was estimated at 89,930 birds, ranging from 58,010 individuals in 2014 to 128,140 in 2015. the highest densities per sector areas were recorded in the North and Centre sectors whereas the lowest densities were registered in the Galicia sector, the Spanish region within the study area. Gannets were mostly present in shallow shelf waters of the continental shelf, particularly between 3 and 20 nautical miles offshore. Habitat suitability models for Gannets in the study area were tested using several eco-geographical variables and chlorophyll concentrations were found to contribute most to explaining annual Gannet occurrence probabilities. A global interannual spatial analysis demonstrated the core areas for conservation of the Northern Gannet in Western Iberian Waters. Moreover, our results demonstrate that Western Iberian waters are used by almost 10% of the global Northern Gannet population, corroborating the existence of seabird hotspots during the non-breeding period, along migration corridors and at their wintering grounds.
Twenty beaches located around the island of Cyprus, in the eastern Mediterranean, were identified as monitoring sites. They were monitored over four monitoring sessions from January to September 2021 to assess marine litter amounts, categories, and spatiotemporal distribution. A total of 42,499 marine litter items were collected. The average marine litter density was 0.19 items/m². Most of the collected items were plastics, with single-use plastics being ubiquitous. Plastic fragments >2.5 cm made a significant proportion of the plastic litter collected, particularly in the northern coasts of the island. Cigarette butts were abundant on touristic beaches, especially in the tourism period. The study identifies significant temporal and spatial variations in the abundance and distribution of marine litter, as well as variations related to waste management or lack thereof.
Annual global plastic production reached 360 million tonnes in 2018, with only 20% of the plastic waste being recycled. It has been predicted that production will double in the next 20 years. This review summarizes the occurrence, effects, and pathways as well as the degradation mechanisms and rates of different types of plastic waste in the marine environment. Approximately 75% of the litter found in the marine environment is mainly plastic, including polyethylene, polypropylene, polyethylene terephthalate, and polymers. Marine plastic waste has been found to accumulate in the open sea and deep sea and on beaches and shorelines of most remote areas, even in Arctic sea ice. Because of its durable and corrosion-resistant properties, plastic waste tends to accumulate and persist in the marine environment. The interaction of plastic waste with environmental conditions results in chemical, physicochemical, and biological degradation of the plastic waste and thus changes in its surface properties. Thus, both physical and chemical impacts from the degradation of plastic waste threaten marine organisms and even human health. Finally, some sustainable practices are suggested for the bioremediation of plastic waste.KeywordsPlastic wasteDegradationMarinePhysical effectsChemical effects
Microplastics (MPs), which are tiny plastic materials with size below 5 mm, are ubiquitous in both terrestrial and aquatic environments. They are an emerging pollutant posing potential threats to the biosphere. Once they get into the environment, microplastic wastes are difficult to eliminate and hence are continually accumulating in the environment resulting in pollution. Eventually, they end up in the food web, and due to their tiny size, they can easily enter bodies of the biosphere. They also can act as conduits for the proliferation of microbes and fungi. Undoubtedly, the MPs waste needs to be handled safely. Understanding
the MPs cycle from the point of generation to disposal can help in the safe use of MPs and handling of MPs waste. This chapter, therefore, discusses the MPs cycle by focusing on the generation of MPs, characterisation of MPs and review of the current challenges associated with MPs waste. The current research trends in the area of MPs pollution will be reviewed together with recommendations on future mitigation measures.
The quantity of plastic debris entering the ocean per annum is growing at an alarming rate . Synthetic plastic waste, both macro and microplastics enter the marine environment from fishing, coastal tourism, sea-food and other marine industries, and other plastic products. Plastic pollution has a drastic effect on all aquatic life. The conventional plastics which turn up in seas and oceans are recalcitrant to biodegradation and end up being around for decades and centuries. Marine biota is attracted to plastic due to its colour, odour and through the algae that develop films on floating plastics which is a significant source of food for marine animals. The most obvious and disturbing impact of pollution of the marine ecosystem with macro - plastics is the ingestion, suffocation and subsequent death of hundreds of marine species. Bioremediation is a useful strategy for the control of plastic pollution in water bodies. The microbes which live in the vicinity of plastic waste adapts and grows on the surface of plastic as biofilms. They produce catalytic enzymes which can degrade the plastic. However, the extent of biodegradation of the plastic will depend upon its structure and chemical properties. This chapter deals with the biodegradation of macro-plastic waste utilizing various microbes, and the challenges associated with the approach.
Asia is the largest global plastic consumer, with about 35% of the world’s plastic consumption. Considering that Malaysia is a part of Asia, it is evident that plastic use is extensive. Unfortunately, discarding plastic causes several environmental hazards and affects human wellbeing. The environmental authorities and the government have been organising campaigns that focus on propagating the reduce, recycling, and reuse concept among the Malaysian public. Nevertheless, after considering the extensive presence of microorganisms in the environment and their affinity towards degrading plastic, the use of such microorganisms and enzymes appears an efficacious approach. Environmental degradation of plastic typically happens through five processes: photodegradation, thermo-oxidative breakdown, hydrolytic degradation, mechanical degradation, and microbial degradation. Microbial degradation comprises plastic breakdown by microorganisms, which produce enzymes that can split long-chain polymers. Microbial enzymes are interesting since they are cost-effective and require minimal maintenance; at the same time, they are easy to manipulate. Rhizopus delemar, R. arrhizus, Pseudomonas sp., Penicillium funiculosum, and Aspergillus flavus are the five microbes that have been cited extensively regarding their ability to break down specific plastics. Moreover, fungal, bacterial, cyanobacteria, and actinomycetes capabilities for plastic degradation are among the environmentally friendly techniques that can help the environment. This chapter discussed how cyanobacteria could be used to break down plastics. The projected research outcome is the identification of potent microbial agents that can rapidly degrade plastics with minimal environmental impact.
Keywords
Biodegradation mechanism Cyanobacteria Plastics Phycoremediation
An analysis of the status of breeding seabirds in Ireland, derived from recent seabird surveys. The report was produced to inform EU Birds Directive Article 12 reporting
This review quantifies plastic interaction in marine biota. Firstly, entanglement and ingestion records for all marine birds, mammals, turtles, fish, and invertebrate species, are summarized from 747 studies. Marine debris affected 914 species through entanglement and/or ingestion. Ingestion was recorded for 701 species, entanglement was documented for 354 species. Secondly, the frequency of occurrence of ingestion per species (Sp-%FO) was extracted for marine birds, mammals and turtles. Thirdly, for seabird species, average numbers of plastics ingested per individual were determined. Highest Sp-%FO and average number of plastics were found in tubenosed seabirds with 41% of all birds analysed having plastics, on average 9.9 particles per bird. The Sp-%FO and average number of ingested particles is lower for most other species. However, for certain species, ingestion rates of litter are reason for serious concern. Standardized methods are crucial for future studies, to generate datasets that allow higher level ecosystem analyses.
Marine plastic has many negative impacts on coastal countries, including Vietnam. Vietnamese waters face problems of marine pollution owing to plastic waste. There are few studies on controlling marine plastic waste generated by marine-based activities. Therefore, this paper aims to provide a general view of marine plastics based on existing academic articles, and the impacts on marine animals and on human health. The paper includes a brief account of the quantity of marine plastic waste on coastal Vietnam and offers some recommendations for Vietnam to minimise and manage plastic waste generated by ships.
Anthropogenic marine debris is a recognised global issue, which can impact a wide range of organisms. This has led to a rise in research focused on plastic ingestion, but quantitative data on entanglement are still limited, especially regarding seabirds, due to challenges associated with monitoring entanglement in the marine environment. However, for seabird species that build substantial surface nests there is the opportunity to monitor nest incorporation of debris that individuals collect as nesting material. Here, we monitored nest incorporation of anthropogenic marine debris by Northern Gannets (Morus bassanus) from 29 colonies across the species' range to determine a) the frequency of occurrence of incorporated debris and b) whether the Northern Gannet is a suitable indicator species for monitoring anthropogenic debris in the marine environment within their range. Using data obtained from visual observations, digital photography and published literature, we recorded incorporated debris in 46% of 7280 Northern Gannet nests, from all but one of 29 colonies monitored. Significant spatial variation was observed in the frequency of occurrence of debris incorporated into nests among colonies, partly attributed to when the colony was established and local fishing intensity. Threadlike plastics, most likely from fishing activities, was most frequently recorded in nests, being present in 45% of 5842 nests, in colonies where debris type was identified. Comparisons with local beach debris indicate a preference for threadlike plastics by Northern Gannets. Recording debris in gannet nests provides an efficient and non-invasive method for monitoring the effectiveness of actions introduced to reduce debris pollution from fishing activities in the marine environment.
Northern Gannets are passage migrants in Dutch coastal waters. Ship-based seabird surveys revealed that Gannets occur year-round in the Southern North Sea, a finding that has been supported by beached bird surveys. Most of the beached Gannets in The Netherlands were either oiled, or entangled in fishing gear. Typical patterns of oiling (birds seem to hit the oil mainly during take-off) and types of ropes and fishing responsible for most Gannet deaths are described. Oil rates in beached Gannets declined significantly over time, but are still very high (79% in adults and immatures, 47% in juveniles). More and more entangled Northern Gannets have been found in recent years (1977-89 5%, 1990s 7.5%). In the 1980s, most were entangled in fishnets or in various types of ropes and nylon fibres from trawlers. In the 1990s most entangled Gannets were killed in nylon fish line, normally used by sports anglers. Approximately 440 Northern Gannets are estimated to wash ashore annually. Relatively few juvenile Gannets have been found and the shift in age distribution through the year reflects the age composition of Northern Gannets in the Southern Bight. The Atlantic breeding population has increased during most of the 20th century and in accordance with that, numbers of Gannets recorded during seawatching have increased over the past 30 years. These trends are not reflected in Gannet strandings, the frequency of which seems to have declined markedly after the late 1940s and have been stable over the last 30 years.
We review the methods used to study seabirds at sea from ships, discuss the problems posed in making reliable observations in relation to the design of research pro-grams, and describe a method currently in use around the seas of Great Britain. We suggest a framework for future studies, incorporating features likely to stabilize bias. The key items in this recommendation are (1) the use of a band transect in order to provide density esti-mates, and (2) a method to correct for movement of flying birds in the band transect in order to minimize bias caused by such movement.
We used satellite telemetry to examine the foraging ranges, feeding locations and travel speeds of 17 chick-rearing gannets Morus bassanus from the Bass Rock, SE Scotland. Regurgitates indicated that birds at the colony exploited a wide range of prey, frequently including 0-group sandeels (<10 cm in length) and mature mackerel and herring (up to 33 cm) in the diet. The maximum foraging range was 540 km, and the mean distance to the furthest point from the colony on any one trip was 232 km. Destinations of foraging trips covered a wide area of the North Sea, with a nonrandom distribution and a higher than expected proportion of trips to the NE (generally in the vicinity of Buchan Deep and Halibut Bank) and to the SE (mostly between Farne Deep, Dogger Bank and Outer Silver Pit) of the colony. Foraging trips lasted 13 to 84 h, and trip duration explained 94 % of the variance in maximum distance from the colony, indicating that distance travelled could be predicted with a high degree of accuracy from time spent at sea. However, the average speed of travel during foraging trips (15 km h(-1)) was considerably lower than maximum ground speed (similar to 55 km h(-1) in most cases). The results of this study suggest that gannets breeding at the Bass Rock utilize a wide range of species and sizes of prey over a large area of the North Sea, and that they focus their activity on bathymetric features that are probably associated with high primary production. Further data are now required to examine the foraging ranges and feeding locations of gannets in different oceanographic regions in order to obtain a broader understanding of how gannets make use of different marine environments.
Plastics are widespread, persistent environmental pollutants. The incidence and types of plastic in the nests of northern gannets (Sula bassana) were quantified at two colonies in eastern Newfoundland. Overall, 97% of the nests sampled had plastic incorporated in them, and there was no significant difference in the incidence of nests with plastic in the two colonies. Most nests (78%) contained fishing gear (rope, line, netting); plastic package strapping (12%), bags or sheets (7%), and hard plastic (3%), including shotgun shell casings, and lobster pot tags, occurred in many nests. A diversity of other plastic items was also found. A small percentage of adult and chick mortality resulted from entanglement in synthetic materials incorporated in nests. Present levels of the occurrence of plastic in nests at other gannetries should be assessed, because the relative abundances of different types of debris in nests could be used as mega- and meso-scale indicators of synthetic materials in different oceanographic regions.
Commercial capture fisheries produce huge quantities of offal, as well as undersized and unwanted catch in the form of discards. Declines in global catches and legislation to ban discarding will significantly reduce discards, but this subsidy supports a large scavenger community. Understanding the potential impact of declining discards for scavengers should feature in an eco-system based approach to fisheries management, but requires greater knowledge of scavenger/fishery interactions. Here we use bird-borne cameras, in tandem with GPS loggers, to provide a unique view of seabird/fishery interactions. 20,643 digital images (one min−1) from ten bird-borne cameras deployed on central place northern gannets Morus bassanus revealed that all birds photographed fishing vessels. These were large (>15 m) boats, with no small-scale vessels. Virtually all vessels were trawlers, and gannets were almost always accompanied by other scavenging birds. All individuals exhibited an Area-Restricted Search (ARS) during foraging, but only 42% of ARS were associated with fishing vessels, indicating much ‘natural’ foraging. The proportion of ARS behaviours associated with fishing boats were higher for males (81%) than females (30%), although the reasons for this are currently unclear. Our study illustrates that fisheries form a very important component of the prey-landscape for foraging gannets and that a discard ban, such as that proposed under reforms of the EU Common Fisheries Policy, may have a significant impact on gannet behaviour, particularly males. However, a continued reliance on ‘natural’ foraging suggests the ability to switch away from scavenging, but only if there is sufficient food to meet their needs in the absence of a discard subsidy.
Lost and discarded marine debris, particularly items made of persistent synthetic materials, is now recognized as a major form of marine pollution. This perception was a seminal finding of the 1984 International Workshop on the Fate and Impact of Marine Debris (Shomura and Yoshida 1985). A major factor leading to this conclusion was information on the nature and extent of interactions between marine debris and marine life gathered by researchers working independently in different ocean areas during the 1970s and early 1980s. Compiled for the first time at the 1984 workshop, the information highlighted two fundamental types of biological interactions: (1) entanglement, whereby the loops and openings of various types of debris entangle animal appendages or entrap animals; and (2) ingestion, whereby debris items are intentionally or accidentally eaten and enter the digestive tract.
The hypothesis that the abundance of fishes associated with fish aggregation devices (FADs) is a function of the degree of shelter provided by the structure was tested by comparing recruitment to three sizes of mid-water FADs. Each treatment was replicated six times and the eighteen FADs were deployed in a randomized block array in 14 m of water in the Atlantic Ocean off South Carolina. A total of thirteen species of fishes was observed to associate with the FADs. Eighty-nine FADs were censused in eight surveys from May through November 1985. The fauna associated with the FADs was very similar to published reports of fauna associated with Sargassum spp. and jellyfish, suggesting similar origins and causes of these associations. Decapterus punctatus was the most frequently occurring (70%) and abundant species (;xmacr; = 576 fish/FAD). The total number of fishes and number of D. punctatus per FAD exhibited a significant linear FAD size effect (P = 0.0272, 0.001, respectively). Associations with drifting objects may allow prey fishes which have habituated to an object to escape predation by capitalizing on a reflexive avoidance of the object by a pursuing predator.
Cold-water upwelling supports abundant and diverse faunas. Upwelling off Mauritania has been highlighted as being important for seabirds, but very few systematic offshore surveys have been conducted in that region. Mauritanian waters are increasingly targeted by commercial fisheries along the shelf break and, with the likelihood of future exploitation of mineral oils on the continental shelf, the absence of information on seabirds is worrying. This paper describes the distribution of wintering seabirds in the context of fisheries and hydrography. The avifauna was dominated by surface-feeding and shallow plunge-diving, often planktivorous, seabirds, originating from West Palaearctic breeding grounds (Arctic, subarctic and temperate zones). Many seabirds were associated with fishing trawlers around the shelf break, but the fleets were more evenly distributed than the birds, with certain hydrographical parameters influencing or overruling the attraction of trawlers by seabirds. The results support the belief that West African waters are of prime importance for seabirds.
Birds are the most conspicuous, wide-ranging, and easily studied organisms in the marine environment. They can be both predators and scavengers, and they can be harmed by and can benefit from fishing activities. The effects of fishing on birds may be direct or indirect. Most direct effects involve killing by fishing gear, although on a lesser scale some fishing activities also disturb birds. Net fisheries and hook fisheries have both had serious negative effects at the population level. Currently, a major negative impact comes from the by-catch of albatrosses and petrels in long-lines in the North Pacific and in the Southern Ocean. High seas drift nets have had, prior to the banning of their use, a considerable impact on seabirds in the northern Pacific, as have gillnets in south-west Greenland, eastern Canada, and elsewhere. Indirect effects mostly work through the alteration in food supplies. Many activities increase the food supply by providing large quantities of discarded fish and wastes, particularly those from large, demersal species that are inaccessible to seabirds, from fishing vessels to scavengers. Also, fishing has changed the structure of marine communities. Fishing activities have led to depletion of some fish species fed upon by seabirds, but may also lead to an increase in small fish prey by reducing numbers of larger fish that may compete with birds. Both direct and indirect effects are likely to have operated at the global population level on some species. Proving the scale of fisheries effects can be difficult because of confounding and interacting combinations with other anthropo-genic effects (pollution, hunting, disturbance) and oceanographic factors. Effects of aquaculture have not been included in the review.
1. The large amount of discards produced by commercial fisheries can have major impacts on marine predator populations: this abundant food may increase populations of some scavengers or decrease others via accidental bycatch. Yet, despite the conservation implications of discard practices, the ecology of individual scavengers is poorly understood.
2. Here, we assess the influence of commercial fisheries’ activity on the foraging behaviour of individual breeding northern gannets Morus bassanus. Using recent developments in stable isotope mixing models (Stable Isotope Analysis in R or SIAR) we estimate individual discard consumption. Using GPS tracking and the Vessel Monitoring System (VMS), we investigate behavioural responses to trawlers.
3. Analysis of conventional diet samples, as well as stable isotope ratios of carbon and nitrogen in blood (plasma and cells), highlight marked individual differences in the proportion of fishery discards in the diet. Individual differences in foraging behaviour revealed by stable isotopes show evidence of both short-term consistency and behavioural flexibility.
4. At-sea path tortuosity of 25 gannets (tracked using GPS loggers) revealed scale-dependent adjustments in response to VMS-derived fishing vessel locations, as well as to sea surface temperature, chlorophyll a concentration and copepod abundance. The results also indicate individual variability in behavioural response to trawlers.
5. Individual differences in the amount of discards estimated from SIAR were negatively correlated with differences in foraging trip length and body condition, indicating potential fitness consequences.
6. Synthesis and applications. The management of commercial fisheries and apex predators is a daunting task. Ultimately, reducing bycatch and removing dependency on discards remain key conservation priorities, but managers should also ensure that scavenging species have sufficient alternative food to meet their energetic needs, to ameliorate potential unforeseen knock-on consequences. The results of Stable Isotope Analysis (SIAR) reveal intra-population differences in discard consumption by gannets; differences that have impacts on foraging effort and body condition. The use of GPS tracking and Vessel Monitoring Systems (VMS) reveal that gannet at-sea behaviour is influenced by fishing vessels, although this also varies among individuals. A combination of SIAR, GPS tracking and VMS can be used to study fishery/scavenger interactions in detail at the individual level, to answer fundamental questions about scavenging behaviour.
The coastal waters of Northwest Africa (Morocco, Mauritania, Senegal) support a large fishery on small pelagic fish. Super-trawlers from the European Union, mainly of Dutch origin, have exploited these resources since 1996, in particular off Mauritania. This paper reports on the catch and discarding of targeted small pelagic fish by these super-trawlers, based on the results of an independent observer programme that covered 16% of the fleets’ fishing trips during the period 1999–2003.Throughout this period, the average total catch and effort of the fleet was approximately 176,000 t and 1720 days at sea per year, respectively. The target species were Sardinella aurita, Sardinella maderensis, Sardina pilchardus, Scomber japonicus and Trachurus trecae representing an annual average of 94% by weight of the total catches. An alternating seasonal pattern of abundance in the catches was shown for S. aurita (dominant during summer) and S. pilchardus (dominant during winter). The amount of discards on average was less than 10% of the total catch by weight and consisted mainly of commercial species. There was no size selective discarding for the five target species and seasonal changes in discarding were only detected for S. pilchardus. This study suggests that there was no wide scale discarding of pelagic fish by the European super-trawlers from fisheries off Mauritania between 1999 and 2003.
Fishery cooperation agreements with the Sub-Saharan West African coastal states are considered by the European Union as purely commercial deals that are designed to maximize access to coastal state fishery resources, secure employment for European harvesting and processing industries and supply European seafood consumption markets at the lowest possible cost.Financial compensation paid by Brussels to the West African countries for fishing rights covers two-thirds or more of the license fees and is a subsidy for European vessel owners. This subsidy puts EU in position of a preferred user of the coastal resources. That displaces foreign investors and local entrepreneurs in the coastal states, distorts economics of the European fishing enterprises and promotes excessive pressure on the resources that greatly harms the marine environment in the West African region.Analysis of EU's relations with Guinea-Bissau shows that together with manipulation of the size of fishing fleet used by EU in this country's waters, there were significant irregularities resulting from excessive by-catch, underpayment of tuna license fees and denial of timely statistical information for the coastal state.Continuation of this type of relations with Sub-Saharan West Africa is against the long-term interests of the coastal states and sustainability of the coastal resources. Unless significant changes in fishing policies of the EU are made, West African coastal countries will face severe overexploitation of their resources and subsequent drop in license revenues. The EU's departure from purely business approach in fisheries relations with the West African coastal countries and termination of subsidization of the European fleets should be considered as important steps toward new fisheries relations with the regionOn other hand, coastal states should undertake more coordinated approach in dealing with foreign pressures on their resources and harmonize negotiation of the fisheries agreements with the EU. They also must improve the investment climate so foreign fleet operators would be encouraged to integrate their offshore activity with the coastal states’ economies.
In the past thirty years, the use of plastics and other synthetic materials has expanded at a rapid pace. As new uses for these materials have been developed, applied, and made available to more people, the quantity of plastic debris entering the marine environment has undergone a corresponding increase. Many of these products degrade very slowly. Those that are buoyant remain suspended at the sea surface for a long time, and those that are not, sink and remain on the bottom for years or even decades. The accumulating debris poses increasingly significant threats to marine mammals, seabirds, turtles, fish, and crustaceans. The threats are straightforward and primarily mechanical. Individual animals may become entangled in loops or openings of floating or submerged debrijs or they may ingest plastic materials. Animals that become entangled may drown, have their ability to catch food or avoid predators impaired, or incur wounds from abrasive or cutting action of attached debris. Ingested plastics may block digestive tracts, damage stomach linings, or lessen feeding drives. The deceptively simple nature of the threat, the perceived abundance of marine life, and the size of the oceans have, until recently, caused resource managers to overlook or dismiss the proliferation of potentially harmful plastic debris as being insignificant. However, developing information suggests that the mechanical effects of these materials affect many marine species in many ocean areas, and that these effects justify recognition of persistent plastic debris as a major form of ocean pollution.
Seabird populations contain large numbers of immatures-in some instances comprising >50% of the fully grown adults in the population. These birds are significant components of marine food webs and may contribute to compensatory recruitment and dispersal, but remain severely understudied. Here, we use GPS-PTTs, radio-tracking and analysis of stable carbon (δ13C) and nitrogen (δ15N) isotopes to investigate the movements and foraging ecology of immature seabirds. Our study focussed on immature northern gannets Morus bassanus aged 2-4 attending non-breeding aggregations alongside a large breeding colony. GPS-PTT tracking of five birds revealed that immatures have the ability to disperse widely during the breeding season, with some individuals potentially prospecting at other colonies. Overall, however, immatures were faithful to the colony of capture. During returns to the focal colony, immatures acted as central place foragers, conducted looping and commuting flights, and analysis of the variance in first-passage time revealed evidence of area-restricted search (ARS) behaviour. In addition, stable carbon (δ13C) and nitrogen (δ15N) isotope analyses indicate that immatures were isotopically segregated from breeders. Our findings provide insights into the foraging, prospecting and dispersal behaviour of immature seabirds, which may have important implications for understanding seabird ecology and conservation.
Entanglement with plastic debris is a major cause of mortality in marine taxa, but the population-level consequences are unknown. Some seabirds collect marine debris for nesting material, which may lead to entanglement. Here we investigate the use of plastics as nesting material by northern gannets Morus bassanus and assess the associated levels of mortality. On average gannet nests contained 469.91 g (range 0-1293 g) of plastic, equating to an estimated colony total of 18.46 tones (range 4.47-42.34 tones). The majority of nesting material was synthetic rope, which appears to be used preferentially. On average 62.85 ± 26.84 (range minima 33-109) birds were entangled each year, totalling 525 individuals over eight years, the majority of which were nestlings. Although mortality rates are high, they are unlikely to have population-level effects. The use of synthetic fibres as nesting material is a common strategy among seabirds, but the impacts of entanglement warrants further investigation.
Individual migratory schedules and wintering areas of northern gannets Morus bassanus were studied over 2 consecutive winters by deploying geolocation data loggers on breeding adults from the Bass Rock, UK. Northern gannets attended the breeding colony on Bass Rock until between 24 September and 16 October (median: 5 October). Afterwards, individual birds engaged in different migratory behaviour. Of the 22 birds tracked until at least December, 18% wintered in the North Sea and the English Channel, 27% in the Bay of Biscay and the Celtic Sea, 9% in the Mediterranean Sea and 45% off West Africa. Individual winter home ranges as measured by the 75% kernel density contours varied between 8100 and 308500 km2 (mean = 134000 km2). Several northern gannets migrated northwards from Bass Rock after leaving the colony for a stay of a few days to a few weeks, independent of whether they migrated to Africa or other southern areas later. Birds wintering off West Africa migrated to their wintering areas mostly within 3 to 5 wk, usually starting between early and late October. Most of these birds stayed off West Africa for a period of about 3 mo, where they remained in a relatively restricted area. Return migration was initiated between the end of January and mid-February, and took about as long as autumn migration. We conclude that individual gannets display very variable migratory behaviours, with discrete winter home ranges, and we infer that the migration habits of gannets may be changing in response to human impacts on marine ecosystems.
When searching for prey, animals should maximize energetic gain, while minimizing energy expenditure by altering their movements relative to prey availability. However, with increasing amounts of marine debris, what once may have been 'optimal' foraging strategies for top marine predators, are leading to sub-optimal diets comprised in large part of plastic. Indeed, the highly vagile Laysan albatross (Phoebastria immutabilis) which forages throughout the North Pacific, are well known for their tendency to ingest plastic. Here we examine whether Laysan albatrosses nesting on Kure Atoll and Oahu Island, 2,150 km apart, experience different levels of plastic ingestion. Twenty two geolocators were deployed on breeding adults for up to two years. Regurgitated boluses of undigestable material were also collected from chicks at each site to compare the amount of plastic vs. natural foods. Chicks from Kure Atoll were fed almost ten times the amount of plastic compared to chicks from Oahu despite boluses from both colonies having similar amounts of natural food. Tracking data indicated that adults from either colony did not have core overlapping distributions during the early half of the breeding period and that adults from Kure had a greater overlap with the putative range of the Western Garbage Patch corroborating our observation of higher plastic loads at this colony. At-sea distributions also varied throughout the year suggesting that Laysan albatrosses either adjusted their foraging behavior according to constraints on time away from the nest or to variation in resources. However, in the non-breeding season, distributional overlap was greater indicating that the energy required to reach the foraging grounds was less important than the total energy available. These results demonstrate how a marine predator that is not dispersal limited alters its foraging strategy throughout the reproductive cycle to maximize energetic gain and how this has led to differences in plastic ingestion.
Over the past five or six decades, contamination and pollution of the world's enclosed seas, coastal waters and the wider open oceans by plastics and other synthetic, non-biodegradable materials (generally known as 'marine debris') has been an ever-increasing phenomenon. The sources of these polluting materials are both land- and marine-based, their origins may be local or distant, and the environmental consequences are many and varied. The more widely recognized problems are typically associated with entanglement, ingestion, suffocation and general debilitation, and are often related to stranding events and public perception. Among the less frequently recognized and recorded problems are global hazards to shipping, fisheries and other maritime activities. Today, there are rapidly developing research interests in the biota attracted to freely floating (i.e. pelagic) marine debris, commonly known as 'hangers-on and hitch-hikers' as well as material sinking to the sea floor despite being buoyant. Dispersal of aggressive alien and invasive species by these mechanisms leads one to reflect on the possibilities that ensuing invasions could endanger sensitive, or at-risk coastal environments (both marine and terrestrial) far from their native habitats.
Plastic debris has significant environmental and economic impacts in marine systems. Monitoring is crucial to assess the efficacy of measures implemented to reduce the abundance of plastic debris, but it is complicated by large spatial and temporal heterogeneity in the amounts of plastic debris and by our limited understanding of the pathways followed by plastic debris and its long-term fate. To date, most monitoring has focused on beach surveys of stranded plastics and other litter. Infrequent surveys of the standing stock of litter on beaches provide crude estimates of debris types and abundance, but are biased by differential removal of litter items by beachcombing, cleanups and beach dynamics. Monitoring the accumulation of stranded debris provides an index of debris trends in adjacent waters, but is costly to undertake. At-sea sampling requires large sample sizes for statistical power to detect changes in abundance, given the high spatial and temporal heterogeneity. Another approach is to monitor the impacts of plastics. Seabirds and other marine organisms that accumulate plastics in their stomachs offer a cost-effective way to monitor the abundance and composition of small plastic litter. Changes in entanglement rates are harder to interpret, as they are sensitive to changes in population sizes of affected species. Monitoring waste disposal on ships and plastic debris levels in rivers and storm-water runoff is useful because it identifies the main sources of plastic debris entering the sea and can direct mitigation efforts. Different monitoring approaches are required to answer different questions, but attempts should be made to standardize approaches internationally.
One of the most ubiquitous and long-lasting recent changes to the surface of our planet is the accumulation and fragmentation of plastics. Within just a few decades since mass production of plastic products commenced in the 1950s, plastic debris has accumulated in terrestrial environments, in the open ocean, on shorelines of even the most remote islands and in the deep sea. Annual clean-up operations, costing millions of pounds sterling, are now organized in many countries and on every continent. Here we document global plastics production and the accumulation of plastic waste. While plastics typically constitute approximately 10 per cent of discarded waste, they represent a much greater proportion of the debris accumulating on shorelines. Mega- and macro-plastics have accumulated in the highest densities in the Northern Hemisphere, adjacent to urban centres, in enclosed seas and at water convergences (fronts). We report lower densities on remote island shores, on the continental shelf seabed and the lowest densities (but still a documented presence) in the deep sea and Southern Ocean. The longevity of plastic is estimated to be hundreds to thousands of years, but is likely to be far longer in deep sea and non-surface polar environments. Plastic debris poses considerable threat by choking and starving wildlife, distributing non-native and potentially harmful organisms, absorbing toxic chemicals and degrading to micro-plastics that may subsequently be ingested. Well-established annual surveys on coasts and at sea have shown that trends in mega- and macro-plastic accumulation rates are no longer uniformly increasing: rather stable, increasing and decreasing trends have all been reported. The average size of plastic particles in the environment seems to be decreasing, and the abundance and global distribution of micro-plastic fragments have increased over the last few decades. However, the environmental consequences of such microscopic debris are still poorly understood.
Northern gannets (Sula bassana) are considered to obtain prey usually by rapid, vertical, shallow plunge dives. In order to test this contention and investigate underwater foraging behaviour, we attached two types of data-logging systems to 11 parental northern gannets at Funk Island in the North-Wiest Atlantic. We documented, for the first time to the authors' knowledge, gannets performing long, flat-bottomed, U-shaped dives that involved underwater wing propulsion as well as rapid, shallow, V-shaped dives. The median and maximum dive depths and durations were 4.6 and 22.0 m and 8 and 38 s, respectively. Short, shallow dives were usually V-shaped and dives deeper than 8 m and longer than 10 s were usually U-shaped, including a period at constant depth (varying between 4 and 28s with median 8s). Diving occurred throughout the daylight period and deepest dives were performed during late morning. On the basis of motion sensors in the loggers and food collections from telemetered birds, we concluded that extended, deep dives were directed at deep schools of capelin, a small pelagic fish, and we hypothesized that V-shaped dives were aimed at larger, pelagic fishes and squids. Furthermore, these V-shaped dives allowed the birds to surprise their pelagic prey and this may be critical because the maximum swimming speeds of the prey species may exceed the maximum dive speeds of the birds.
The deleterious effects of plastic debris on the marine environment were reviewed by bringing together most of the literature published so far on the topic. A large number of marine species is known to be harmed and/or killed by plastic debris, which could jeopardize their survival, especially since many are already endangered by other forms of anthropogenic activities. Marine animals are mostly affected through entanglement in and ingestion of plastic litter. Other less known threats include the use of plastic debris by "invader" species and the absorption of polychlorinated biphenyls from ingested plastics. Less conspicuous forms, such as plastic pellets and "scrubbers" are also hazardous. To address the problem of plastic debris in the oceans is a difficult task, and a variety of approaches are urgently required. Some of the ways to mitigate the problem are discussed.
Marine biological hotspots, or areas where high abundances of species overlap in space and time, are ecologically important areas because energy flow through marine food webs, a key ecosystem process, is maximized in these areas. I investigated whether top predators aggregated at persistent spawning sites of a key forage fish species, capelin (Mallotus villosus), on the NE coast of Newfoundland during July and August 2000–2003. By examining the distributional patterns of top predators through ship-based surveys at multiple spatial and temporal scales, I found that the biomasses of birds—dominated by Common Murres (Uria aalge)—and mammals—dominated by whale species—were concentrated along the coast, with a biological hotspot forming near two persistent spawning sites of capelin in all years. The formation of this hotspot was well defined in space and time from middle of July to middle of August, likely coinciding with the spawning chronology of capelin. Within this hotspot, there was a high spatial and temporal overlap of Common Murres and gill nets set to capture Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua). This resulted in breeding murres becoming entangled in gill nets while feeding on spawning capelin. Despite an acknowledged uncertainty of bycatch mortality, estimates for the larger regional-scale area (1936–4973 murres/year; 0.2–0.6% of the breeding population) underestimated mortality relative to estimates within the hotspot (3053–14054 murres/year; 0.4–1.7%). Although fishing effort for Atlantic cod has declined substantially since the groundfish moratorium in 1992, chronic, unnatural, and additive mortality through bycatch continues in coastal Newfoundland. Restricted use of gill nets within this and other biological hotspots during the capelin spawning period appears to be a straightforward application of the “ecological and biologically significant area” management framework in Canada's Oceans Act. This protection would minimize murre bycatch and maintain ecosystem integrity.
Resumen: Los sitios marinos biológicamente importantes, o áreas en las que altas abundancias de especies se traslapan en espacio y tiempo, son ecológicamente importantes porque el flujo de energía a través de las redes alimenticias marinas, un proceso ecológico clave, se maximizan en esas áreas. Investigué si los depredadores superiores se agregan en los sitios de desove de una especie presa clave, el capelán (Mallotus villosus), en la costa noreste de Terranova durante julio y agosto 2000 – 2003. Mediante el examen de los patrones de distribución de los depredadores superiores con base en muestreos realizados en barco en diferentes escalas espaciales y temporales, encontré que la biomasa de aves – dominada por Uria aalge– y mamíferos – dominados por especies de ballenas – estaba concentrada a lo largo de la costa, cerca de un sitio biológicamente importante en formación cerca de dos sitios de desove de capelán en todos los años. La formación de este sitio de importancia fue bien definida en espacio y tiempo desde mediados de julio a mediados de agosto, coincidiendo probablemente con la cronología de desove del capelán. Dentro de este sitio, hubo un traslape espacial y temporal significativo de Uria aalge y redes agalleras colocadas para capturar bacalao del Atlántico (Gadus morhua). Esto resultó en que individuos de U. aalge quedaron atrapados en las redes agalleras mientras se alimentaban de capelanes. A pesar de la incertidumbre de la mortalidad de la captura incidental, estimaciones para un área a escala regional (1936–4973 araos/año; 0–2 – 0.6% de la población reproductora) subestimaron la mortalidad en relación con estimaciones dentro del sitio de importancia (3053–14054 araos/año; 0.4 – 7%). Aunque el esfuerzo de pesca de bacalao ha disminuido sustancialmente desde la moratoria de 1992, en la costa de Terranova sigue ocurriendo una mortalidad aditiva, crónica y anormal debido a la captura incidental. La restricción en el uso de redes agalleras dentro de este y otros sitios biológicamente importantes durante el período de desove de capelán parece ser una aplicación directa del marco de referencia en la gestión de un “área ecológica y biológicamente significativa” del Acta de Océanos de Canadá. Esta protección debería minimizar la captura incidental de araos y mantener la integridad del ecosistema.
This book presents an up-to-date, detailed and thorough review of the most fascinating ecological findings of bird migration. It deals with all aspects of this absorbing subject, including the problems of navigation and vagrancy, the timing and physiological control of migration, the factors that limit their populations, and more. Author, Ian Newton, reveals the extraordinary adaptability of birds to the variable and changing conditions across the globe, including current climate change. This adventurous book places emphasis on ecological aspects, which have received only scant attention in previous publications. Overall, the book provides the most thorough and in-depth appraisal of current information available, with abundant tables, maps and diagrams, and many new insights. Written in a clear and readable style, this book appeals not only to migration researchers in the field and Ornithologists, but to anyone with an interest in this fascinating subject. * Hot ecological aspects include: various types of bird movements, including dispersal and nomadism, and how they relate to food supplies and other external conditions * Contains numerous tables, maps and diagrams, a glossary, and a bibliography of more than 2,700 references * Written by an active researcher with a distinguished career in avian ecology, including migration research.
Demography is the study of the size and structure of populations and of the process of replacing individuals constituting the population. The study of demography was developed to forecast population growth. The rate at which a population increases or decreases depends basically on the fecundity (number of eggs laid) and survivorship of the individuals that belong to the population (Figure 5.1, bottom), but also to a lesser extent (especially for seabirds) on migration. Because many organisms, and especially seabirds, breed several times in their lives, a population consists of cohorts of individuals of different ages, born in different years. Moreover, mortality and fecundity rates are generally age-specific; life tables represent these birth and death probabilities. The relationship between the rate of increase or decrease and demographic parameters can be translated into more or less complex equations. The basic equation is the Euler-Lotka equation (Euler 1760, Lotka 1907) that specifies the relationships of age at maturity, age at last reproduction, probability of survival to age classes, and number of offspring produced for each age class, to the rate of growth of the population (r).
Birds are the most conspicuous, wide-ranging, and easily studied organisms in the marine environment. They can be both predators and scavengers, and they can be harmed by and can benefit from fishing activities. The effects of fishing on birds may be direct or indirect. Most direct effects involve killing by fishing gear, although on a lesser scale some fishing activities also disturb birds. Net fisheries and hook fisheries have both had serious negative effects at the population level. Currently, a major negative impact comes from the by-catch of albatrosses and petrels in long-lines in the North Pacific and in the Southern Ocean. High seas drift nets have had, prior to the banning of their use, a considerable impact on seabirds in the northern Pacific, as have gillnets in south-west Greenland, eastern Canada, and elsewhere. Indirect effects mostly work through the alteration in food supplies. Many activities increase the food supply by providing large quantities of discarded fish and wastes, particularly those from large, demersal species that are inaccessible to seabirds, from fishing vessels to scavengers. Also, fishing has changed the structure of marine communities. Fishing activities have led to depletion of some fish species fed upon by seabirds, but may also lead to an increase in small fish prey by reducing numbers of larger fish that may compete with birds. Both direct and indirect effects are likely to have operated at the global population level on some species. Proving the scale of fisheries effects can be difficult because of confounding and interacting combinations with other anthropogenic effects (pollution, hunting, disturbance) and oceanographic factors. Effects of aquaculture have not been included in the review. 2000 International Council for the Exploration of the Sea
Bycatch and indirect mortality associated with global fishing operations affect non-target species. Northern gannets (Morus bassanus) and other seabirds incorporate marine debris, much of it originating in fisheries , into their nests, at times resulting in entanglement. We compared the prevalence and composition of marine debris in nests at two gannet colonies in Newfoundland before and after a basin-wide ground fish closure in 1992, and at the species' largest colony in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, where fishing effort is low. The proportion of nests with marine debris decreased following the fishery closure, and the proportion of nests with fishing gear was related exponentially to the number of gillnets set around breeding colonies. Assessing the composition of gannet nests could provide a useful index of the prevalence of fishing debris and could be used to assess entanglement risk of other animals in the marine environment over decadal scales.
This article shows that despite increasing catches by foreign fishing fleets, the economic growth and social benefits from marine resources have not been met for many western African countries that host these fleets. A meta-analysis of changes in catches, market values, exports, imports, employment, access, and domestic supplies in western Africa since 1960 illustrates the impact of the expansion of distant-water fleets on not only the status of the marine resources and their ecosystems but also on the economic and social conditions of the people of western Africa. Finally, recommendations are made on appropriate management options for foreign fishing fleets and the key initiatives that could be considered by regional fish bodies and governments in western Africa.
The Gannet is a visitor to the area of the isle of Helgoland. As a ‘plunge-diver’ it is endangered by drifting plastic-debris and ‘ghost-nets’. Of 23 Gannets found dead on Helgoland beaches between 1976 and 1985, 3 (=13%) were entangled in net fragments. Over the same period 5 other specimens entangled in fishing gear were found alive and set free. Without human assistance these animals would have died within a few days. If these birds are added to the dead victims, then 29% of the observed mortality was caused by plastic-debris and fishing gear.
In 1984 and 1985 313 observtions of Gannets were registered in the area of Helgoland, including 8 records (=2.6%) of flying birds entangled in fragments of fishing gear. Multiple countings of the same individuals in the total of 313 observations makes the percentage of living Gannets entangled in fragments of fishing gear definitely higher than 2.6%.
The ingestion of plastic was recorded for 36 of 60 seabird species sampled in the southern hemisphere (mostly off southern Africa). Biases of different sampling techniques were considered. Plastic was most frequent in procellariiforms, notably Blue Petrels, Great Shearwaters, White-faced Storm-petrels and Pintado Petrels. Particles were compared with those found at sea. The size of ingested particles was related to body size, and this affected the proportions of plastic types ingested. Pale particles were underrepresented, suggesting selection for darker-coloured particles. Small species were less colour-selective and exhibited a higher incidence of plastic ingestion than did large species. The incidence of ingested plastic was directly related to foraging technique and inversely related to the frequency of egestion of indigestible stomach contents. Secondary ingestion of plastic through contaminated prey was important in only one species sampled.
1. The large amount of discards produced by commercial fisheries can have major impacts on marine predator populations: this abundant food may increase populations of some scavengers or decrease others via accidental bycatch. Yet, despite the conservation implications of discard practices, the ecology of individual scavengers is poorly understood. 2. Here, we assess the influence of commercial fisheries' activity on the foraging behaviour of individual breeding northern gannets Morus bassanus. Using recent developments in stable isotope mixing models (Stable Isotope Analysis in R or SIAR) we estimate individual discard consumption. Using GPS tracking and the Vessel Monitoring System (VMS), we investigate behavioural responses to trawlers. 3. Analysis of conventional diet samples, as well as stable isotope ratios of carbon and nitrogen in blood (plasma and cells), highlight marked individual differences in the proportion of fishery discards in the diet. Individual differences in foraging behaviour revealed by stable isotopes show evidence of both short-term consistency and behavioural flexibility. 4. At-sea path tortuosity of 25 gannets (tracked using GPS loggers) revealed scale-dependent adjustments in response to VMS-derived fishing vessel locations, as well as to sea surface tempera-ture, chlorophyll a concentration and copepod abundance. The results also indicate individual variability in behavioural response to trawlers. 5. Individual differences in the amount of discards estimated from SIAR were negatively correlated with differences in foraging trip length and body condition, indicating potential fitness consequences. 6. Synthesis and applications. The management of commercial fisheries and apex predators is a daunting task. Ultimately, reducing bycatch and removing dependency on discards remain key conservation priorities, but managers should also ensure that scavenging species have sufficient alternative food to meet their energetic needs, to ameliorate potential unforeseen knock-on consequences. The results of Stable Isotope Analysis (SIAR) reveal intra-population differences in discard consumption by gannets; differences that have impacts on foraging effort and body condi-tion. The use of GPS tracking and Vessel Monitoring Systems (VMS) reveal that gannet at-sea behaviour is influenced by fishing vessels, although this also varies among individuals. A combina-tion of SIAR, GPS tracking and VMS can be used to study fishery ⁄ scavenger interactions in detail at the individual level, to answer fundamental questions about scavenging behaviour.
Marine debris (marine litter) is one of the most pervasive and solvable pollution problems plaguing the world’s oceans and waterways. Nets, food wrappers, cigarette filters, bottles, resin pellets,
and other debris items can have serious impacts on wildlife, habitat, and human safety. Successful management of the problem
requires a comprehensive understanding of both marine debris and human behavior. Knowledge is key for consumers to make appropriate
choices when it comes to using and disposing of waste items. Education and outreach programs, strong laws and policies, and
governmental and private enforcement are the building blocks for a successful marine pollution prevention initiative. The
plastic industry also has a role to play in educating its employees and customers, and searching for technological mitigation
strategies.
Artisanal fishing is an activity which has long occupied an important place on the West African coast. In less than 20 years,
the increasingly widespread use of motors in fishing boats and cold storage facilities both on board and on land have enabled
fishermen to master the constraints of space and time. Furthermore, globalization has created a demand for new products, thus
influencing the behaviour of fishermen and consequently the status of some fish, turtle and marine mammal species. Development
policies for artisanal fishing do not adequately reflect the importance of these changes. They tend to use inappropriate scales
of reference, be it spatially (national borders take precedence over ecosystems) or temporally (the long-term consequences
of development plans are seldom considered). Some international conservation organizations are testing promising new approaches
to managing resources more sustainably and restoring degraded ecosystems, and their recent experiences can serve as useful
examples to others. It is recommended to grant special rights of access to resident fishermen. In defending ‘their’ resources,
they will also protect the ecological functions of the area. Close collaboration with administrations and development assistance
agencies is needed to assess consequences of political decisions on the use of resources. The important role of marine protected
areas as a tool for fishing management should be better documented and strengthened. These areas should not be considered
as isolated units but rather as vital parts of a comprehensive system for improved coastal zone management. Consistent with
the ecosystem approach, fishermen and their communities, being the main users of coastal resources, should also play a major
role in the design and implementation of any fishing management actions.
In this study, results from an observer programme on a drift net fishery in the eastern North Atlantic are presented. Observers recorded all fish, marine mammals, seabirds and turtles caught and discarded and coverage ranged from 47.8% of the fleet (n = 7 vessels) in 1996, to 2.2% (n = 21 vessels) in 1998. A minimum of seven fish species were caught and landed during the fishing period; albacore tuna (Thunnus alalunga) comprised approximately 99% of the total landings (by number) in both years. Eleven fish species were discarded, of which blue shark (Prionace glauca) was the most frequently recorded representing 68% of all fish discarded by number. At least four species of seabird (Northern Gannet Morus basanus, Northern Fulmar Fulmarus glacialis, Manx shearwater Puffinus puffinus, Atlantic Puffin Fratercula arctica) and two species of turtle, including the leatherback turtle (Dermochelys coriacea), were also entangled. Eight species of Cetacea were recorded as bycatch during these fishing operations, including common dolphins Delphinus delphis and striped dolphins Stenella coeruleoalba. Length–frequency distributions for both these dolphin species suggest that age segregation occurs. Using landings of albacore tuna as an indicator of effort, the extrapolated decadal scale data from Irish and other driftnet fleets operating in this area suggest that during the period 1990–2000, a minimum (95% confidence intervals) of 778,452 (622,520–934,384) blue sharks were caught, with a substantial proportion discarded. An estimated 24,358 dolphins were killed during these years by these fleets, of which 11,723 (7670–15,776) were common dolphins and 12,635 (10,009–15,261) were striped dolphins. Although this type of fishing was effective at catching the target species, it removed a large biomass of megafauna and likely accelerated the decline of blue sharks in this area.
Abstract Although oriented migrations have been identified in many terrestrial bird species, the post-breeding-season movements of seabirds are generally regarded as dispersive. We used geolocator tags to reveal post-breeding movements and winter distribution of northern gannets (Morus bassanus) at a meta-population scale. By focusing on five breeding colonies of European gannets, we show that their breeding and wintering grounds are connected by a major flyway running along the coasts of Western Europe and Africa. Moreover, maximum winter distance to colony was similar across colonies despite their wide latitudinal range. In contrast with the general opinion that large pelagic birds such as gannets have unlimited ranges beyond the breeding season, our findings strongly suggest oriented chain migration in northern gannets (a pattern in which populations move uniformly southward) and highlight the benefit of meta-population approaches for studying seabird movements. We argue that the inclusion of such proc...
Persistent plastics are widely distributed at the surface and coastal margins of the global oceans, but many uncertainties remain about their specific sources, quantities and distribution. Awareness of the problem of plastic pollution has grown only recently. Thus, systematic observations have not been either extensive enough or long enough to document the situation adequately. Major sources of these materials are from land, vessels and beachgoers. This paper reviews recent literature on the sources, amounts and distribution of various types of plastics in the marine environment.
Report of the Working Group on Seabird Ecology (WGSE)
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Spanish Iberia and Mauritania, and in the Concepción Bank off NE Canary Islands (Fig. 1), coinciding with the main wintering areas of the species Systematic seabird surveys were carried out in these regions within the frame of two EU funded LIFE projects between
- Kubetzki
Data were gathered on the continental shelf waters off Spanish Iberia and Mauritania, and in the Concepción Bank off NE Canary Islands (Fig. 1), coinciding with the main wintering areas of the species (Nelson, 2002; Wanless, 2002; Kubetzki et al., 2009; Fort et al., 2012). Systematic seabird surveys were carried out in these regions within the frame of two EU funded LIFE projects between 2007 and 2010 (Arcos et al., 2009; SEO/BirdLife, 2013; Table 1).
Impacts of marine debris: research and management needs. Special paper 2. In: Proceedings from the 4th International Marine Debris Conference on Derelict Fishing Gear and the Marine Environment Incidence and types of plastic in gannet nests in the Northwest Atlantic
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