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Analyzing Urban Tourism Stakeholder Relationships: A Network Perspective
Abstract
This paper presents a methodological approach to examine how sustainable tourism policy can be developed and implemented in urban destination. The stakeholder theory is discussed in the context of managing diverse stakeholder interests towards sustainable tourism policy. In order to examine the pattern of relationships among various destination stakeholders and roles of key stakeholders in influencing sustainable tourism policy, the policy network approach is studied. The strengths and weaknesses of network analysis technique in terms of providing a framework to measure and analyze the characteristics of tourism networks in enhancing sustainable tourism policymaking is discussed.
... Alongside the concept of stakeholder analysis has evolved the network analysis technique, which has a long tradition in the social sciences field and refers to data collection and analysis procedures designed to study relations among specifically connected actors (Timur, 2010;Marsden, 1990;Baggio, 2008). The knots in the system are the people or organisations, while the ties represent the relationships. ...
... The knots in the system are the people or organisations, while the ties represent the relationships. The basic unit of analysis is relationships (formal or informal), since they are usually more systematic and repetitive than individuals (Timur, 2010). Network analysis focuses on the pattern of relationships through measures such as range, density, centrality and clustering (Timur, 2010;Rowley, 1998;Burt, 1980;Scott, 2000;Krackhardt, 1992). ...
... The basic unit of analysis is relationships (formal or informal), since they are usually more systematic and repetitive than individuals (Timur, 2010). Network analysis focuses on the pattern of relationships through measures such as range, density, centrality and clustering (Timur, 2010;Rowley, 1998;Burt, 1980;Scott, 2000;Krackhardt, 1992). Deciding which actors to include in the analysis has been among the key challenges of network analysis (Rowley, 1997). ...
Understanding the tourism‐poverty link is critical if tourism is to be used as a mechanism for reducing poverty. Yet, the available empirical analysis is insufficient for this. This article proposes a research agenda for closing this gap in the literature. It argues that, while analysing the link poses peculiar challenges, models exist to do so. Second, it contends that the key question is not whether the link exists but under what conditions it is strongest. Finally, it maintains that the best way to analyse the link is to incorporate accurate diagnosis and evaluations into tourism projects, using the approaches and concepts of the literature on impact evaluation.
... ). L'association de Tourisme Vert, qui promeut le tourisme vert urbain auprès des touristes, des résidents et des entreprises de Toronto, définit le tourisme urbain durable par quatre attributs : La responsabilité environnementale, la vitalité économique locale, la sensibilité culturelle et enfin la richesse expérientielle(Timur: 2005). La responsabilité environnementale consiste à protéger, conserver et/ou améliorer la nature et l'environnement physique afin de garantir la santé à long terme de l'écosystème. ...
... En revanche, il est essentiel de parvenir à un développement du tourisme urbain qui soit durable en termes économiques, environnementaux et communautaires, notamment en assurant la participation et le consensus des principaux acteurs. Il est donc essentiel de déterminer qui sont les principaux acteurs du processus de développement du tourisme durable(Timur: 2005). Paskaleva-Shapira (2003) suggère que les partenariats public-privé devraient être considérés comme des formes de gouvernance efficaces dans le contexte de la gouvernance urbaine pour le développement du tourisme durable. ...
Préface : L’accélération de l’évolution de la société industrielle vers une société d’information et de communication par une fracture numérique irréversible et une convergence technologique dues à l’essor que les innovations technologiques et scientifiques ont connu lors des dernières décennies, ont marqué d’une façon remarquable les industries de service et tout particulièrement, celle des services touristiques. Les facteurs tels que le changement des conditions de travail et les heures d’office flexibles (temps partagé, horaires modulés, annualisation du temps de travail, etc.), les congés payés et les vacances scolaires raccourcis mais pris plus fréquemment et la mobilisation accrue de la population à l’échelle mondiale a incité les gens à chercher des plans plus flexibles et des forfaits modulaires / complémentaires pour planifier et organiser leurs vacances.
De même, les préférences du touriste contemporain se sont orientées vers les sortes de tourisme d’intérêt spécial, notamment vers le tourisme créatif et/ou expérientiel, se détournant d’une façon dramatique du tourisme de masse si populaire pendant les années 1980. Dans ce contexte, le tourisme urbain a gagné du terrain avec l’impact de la révolution numérique et la transformation de la société marquée par de nouvelles représentations mentales et sociales. Partant de ce fait, on notera que ce processus a entrainé l’établissement de nouveaux standards et mécanismes et le surgissement de nouvelles conditions du côté de la demande et de l’offre des services touristiques.
En considérant tous ces enjeux et tendances, le phénomène du tourisme urbain a été traité sous différents angles qui s’étendent de la planification à la création et au renforcement d’image, de la capacité d’accueil à la gestion stratégique et de la commercialisation à la gestion durable des destinations urbaines dans le nouvel âge du tourisme dans le cadre de cet ouvrage.
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Preface : The acceleration of the evolution of the industrial society towards an information and communication society through an irreversible digital divide and technological convergence due to the boom in technological and scientific innovations in recent decades has had a remarkable impact on the service industries, particularly the tourist services industry. Factors such as changes in working conditions and flexible working hours (time sharing, flexible working hours, annualisation of working time, etc.), paid holidays and shorter but more frequent school holidays, and the increased mobilisation of the population worldwide have prompted people to seek more flexible plans and modular/complementary packages to plan and organise their holidays.
Similarly, the preferences of the contemporary tourist have shifted towards the tourism of special interests, especially creative and/or experiential tourism, moving dramatically away from the mass tourism that was so popular during the 1980s. In this context, urban tourism has gained ground with the impact of the digital revolution and the transformation of society marked by new mental and social representations. As a result, this process has led to the establishment of new standards and mechanisms and the emergence of new conditions on the demand and supply side of tourism services.
In considering all these issues and trends, the phenomenon of urban tourism has been treated from different angles ranging from planning to image creation and enhancement, from carrying capacity to strategic management and from marketing to sustainable management of urban destinations in the new age of tourism in the framework of this book.
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Couverture arrière : De nos jours, il est incontestable que le phénomène du tourisme a subi des changements de taille qui va de pair avec le développement de nouvelles technologies et l’essor de la mondialisation. Cette évolution ayant la force de fragmenter et de reconstruire les industries n’épargne non plus celle du tourisme : Elle retrace les itinéraires, modifie les goûts, facilite les contacts, les interactions et les déplacements et attise la soif de faire des découvertes et d’acquérir des connaissances. Le touriste contemporain cherche avant tout à explorer, à se réaliser et à se forger une identité à travers les activités auxquelles il / elle se livre et les destinations auxquelles il / elle se rend.
Force est de constater que le tourisme urbain gagne du terrain plus que jamais à notre époque qui est marquée par de brusques changements et de transformations d’un jour à l’autre, et la quête d’authenticité, du retour aux sources, de création et de durabilité pousse la nouvelle génération de voyageurs à découvrir d’un autre point de vue le patrimoine collectif de l’humanité dans le monde entier.
Dans ce contexte, les destinations urbaines sont situées dans le cœur des débats concernant l’avenir des mouvements touristiques, exposant des tas de problèmes à résoudre et une multitude de projets de développement à gérer, pour contribuer à la régénération et assurer la prospérité à long terme des destinations urbaines avec un objectif de durabilité.
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Back Cover : Nowadays, it is indisputable that the phenomenon of tourism has undergone major changes that go hand in hand with the development of new technologies and the rise of globalization. This evolution, which has the power to fragment and rebuild industries, also affects tourism: it retraces itineraries, changes tastes, facilitates contacts, interactions and travel and fuels the thirst for discovery and knowledge. Contemporary tourists seek above all to explore and fulfil themselves and to forge their identity through the activities they engage in and the destinations they visit.
It is clear that urban tourism is gaining ground more than ever in our era, which is marked by sudden changes and transformations from one day to the next, and the quest for authenticity, a return to basics, creation and sustainability is pushing the new generation of travellers to discover the collective heritage of humanity around the world from another point of view.
In this context, urban destinations are at the heart of the debates concerning the future of the tourism movement, exposing a host of problems to be solved and a multitude of development projects to be managed in order to contribute to the regeneration and ensure the long-term prosperity of urban destinations with a view to sustainability.
... Questions were adapted from the works of Ahmed [63], Timur [64], and Wang [65]. To examine the existing stakeholder interconnectedness, the first question was designed to investigate whether or not policy stakeholders are in contact with one another vis-à-vis policymaking on WDM in Singapore's hotel sector. ...
... To examine the existing stakeholder interconnectedness, the first question was designed to investigate whether or not policy stakeholders are in contact with one another vis-à-vis policymaking on WDM in Singapore's hotel sector. A standardised stakeholder list was presented to participants, and they were asked to check off stakeholders with whom their organisation had engaged in formal and/or informal contacts (including via postings, newsletters, conferences, on-site visits, surveys, workshops, public forums, joint programmes, co-membership, and casual conversations) within the last 12 months (a recent 12 months is considered valid for surveying participants' up-to-date opinions on stakeholder salience [64]). ...
Stakeholder collaboration has become a critical issue in sustainable tourism policy due to the increasing complexity and interdisciplinary nature of the domain. Policymaking should reflect tourism values through a dynamic system in which stakeholders come to a consensus on sustainability issues via ongoing interactive engagement. Taking Singapore's hotel sector as a case, this study explores how stakeholder relationships contribute to participatory policymaking on sustainable water management. Based on a survey of 33 relevant organisations, this research applies network analysis to investigate stakeholder collaboration within this policy domain. While the policymaking process is derived from a complex web of actors and their formal and informal interactions, the national water agency of Singapore and some private businesses were found to be centrally located in the policy network. The aforementioned government body is also perceived to hold the greatest legitimacy, power, and urgency over others in the policy domain. Central stakeholders were found to play an important "bridging" role in terms of the interconnectedness of policy actors across boundaries of the public, private, and third sectors. These prominent political and industry players were also likely to exert control over the policymaking process and access to important resources based on their favourable network positions.
... The form of stakeholder collaboration in the ecosystem for sustaining intangible living heritage of traditional performing arts involves categorizing stakeholders into primary/expert and secondary/supplier groups, utilizing stakeholder classification (Xiong & Hu, 2010;Swarbrooke, 2001;Dabphet;Clarkson, 1995;Pavlovich, 2003) and collaboration theory (Colbry et al., 2014;Yukl, Chavez & Seifert, 2005). The roles of stakeholders in sustainable heritage tourism are based on the World Tourism Organization's classification (Timur, 2012;Paskaleva-Shapira, 2001;Pearce, 1989b;Gunn, 1994;Inskeep, 1991;Ritchie and Crouch, 2003;Orbasli, 2000;Aseres, 2016;Nicolaides, 2015) and involve mapping expected roles using the Responsible, Accountable, Consulted, and Informed (RACI) technique (Haughey, 2017;Wachs, 2015). The conceptual forms of stakeholder collaboration incorporate engagement through partnership, consultation, participation, push and pull communications, and relationship engagement, considering elements of influence/power (Morphy, 2008). ...
Preserving and promoting traditional performing arts for heritage tourism is a complex challenge due to socio-cultural barriers, economic constraints, heritage loss risk, and untapped creative economy potential. Addressing these issues, this research proposes an ecosystem framework with stakeholder engagement, collaborative management, art clusters, and enhanced heritage tourism. Integrating social, economic, and environmental dimensions, the framework categorizes stakeholders, outlines engagement strategies, and establishes criteria for conserving traditional arts. This comprehensive approach aims to sustain traditional arts and heritage tourism, fostering joint endeavors and effective relationship management.
... Stakeholders can generally be divided into three categories: 1) supply, 2) demand, 3) intermediaries (Skopjak Kresović, 2015) and belong to the public, civil and private sectors. According to Timur (2012), stakeholders are distributed across tourism industry, environment support and local community and government, while Ritchie and Crouch (2003) see them as suppliers, supporting industries, members of public, marketing merchandise and facilitators. Regardless of the classification of stakeholders, what is evident is the necessity of their cooperation and exchange of information in order to successfully realize an event (Raj et al., 2013). ...
Purpose - Scientific publications regarding business tourism, especially those which incorporate elements of sustainable development, still remain scarce in the existing literature. Therefore, the aim of this paper is to examine attitudes of local tourist organizations, travel agencies, catering establishments, chambers of commerce and other relevant stakeholders towards the sustainable development of conference and Congress tourism (CCT) in Vojvodina, Serbia. Methodology-In order to investigate the attitudes of stakeholders (n=174), the adapted sustainable tourism attitude scale (SUS-TAS) was used in this paper. Moreover, the responses of the directors (managers) of local tourism organizations to several open-ended questions, which make an integral part of the survey, are also presented. Findings-The research instrument proved to be reliable. Based on other applied analyses (t-test and ANOVA), the existence of numerous statistically significant differences in the responses in relation to gender, job position, sector of work, age and education were identified. Implications-Apart from theoretical contribution, this paper reveals what aspects of CCT are in stakeholders' main focus and what seems to be out of their radar. This should help defining necessary actions for further improvements of CCT. Lastly, study limitations and future research guidelines are discussed.
... In other words, Stakeholders exposed the interrelationship between peace and development, the importance of good governance for peace and development and the need to integrate and strengthen community and national level peacebuilding efforts. According to WTO, a stakeholder in sustainable tourism development is divided into three categories (Timur, 2012) as shown in Table 1. ...
The current research aims to examine the importance of tourism development as an essential element for building peace in Jammu and Kashmir (J&K). Peace through tourism is the reduction and eventual elimination of the conditions that lead to the violence. This research has also aimed to look after religious tourism, which has great potential for rejuvenating the dormant religious beliefs of people and the cross-border trade that will open new routes for harmony by securing each other's interests. Non-probability convenience sampling technique was used to select the sample. Self-administered questionnaires were distributed amongst 275 local residents in J&K, where 240 questionnaires were received back and found to be useful. Data was analysed by using SPSS version 25.0. The findings of current research confirm that the stakeholders and community play a major role in shaping the development and promotion of sustainable destination. Tourism contributes positively to the guest-host relationship, regional economy to increase in income and cross-cultural understanding. Further, findings of current research also disclose that tourism plays an essential role for promoting peace, which leads to cross-cultural interaction resulting intolerance, national integration, compassion, goodwill, educational standards, justice and mutual respect for each other. Implications, limitations of the study and future research suggestions are also discussed.
... A number of academic's point to destinations as the primary unit of management action (Fyall, 2001;Timur, 2003;Ritchie, 2009;Bornhorst, Ritchie and Sheehan, 2010) in tourism. ...
The current increase in tourism arrivals to Ireland in recent years has had major implications for tourism planning. Although sustainability is now an essential word in the vocabulary of modern planning it is also the key principle that underpins the Irish planning process. Despite sustainability having been studied and accepted by many, together with decades of academic and practical debate on sustainable planning and its application to tourism, there still exist many gaps, especially when it comes to its implementation. Due to their legal powers under the Planning and Development Act (2015), Planning, and Development Regulations (2013), Local Authorities across Ireland are in an ideal position to sustainably plan for tourism. The most effective method for Local Authority senior planners to accomplish this is by adopting an evidence based planning approach to tourism through the use of tourism indicator systems. However, there currently exists a limited body of research available on sustainable planning for tourism by Local Authorities in Ireland. Through the use of a multi methodological approach incorporating interviews with senior planners across Ireland together with a content analysis of all CDPs, this thesis addressed this gap in tourism research. This approach also facilitated the collection of longitudinal data to allow for direct comparisons to be made with a
2006 study. This thesis has examined the use of tourism indicator systems, and in particular, the European Tourism Indicator System (ETIS) by Local Authorities to facilitate evidence based planning for tourism. It contributes to new knowledge and understanding on sustainable planning and potential barriers faced by senior planners in Irelands Local Authorities when it comes to implementing evidence based planning for tourism. Thus, possibly affecting the progression towards sustainable planning for tourism. This thesis also provided the first longitudinal study on the level of sustainable planning for tourism in Ireland. This provided a snap shot in time of the current state of sustainable planning by Local Authorities as evident from county development plans (CDP) in 2016 compared to 2006. While findings have identified a slight increase in the provision for sustainable planning for tourism within CDPs over the decade, there continues to be poor levels of policy provision in key areas. Despite the responsibilities placed on Local Authorities to sustainably plan for tourism together with substantial advancements in the development of procedures for facilitating evidence based policy making in tourism. Findings continue to question the ability of Local Authorities in Ireland to plan sustainably for tourism and protect the tourism product. By implementing the tourism planning tool-kit, Local Authorities in Ireland can move towards an informed evidence based approach
to tourism planning in the future.
... Vì thế phân tích mạng là phù hợp để kiểm tra cả cấu trúc và chức năng của những bối cảnh địa điểm du lịch. Timur (2005) đã sử dụng quan điểm mạng lưới để tìm hiểu mối quan hệ giữa các bên liên quan trong bối cảnh phát triển du lịch đô thị bền vững. Sử dụng kỹ thuật phân tích mạng lưới, Cobb (1988) nghiên cứu mô hình mối quan hệ trao đổi giữa các doanh nghiệp du lịch và chât lượng du lịch. ...
Các học giả sử dụng lý thuyết mạng lưới ngày càng nhiều trong việc nghiên cứu các điểm đến du lịch. Các điểm đến du lịch được mô tả như là nơi đòi hỏi có sự hợp tác và công tác giữa các bên liên quan tạo ra cùng một sản phẩm cho khách du lịch. Ưu điểm chính của lý thuyết mạng lưới nằm ở sự định lượng hành vi hợp tác của các bên liên quan tại một điểm đến du lịch. Bài viết này bàn về kết quả ứng dụng kỹ thuật phân tích mạng lưới nghiên cứu hoạt động liên kết giữa các bên hữu quan đối với việc quản lý và tiếp thị điểm đến. Kết quả nghiên cứu đã xác định các đặc tính của cấu trúc mạng lưới; đánh giá mức độ liên kết hợp tác giữa các bên liên quan; và vai trò, vị trí của các tác nhân trong mạng lưới.
... In other words, Stakeholders exposed the interrelationship between peace and development, the importance of good governance for peace and development and the need to integrate and strengthen community and national level peacebuilding efforts. According to WTO, a stakeholder in sustainable tourism development is divided into three categories (Timur, 2012) as shown in Table 1. ...
... To drugie spojrzenie jest w turystyce szczególnie ważne, gdyż realizacja celów poszczególnych aktorów często w znacznej mierze uzależniona jest od sukcesu sieci jako całości. W odniesieniu do obszarów recepcji turystycznej S. Timur [2012] wskazuje dodatkowo na potrzebę ujęcia pośredniego między spojrzeniem na całą sieć a spojrzeniem pojedynczej firmy, czyli perspektywę grupy aktorów wewnątrz sieci. W kolejnych rozważaniach zaprezentowano przykłady i korzyści stosowania każdej z trzech perspektyw analizy sieciowej do badania problematyki zarządzania na obszarach recepcji turystycznej. ...
Purpose. The aim of the paper is to present possible applications of the network approach in the tourism sector, in scientific research (including empirical analysis) as well as in the organization of management processes of tourist destinations. Method. The paper is based on a critical domestic and foreign literature review, being the basis of the presented discussion and deductive inference. Findings. To achieve the aim of the paper, there the origin of the network approach was presented, its basic assumptions and ways of application in empirical research. The presented literature review was related to three basic ways of using the network approach in scientific works: from the perspective of an individual actor, the network as a whole and group of actors in the network (mixed approach). Premises of using each of those perspectives were presented, as well as examples of their application in domestic and foreign literature, and the effects of this application. It allowed to show that each of those three perspectives can be useful in the tourism sector and brings different types of benefits. Research and conclusion limitations. The paper does not aspire to constitute a full and complex presentation of problems connected to the network approach in tourism, but rather concentrates on the general presentation of some chosen ways of network analysis. For a reader to obtrain more specific knowledge about any of the presented network issues, additional reading of the literature presented in the paper’s references is needed. Practical implications. The paper orders considerations on the presented issue and therefore, is aimed at a better understanding of network analysis – regarding empirical research based on such an analysis (scientific value) as well as the management of networks in the tourism sector (application value for economic practice). Originality. In domestic literature, there is a lack of reviews regarding the different ways of network approach application in the tourism sector, and this paper is aimed at fulfilling this gap. Type of paper. Theoretical paper.
... Furthermore, the tourism industry in all its complexity, literally involves thousands of organisations; these organisations plan, develop, and promote the functions within destinations (Goeldner & Ritchie, 2012:71). Stakeholders in tourism include tourists (as the demand), tourism industries and national government organisations (as the supplier) and the local communities as the hosts (Pavlovich, 2003:205; Timur, 2012:12). The successful political transformation in South Africa has virtually unlocked the country's tourism potential to the rest of the world. ...
For a country's tourism industry to survive, it needs to be sustainable. Sustainable tourism entails planning and management of tourism in a holistically manner by addressing environmental-, financial and local community concerns. The primary objective of this study was to develop a framework for sustainable tourism in South Africa utilising internet research. The desktop research structure followed were to assess current information, develop an analytical framework, conducting a contextual analysis and finally to integrate the findings. The sustainable tourism framework contained eight pillars whereby the first five pillars are country specific and the last three pillars are tourism specific. Country specific concerns to address include the political climate, economic status, socio cultural demographics, technological development, ecological protection, whereas tourism specific concerns include tourism policy, market dynamics and global relations. The framework can be empirically tested and the extent of importance of the concerns can be established to indicate which are critical and which not as important to ensure sustainable tourism in South Africa.
Despite the health tourism sector's rapid growth in the past decade due to globalisation, there is little research analysing countries' health tourism policies. This study aimed to examine the relationships between stakeholders in the health tourism sector in Turkey in the context of Turkey's health tourism policies. This study connects theory and practice in multidisciplinary sectors, including health, tourism, and business, through an evaluation of major issues from a health management perspective. Social network analysis was used to assess the role of 107 stakeholders in Ankara and determine the extent of weak and strong ties among them. Issues confronting these stakeholders and the obstacles they faced in practice were also identified. The study found that, the relevant stakeholders faced comprehensive sectoral deficiencies and issues in building positive relationships. Governmental stakeholders as policymakers need to develop effective strategies to improve stakeholder collaboration and encourage greater inclusiveness through better‐targeted health tourism policies. The study contributes to social network theory, resource dependency theory, and stakeholder theory, and is, to our knowledge, the first study to use social network analysis to examine the role of stakeholders in the health tourism sector.
Tourism is of significant importance to the economy of any country. The successful political transformation in South Africa has virtually 'opened' the country's tourism potential to the rest of the world. This has prompted this paper to develop a model for determining indicators that influence tourism competitiveness for South Africa. As there are few South African studies on competitive tourism, global literature was surveyed and several indicators that influence tourism competitiveness were identified using content analysis. Main indicators such as core resources, destination supporting structures and destination marketing were identified to influence tourism competitiveness. Secondary indicators were also identified within each main indicator. This study adds to the debate and literature on tourism competitiveness, especially in the South African context.
EXTENDED ABSTRACT Acarlar Longozu, located in Sakarya between Karasu and Kaynarca towns, has national and international importance. In this study, a qualitative research, which includes the views of local stakeholders related to the current situation under the principles of sustainable tourism and to ensure the sustainability of natural resources, has been conducted.
EXTENDED ABSTRACT Acarlar Longozu, located in Sakarya between Karasu and Kaynarca towns, has national and international importance. In this study, a qualitative research, which includes the views of local stakeholders related to the current situation under the principles of sustainable tourism and to ensure the sustainability of natural resources, has been conducted.
This study addresses the structure, nature and composition of stakeholder networks related to rural tourism in a Portuguese National Park (Peneda‐Gerês National Park). In particular, it examines their interactions along the following dimensions: marketing information (marketing exchanges such as flyers, tourism information and information on specific events), administrative resources (logistic and technical support), human resources (allocation of human resources), training (training of local stakeholders in the area of promotion) and financial resources (financial support). In terms of methodology, it uses both qualitative and quantitative techniques.
The analysis of the type and nature of interactions among different stakeholders within a specific rural tourism destination is the main focus of this study. Among these, the marketing information network shows both a high number of connections and high centrality indices, which may indicate that there is a significant share of information about common projects, products and services among stakeholders. In contrast, the training network evidenced the opposite behavior pattern. The study also contributes to a better understanding of how different local stakeholders are positioned in a complex structure of interactions that are critical in providing useful directions to maximize potential opportunities that may contribute to promote rural tourism and local development efficiently. Several limitations and implications are offered in the final section. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Stakeholder theory has been a popular heuristic for describing the management environment for years, but it has not attained full theoretical status. Our aim in this article is to contribute to a theory of stakeholder identification and salience based on stakeholders possessing one or more of three relationship attributes: power, legitimacy, and urgency. By combining these attributes, we generate a typology of stakeholders, propositions concerning their salience to managers of the firm, and research and management implications.
The term ‘sustainable tourism’ is rarely used within a specifically urban context yet the concept is as equally applicable to city‐based tourism as it is to rural areas. This paper explores recent attempts to promote sustainable tourism in the city of Malaga, southern Spain and examines the ways in which the activity of tourism is being more closely integrated with other facets of the city's economy and life. Rather than seeing tourism as a ‘separate’ and ‘exotic’ activity, the city authorities are attempting to use tourism in a creative way. It is argued that it is this very integration which constitutes one of the main features of ‘sustainability’ within an urban context. Specific examples of the kinds of strategies being pursued are examined and the paper concludes with a critique of these initiatives from the perspective of the debate on sustainability.
This paper argues that an accurate cognition of informal networks can itself be a base of power, above and beyond power attributable to informal and formal structural positions. To explore this claim, a small entrepreneurial firm was studied. Perceptions of the friendship and advice networks were compared to "actual" networks. Those who had more accurate cognitions of the advice network were rated as more powerful by others in the organization, although accuracy of the friendship network was not related to reputational power.
Executive Overview To cope with the environmental turbulence and uncertainty facing many U.S. industries, business executives must effectively manage their stakeholders. Stakeholders include those individuals, groups, and other organizations who have an interest in the actions of an organization and who have the ability to influence it. The stakeholder approach systematically integrates executives' concerns about organizational strategy with the organization's interests in marketing, human resource management, public relations, organizational politics, and social responsibility. This integrative perspective assumes thai an effective organization strategy requires consensus from a plurality of key stakeholders about what it should be doing and how these things should be done. By assessing each stakeholder's potential to threaten or to cooperate with the organization, managers' may identify supportive, mixed blessing. n on supportive, and marginal stakeholders. The 1989 strike at Eastern Airlines illustrates these different types of stakeholders. An analysis of the case underscores the importance of four generic strategies for managing different stakeholders. The case also demonstrates that executives should use an overarching strategy to change relationships with stakeholders from less favorable categories (e.g., nonsupporiive) fo more favorable ones (e.g.. mixed blessing). Article Fundamental, turbulent, and revolutionary changes took place in business organizations during the 1980s. External stakeholders called for greater corporate social responsibility among other things.' These changes continue during the 1990s and reflect the expectations and influences of stakeholders on issues ranging from organizational governance to operations. These changes have profound effects on managers, as reflected in a 1987 cover story in Business Week:
This analysis of papers in tourism journals found that tourism research is expanding in volume but is static in content; non-responsive to contemporary issues; dominated by academics; disinterested in resource, host community and cultural issues; oriented towards supply and descriptive rather than directed towards methodology and theory development. Despite concern for sustainability, the absence of resource management in tourism discourse is highlighted. While others have attributed this situation to the evolutionary development of tourism inquiry, this paper suggests that this is symptomatic of a discipline that lacks direction and which is not moving towards maturity. This situation contrasts with other disciplines where a clear evolutionary development is evident. Our diagnosis is that tourism research can and will develop and mature only when it explicitly considers the nature of the tourism resource, and the interaction of the tourism industry with it, thereby finding a place in the spectrum of resource management sciences.
The purpose of this chapter is to outline the development of the idea of "stakeholder management" as it has come to be applied in strategic management. We begin by developing a brief history of the concept. We then suggest that traditionally the stakeholder approach to strategic management has several related characteristics that serve as distinguishing features. We review recent work on stakeholder theory and suggest how stakeholder management has affected the practice of management. We end by suggesting further research questions.
The intuitive background for measures of structural centrality in social networks is reviewed and existing measures are evaluated in terms of their consistency with intuitions and their interpretability.
Organizational networks in a medium-size midwestern community are examined. Smallest space analysis is used to describe the
money, information, and support flows among a wide range of formal organizations. Actors central to these networks are described
in detail, and path analysis is used to examine the relationships between organizations' resources, interests, centrality,
and influence in community affairs.
Organizations which control the most funds and are more dependent on the community for money and legitimacy tend to be more
central in each network. Organizations' technology also affects their centrality. However, resources and local dependencies
have only an indirect effect on organizations' influence in the community. These effects are mediated by actors' centrality
in the three resource networks. Centrality has the strongest direct effect on influence of all variables used in the analysis.
Recent research on community power structures and national political elites increasingly incorporates social network concepts, principles, and methodologies. Analysts using this perspective seek to uncover the various mechanisms underlying the cleavages and coalitions among state managers, political parties, corporations, interest groups, social movements, mass publics, class segments, and other social formations. By combining reputational, positional, and decision-making measures, researchers delineate the networks of communication ties and resource exchanges, which shape collective actions that attempt to influence the outcomes of political controversies. This article critically reviews recent power structure research that applies network techniques to the analysis of elite structures and decision making. Specifically, the following topics are examined. the specification of political network content, the delineation of political elite system boundaries, the identification of key or core actors, the representation of network structures, elite actors' individual and collective participation in policy events, the determination of policy event outcomes, and future directions for elite research using network perspectives.
The role of interested groups within English tourism policy development has increased considerably in recent years. There are several possible explanations for this, including changing government policy styles, the perception of the importance of tourism to the national economy, and the developing sophistication of a tourism policy network. This paper reviews the role of interested groups and the nature of tourism policy development in England within the context of a theoretical discussion on public policy analysis, policy styles and policy networks. It specifically reports on the relationship between the tourism interest groups and government, and the mechanisms used by them to influence policy development. The paper shows that the tourism policy network can be characterised as immature. It has government at its centre directing strategic policy, with two sub-networks concentrating on the detail of commercial tourism and tourism resource policy. Within these sub-networks are dominant and secondary players defined as such by the manner in which they use their resources, gain access to decision-makers, collaborate with like-minded groups and work with government bureaucracy.
Sustainable tourism represents a challenge within urban environments just as it does within wilderness and rural environments. This paper considers the concept of sustainable urban tourism from four general perspectives. First, the essence of urban tourism is characterised, including the nature of scholarly activity in this area. Second, the relevance of the concept of sustainability in relation to the tourism function of the city is argued. Thirdly, sustainability is examined in the context of the built, natural, and cultural dimensions of the urban environment. Finally, a framework is presented that identifies four basic organisational approaches to sustainable urban tourism, including (1) open market, (2) public control, (3) industry leadership,and (4) regulatory partnership.
This paper examines the management and coordination of a tourism destination stakeholder group, the Waitomo Caves Landcare Group. The Waitomo Caves destination context is unique in that its images and attractions occur underground and yet its long-term sustainability depends upon the aboveground land practices that occur within the broader catchment area. The Waitomo Caves Landcare Group was formed to protect and conserve this critical resource upon which the community is economically dependent. This paper illustrates network theory, offering an alternative perspective for understanding interdependent stakeholder groups. It focuses specifically on the informal coordination mechanisms that structure networks. The structure of the network, relational connections, and structural embeddedness are illustrated as key propositions that contribute to this process.
Over the past two decades, the social groups model has received considerable attention in studies of the sociological aspects of leisure and recreation. This model is limited, however, in its ability to account for important structural and inter‐actionist features of recreation behavior. The article proposes and describes an alternative model, the social networks perspective, which grounds recreation behaviors in the extended interpersonal relations of community life. By using a social networks perspective, investigators can study both the influence of social structures on individual behavior and the intentions of individual actors in creating various arrangements of social structures. Several aspects of network analysis methods that concern recreation investigators are described, and some potential avenues for application of the social networks model in leisure and recreation research are suggested.
Stakeholder theory development has increased in recent years, in part because of its emphasis on explaining and predicting how an organization functions with respect to the relationships and influences existing in its environment. Thus far, most researchers have concentrated on dyadic relationships between individual stakeholders and a focal organization. Using social network analysis, I construct in this article a theory of stakeholder influences, which accommodates multiple, interdependent stakeholder demands and predicts how organizations respond to the simultaneous influence of multiple stakeholders.
This article presents conclusions from a 10-year research program, the purpose of which has been to develop a framework and methodology, grounded in the reality of corporate behavior, for analyzing and evaluating corporate social performance. There are three principal sections: (a) a summary of the approaches, models, and methodologies used in conducting more than 70 field studies of corporate social performance from 1983-1993; (b) a discussion of the principal conclusions derived from the data that (1) corporations manage relationships with stakeholder groups rather than with society as a whole, (2) it is important to distinguish between social issues and stakeholder issues, and (3) it is necessary to identify the appropriate level of analysis in order to evaluate CSP; and (c) a discussion of propositions and areas for further research.
Data on social networks may be gathered for all ties linking elements of a closed population (“complete” network data) or for the sets of ties surrounding sampled individual units (“egocentric” network data). Network data have been obtained via surveys and questionnaires, archives, observation, diaries, electronic traces, and experiments. Most methodological research on data quality concerns surveys and questionnaires. The question of the accuracy with which informants can provide data on their network ties is nontrivial, but survey methods can make some claim to reliability. Unresolved issues include whether to measure perceived social ties or actual exchanges, how to treat temporal elements in the definition of relationships, and whether to seek accurate descriptions or reliable indicators. Continued research on data quality is needed; beyond improved samples and further investigation of the informant accuracy/reliability issue, this should cover common indices of network structure, address the conseque...
In an attempt to appreciate the contribution that social network analysis might offer to the study of leisure, four distinctive, though not mutually exclusive, approaches to social network analysis are considered and an overall critique of the approach offered, paying special attention to the work of Wellman. Within this critique is a discussion of the ontological, epistemological and methodological problems confronting the social network perspective, particularly the works of those analysts, such as Stokowski (1994), who have attempted to merge structural analysis with more action-based perspectives. Some comparisons are made with figurational sociology and structuration theory, and attention is drawn to three central explanatory tools deployed within network analysis: the strength of weak ties, sociometry, and network density.
This paper examines the process of tourism destination evolution and transformation. The focus is on how the relationships between organisations can act as a self-organising mechanism for the destination, with fluidity and change being a critical component in this process. This paper uses network theory to express these dynamics, and it emphasises structural features of architectural density and centrality. Most particularly, the network approach illustrates how groupings of small firms within interdependent systems can be self-governing, and show how this process assists the destination in building tacit knowledge for competitive advantage that resides in the network structure. The case context for this illustration is an icon tourism destination in New Zealand, the Waitomo Caves. This tourism destination has undergone significant transformation over the last 15 years, from its single Glowworm Cave attraction to an interdependent network involving underground adventure caving activities. Because of this transformation, it provides a distinctive context to explore these fluid network processes.
When seeking to influence firm decision making, what types of influence strategies do stakeholders have available, and what determines which type the stakeholders choose to use? In this article I use resource dependence theory to investigate these two questions. I propose that the resource relationship (who is dependent on whom) determines which of the four types of strategies identified in this article will be used: direct withholding, direct usage, indirect withholding, or indirect usage.
Business and Society: Ethics and Stakeholder Management
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Influence and exchange networks among tourism oriented business in four Michigan communities
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Researching tourism partnership organizations: From practice to theory to methodology
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sustainable urban tourism', INTA International Seminar Tourism in the City -Opportunity Regeneration and Development, Turin, Italy, February 2001.
Social Network Analysis: A Handbook
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Leisure in Society: A Network Structural perspective
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Applying stakeholder theory to the implementation of sustainable urban tourism
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sustainable urban tourism', City Tourism 2002 ICTC Conference Proceeding, Vienna,
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