Outline of a Microlearning Agenda

Abstract

Summary In this paper we map the changing but ultimately convergent meanings of the term "microlearning" as they have emerged and developed over the last few years. We explore how the term works to organize and order a set of pedagogical and technological phenomena and concepts in new and interesting ways. Beginning with varying definitions of the term, we present a brief review of the research and informal literatures that have quickly developed around it. We advocate speaking of microlearning in terms of special moments or episodes of learning while dealing with specific tasks or content, and engaging in small but conscious steps. Based on this overview, we develop the thesis that the "microlearning agenda" - as an explicit emphasis on the minute and particular in teaching, learning and technology - presents valuable lessons for research into technology and media in education generally. We reveal microlearning to be not simply as one approach among many, but instead as a perspective that applies to many aspects of education, as something that goes on continuously, whether it is an explicit focus for research and technology development or not. As such, we show that the lessons gained through microlearning have a generalized applicability to the studies of media and technology in education in the broadest possible sense. We conclude by considering some lessons to be drawn from recent discussions of microlearning. These focus on the constraints and freedoms for learners and also on the pedagogical responsibility of teachers. The yet inconclusive and polyvocal nature of microlearning discourse is a good thing, and we believe it should be cultivated and encouraged.

Full text

Outline of a Microlearning Agenda
Theo Hug, University of Innsbruck, Austria
Norm Friesen, Thompson Rivers University, Canada
Summary
In this paper we map the changing but ultimately convergent meanings of the term
“microlearning” as they have emerged and developed over the last few years. We explore how
the term works to organize and order a set of pedagogical and technological phenomena and
concepts in new and interesting ways. Beginning with varying definitions of the term, we
present a brief review of the research and informal literatures that have quickly developed
around it. We advocate speaking of microlearning in terms of special moments or episodes of
learning while dealing with specific tasks or content, and engaging in small but conscious steps.
Based on this overview, we develop the thesis that the “microlearning agenda” – as an explicit
emphasis on the minute and particular in teaching, learning and technology – presents valuable
lessons for research into technology and media in education generally. We reveal microlearning
to be not simply as one approach among many, but instead as a perspective that applies to
many aspects of education, as something that goes on continuously, whether it is an explicit
focus for research and technology development or not. As such, we show that the lessons
gained through microlearning have a generalized applicability to the studies of media and
technology in education in the broadest possible sense.
We conclude by considering some lessons to be drawn from recent discussions of
microlearning. These focus on the constraints and freedoms for learners and also on the
pedagogical responsibility of teachers. The yet inconclusive and polyvocal nature of
microlearning discourse is a good thing, and we believe it should be cultivated and encouraged.
Keywords: microlearning, didactics, learning, teaching, technology, models, didactical theories
1 Introduction
In the rapidly-changing world of the Internet and the Web, theory and research frequently
struggle to catch up to developments, interactions and permutations in technology and the
social forms and practices evolving with it. Although the acuity of this situation may be new, the
notion of the cultural forms of research (and society in general) lagging behind technological
developments is not novel. As early as the 1920’s, William Ogburn’s theory of social change
(1950) identified cultural lags as being an important part of the social dynamics associated with
technological innovation. Even though we have much more complex conceptions of
interdependent dimensions of social, cultural and medial change and the analysis of multiplex
systems (cf. Rusch et al., 2007) today, challenges for timeliness and topicality of theory remain.
In the social sciences generally, Internet and Web Studies have emerged to address this lag
between Internet practices and corresponding theories by developing and adapting
ethnographic, social-psychological, linguistic, critical and other methodologies. These now
serve as ways of investigating new online manifestations of identity, language use, and other
cultural, commercial and technical forms – from blogging through YouTube. In educational
research, a similar proliferation of novel practices, applications, and forms – from online
educational games to learning objects, from bulletin boards to wikis – have come to be
addressed under rubrics such as “e-learning,” “distributed education,” or “networked learning.”
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Naturally, a number of more specific catchphrases and terms have been circulating to label,
categorize and also promote more particular practices, ideas and forms. These include e-
learning 2.0, personal learning environments, game-based learning, and more.
Together, these terms and rubrics help to map out an emerging sociotechnical landscape.
However, this terrain is itself shifting and changing, constantly underscoring the provisional and
negotiable nature of terms and labels. In many cases, terms attempt to stake out terrain that is
as of yet emerging, sometimes going too far off the mark, and (less frequently), being too
conservative in their estimation of the richness or extent of the territory identified.
With this in mind, this paper will begin by mapping the changing but ultimately convergent
definitions of the term “microlearning” as they have emerged and developed over the past five
years or more. It will also explore how this term and its dynamics help to organize and order a
set of pedagogical and technological phenomena and concepts in new and interesting ways.
This article will also examine how the emergence and development of the term “microlearning”
presents lessons for a range of interrelated concerns that continue to proliferate at the
intersection of the social, technical and educational
.
We begin with an overview of the definitional issues related to micro-learning. It then presents a
brief review of the research and informal literatures that have quickly been amassed in this new
field. From this overview, it develops the thesis that the “microlearning agenda” – as an explicit
emphasis on the minute and particular in teaching, learning and technology – presents valuable
lessons for research into technology and media in education generally. Microlearning is
revealed in these contexts not simply as one approach among many, but as a perspective that
applies to many aspects of education, as something that goes on continuously, whether it is an
explicit focus for research and technology development or not. As such, the lessons gained
through microlearning are shown to have a generalized applicability to the studies of media and
technology in education in the broadest possible sense. We conclude our discussion of
concepts, didactics, politics and structures of microlearning by presenting some microlearning
lessons. These lessons focus on the constraints and freedoms for learners and the pedagogical
responsibility of teachers.
2 Definition and Context
As indicated earlier, in contrast to microteaching (cf. Dwight & Ryan, 1969) and also to other
terms such as microphysics or microbiology, microlearning is a rather new expression. Similar
to related expressions like microcontent or micromedia, it has been in use only since about
2002, though many aspects of learning, didactics and education have, of course been
addressed on what can be called a “micro” level for centuries.
The discourse, or rather, multiple discourses that have emerged and developed around
microlearning are above all polyvocal and international. In addition to a strong central-european
presence, a glance at the tables of contents of the published collections in microlearning (from
Innsbruck University Press) reveals contributions from North America, Asia, Australia, as well
as other parts of Europe. Such cultural, geographic and linguistic heterogeneity underscores
the fact that the technology central to microlearning – like any technologies or technical systems
– are not constituted in isolation, producing the same results in different institutional, social and
cultural contexts. Instead, this technology and these systems are inextricably intertwined, and
this embedding of the technical in the social and cultural is given expression in this introduction
by referring to the “socio-technical” (e.g., see Hughes, 2001).
The heterogeneity of the contexts, cultures and ultimately, meanings associated with the term
microlearning is further compounded by heterogeneity of the term learning itself. For example,
learning can be conceptualized as a process of building up and organizing
knowledge
. But it
can also refer to the change of behaviour
, of attitudes, of values, of mental abilities, of task
performance of cognitive
structures, of emotional reactions, of action patterns or of social
dynamics. No matter how learning is conceptualized, in all cases there is the possibility of
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considering it in terms of micro, meso and macro aspects or levels (cf. Hug 2005, p.4). As a
result, microlearning can be understood in manifold ways which can refer to micro aspects of a
variety of phenomena including learning models and concepts.
Along with that, the corresponding levels of meso learning or macro learning can refer to
different areas, too (see figure 1).
Example 1
Linguistics
Example 2
Language
learning
Example 3
Learning
contents
Example 4
Course
structure
Example 5
Competency
classification
Example 6
Sociology
micro
level
single letters
vocables,
phrases,
sentences
learning
objects,
micro content
learning
objects
competencie
s of learners
or teachers
individualized
learning
meso
level
words, letter-
figure
combinations
, sentences
situations,
episodes
sub areas,
narrow
themes
topics,
lessons
designing a
lecture
group learning
or organizatio-
nal learning
macro
level
texts, conver-
sation, lingui-
stic
communica-
tion
socio-
cultural
specifics,
complex
semantics
topics,
subjects
courses,
curricular
structures
designing a
curriculum
learning of
generations,
learning of
societies
Figure 1. Microlearning – mesolearning – macrolearning (cf. Hug, 2005, p. 3).
These kinds of illustrative distinctions help to show the many ways in which microlearning can
be understood. Depending on frames of reference and economies of scale, micro, meso and
macro aspects vary. They are relational rather than “absolute.” For example, in the context of
language learning, one might think of micro aspects in terms of vocabularies, phrases,
sentences, and distinguish them from situations and episodes (as meso aspects) and socio-
cultural specifics or complex semantics (as macro aspects). In a more general discourse on
learning, one might differentiate between learning on individual, group, or very broad social
and/or generational levels. But whether “microlearning” is defined in terms of content,
processes, technologies, competencies or learner groups, the key, of course is that which is
occurring at the most minute of levels – as opposed to the meso or macro: minutes or seconds
of time are relevant instead of hours, days or months; sentences, headlines, or clips are the
focus rather than paragraphs, articles, programs or presentations; and portable technologies,
loosely-coupled distributed environments are of interest rather than monolithic or integrated
turnkey systems.
A second and broader context for the definitions of microlearning is provided by characteristics
and dynamics associated with “knowledge economies.” These characteristics include, of
course, an increasing economic dependence on the generation, circulation and utilization of
productive knowledge, and attendant pressures for instant access, workforce retraining and
lifelong learning. Generally speaking, these factors are seen to involve increasing nomadicity of
those generating and using knowledge, and also decreasing longevity and even coherence of
knowledge itself:
Microlearning as a term reflects the emerging reality of the ever-increasing
fragmentation of both information sources and information units used for learning,
especially in fast-moving areas which see rapid development and a constantly high
degree of change.
(Langreiter & Bolka, 2006, p. 79)
These processes are also linked with changing media industries. The diffusion of technological
innovation necessitates the transformation or renewal of value propositions and business
models. Making explicit reference to “micromedia,” Umair Haque (2005) describes some of the
conditions necessitating this transformation as follows:
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Micromedia is media produced by prosumers (or amateurs; sometimes, it’s called
‘consumer-generated content’). Micromedia differs fundamentally from mass media.
First, it’s usually microchunked. Second, because it’s microchunked, it’s plastic. Third,
micromedia is liquid: prosumers can trade info about it via ratings, reviews, tags,
comments, playlists, or a plethora of others. These are also micromedia; micromedia
whose economic value lies in its complementarity with other micromedia.
(2005)
Apart from other complementarities with meso- or macromedia (cf. Rusch et al., 2007, p. 13), it
is important to realize that this discussion is rather about complex interrelations and new
dynamics than just about small screen sizes or the nomadicity implied in handheld devices.
Although the absolute novelty of the current situation – and the absolute centrality of knowledge
in it – are subject to debate (e.g., Seidensticker, 2006; Friesen, 2006), it is difficult to dispute that
the increasing speed, fragmentation and mobility of information production and consumption
presents a new milieu for media production and forms.
Whether our focus is on learning tasks and processes, products and outcomes, it is important to
avoid definitions of microlearning that lack discriminating or differentiating power. If
microlearning is simply equated with informal learning, lifelong learning, or being “bathed in
bits” in the digital mediasphere (see Tapscott, 1999), we end up in a night in which all cows are
black. If
everything
is microlearning,
nothing
of it is to be considered of special importance.
Consequently, we advocate speaking of microlearning in terms of special moments or episodes
of learning while dealing with specific tasks or content, and engaging in small but conscious
steps. These moments, episodes and processes may vary depending on the pedagogies and
media involved, but the measures of scale of the amount of time and content involved can be
made fairly constant. For example, microlearning can involve the use of different media
technologies – book printing, radio, film, TV, computer, Internet and others. It can be utilized
with a range of pedagogies, including, reflective, pragmatist, conceptionalist, constructivist,
connectivist, or behaviourist learning, or action-, task-, exercise-, goal- or problem-oriented
learning. It can be designed for classroom learning as well as for corporate learning or
continuing education, entailing
processes
that may be separate or concurrent, situated or
integrated into other activities. It may follow iterative methods, networked patterns or certain
modes of attention management entailing different degrees of awareness. Finally, the
form
of a
final microlearning product may have characteristics of fragments, facets, episodes, skill
elements, discrete tasks, etc. But while it is amenable to all of these forms, contexts,
technologies and combinations, in terms of its temporality and substance, microlearning carries
some relatively simple markers: In terms of
time
microlearning is related to relatively short
efforts and low degrees of time consumption. And in terms of
content
microlearning deals with
small or very small units and rather narrow topics, even though aspects of literacy and
multimodality (cf. Kress, 2003, pp. 35-59) may play a complex role.
3 Didactics of Microlearning
As to
didactics
of microlearning, it is important to be aware of different cultural and academic
traditions. In the French speaking cultural area “didactique” also means a literary genre, and in
German traditions we find a variety of concepts, models and understandings. By way of
contrast, Anglo-American discussions on didactics mainly focus on instructional design or
theory (see Friesen in this volume). Attempting to straddle these different traditions, this
introduction uses the terms “didactics” to designate very generally processes of design and
reflection related to teaching and learning. Depending on the level of reflection and theoretical
or practical demands, didactics can also be seen to refer to concepts, approaches, models,
theories, experiences, or technologies, or to questions of an art of teaching and learning.
Furthermore, these considerations may focus on subjects (who), contents and skills (what),
methods and technologies (how), reasons, purposes, and goals (why and what for), as well as
on social relations, institutional and societal conditions, settings and arrangements, learning
ecologies and cultures, media environments, power and control, or valuation and assessment.
Also, we can distinguish between explicit and implicit didactics, as we do for forms and
processes of knowledge generally.
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In the context of wide-spread media effects such as “dumbing-down” or “data smog,”
microlearning and associated pedagogies may be seen by some simply as contributing to these
undesirable trends. Although we believe that learning can be playful, entertaining and even
joyful, we do not maintain that microlearning is simply a question of dressing up and
manipulating avatars, or tinkering with bits and “pieces loosely joined” (D. Weinberger). It is
easy to argue that neither differentiated knowledge and critical thinking nor social and moral
competence necessarily emerge, simply because somebody may have learned to make use of
RSS-feeds, wikis or weblogs. But which didactical principles and which educational
experiences promote these qualities and competencies and what was and what is the role of
educational systems in this respect?
Critical discussions about traditional schooling and hidden curricula, school influences, and
governmentality (Weber & Maurer, 2006) in educational contexts have shown ambivalent
results. In our view, microlearning always has played a role also in institutional learning
contexts (cf. Hierdeis in this volume). The question is rather,
how
micro steps and short-term
learning activities are positioned, situated, contextualized, valued, combined, complemented,
contrasted, counterpointed, etc. and which forces are at work in institutional contexts and
elsewhere. Generally speaking, besides incidental and unavoidable modes of punctuating and
foregrounding single learning steps in flows of work and everyday life, there are many ways
how the association of microlearning aspects can be conceptualized and linked to
comprehensive models. Here are some examples:
− In the
multicomponent model
micro aspects or contents are combined more or less
systematically – either in advance or on the fly – in sequences, linear, recursive and/or
branching, relating to each other as separate components (e.g., Swertz, 2006).
− In the
aggregation model
microlearning elements that are fundamentally
similar
are
bundled or combined as a relatively unstructured entity or homogenous mass
(“aggregate”).
− In the
conglomerate model
diverse micro elements are arrayed as a kind of assortment
or “bouquet” of learning products and processes.
− In the
emergence model
ne
w
phenomena, coherent
structures and qualities evolve from
and between microlearning elements themselves. These novel patterns or properties
cannot be attributed to any single element. Instead, they arise out of a multiplicity of
relatively simple interactions or steps in dynamic process of self-organization.
− According to Luhmann’s
medium/form distinction
(1997, pp. 190-201) learning results
can be understood as
form
in a
medium
of loosely coupled elements. Because any
given form can act as medium on another level, layers and layers of distinctions can be
described. For example, we can create words in the medium of letters, sentences in the
medium of words, and thoughts in the medium of sentences.
− In the model of
exemplification,
micro aspects of learning appear as prototypical
examples which allow the explication of larger complex structures, connections and
relations. Holographic depictions can be taken as special cases of exemplification.
− Furthermore, micro-macro-relations in learning processes also can be described and
analyzed in terms of “perspicuous representations”
sensu
Wittgenstein (see Puhl &
Seidl in this volume).
In relationship to these and other models, and also given the wide range of didactical theories
and models (cf. Blankertz, 2000; Heitkämper, 2000) it becomes obvious that there are many
different ways of conceptualizing, analyzing and designing didactics of microlearning. However,
this variety of means also brings with it a range of implications in other spheres of value and
activity. One of these that has emerged in discussions of microlearning is the sphere of politics,
and it has become manifest above all in terms of network design and architecture.
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4 Politics of Microlearning
Speaking of network openness, Mitch Kapor, the inventor of Lotus 1-2-3, insightfully observed
in 1991 that “architecture is politics.” “The structure of a network itself, more than the
regulations which govern its use,” Kapor argued (and has argued since), “significantly
determines what people can and cannot do” using that same network (Kapor, 2006). Think, for
example, of diagrams emphasizing the the distributed nature of the Internet, with multiple nodes
or routing locations connected in multiple ways with others, and with any one capable of routing
additional network traffic should a neighboring node become unavailable. This is typically
presented as opposed to centralized networks, such as those represented by the telephone
system, with a single central node.
As it has developed, microlearning can be said to have brought with it a kind of political
awareness and partly a politics which is nowhere easier to trace than in architectures proposed
for its technologies and applications. This politics, moreover, is primarily a politics of the
institution versus the individual. Certainly there are a significant number of contributions to the
microlearning discussion that emphasize its relevance to existing educational institutions and
practices, or that focus on applications or studies situated within given institutional boundaries
(e.g., Newman & Grigg, 2007; Oliver, 2007; Schachtner, 2006). But these are outweighed by
contributions critical of existing and traditional educational institutions and practices. This is
evident in calls to go beyond “the institutional shackles of today’s state education systems”
(Krieg, 2007), the questioning of the “sustainability of traditional models” (Fiedler & Kieslinger)
or the outright rejection of “traditional pedagogies, frameworks and roles” as “ineffective”
(Molnar, 2006).
But revolutionary rhetoric aside, diagrams such as those provided by Fiedler and Kieslinger
(2006), Downes (2006) and Wilson before him (2005) make clear the difference between
traditional and microlearning visions. The first diagram adapted from Fiedler and Kieslinger,
(see Figure 2) for example, is illustrative of architectures associated with conventional
“institutional” settings.
The diagram shows “participants” (the white circles on the right) as connecting to “forum,”
“calendar,” and “content” tools or functions, which are supplied by a single, centralized Learning
Management System (LMS). The diagram could just as well have shown these same
participants as similarly connecting to the “email,” “conferencing,” and other communications
tools. Additionally, it could have also shown all of these tools or functions as associated with a
single Learning Management System, combining both content, calendaring and communication
functions in a single, integrated suite of tools. All communication or connection between these
participants, moreover, is ultimately mediated through these centralized systems.
This is precisely what the leading Web-based learning and teaching environments –WebCT,
Blackboard and Moodle – accomplish. And they do so in such a way that they allow for the
surveillance of online student activities in a manner that has been described as “panoptic” (cf.
Rybas, 2007). As is the case in Bentham’s prison design, these learning management systems
allow the behaviours of students to be visible to the teacher in individual and aggregate form,
while the actions of the teacher are in no way open to such scrutiny (Land, 2004). In addition,
the roles and actions that students and teachers are actually able to undertake are similarly
constrained and standardized. “Bricks-and-mortar” institutions, like any other organizations, are
“full of heterogeneous actors, with complex identities” (Pollock & Cornford, 2000). These are
also developed, changed and improvised as necessary: students may lead a class, and may
evaluate themselves and others. However, in learning management systems and organizational
information systems generally, “everyone and everything is formalised, represented in a
standardised form, with certain roles and responsibilities towards the system.” The result with
such systems is that “we risk destroying or submerging those interactions that are tacit,
informal, flexible” (Pollock & Cornford, 2000). Teachers are not learners, and learners do not
teach; instructors or automated systems evaluate students rather than students evaluating
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themselves, and all actions remain inauthentically isolated from real-world with a password-
protected “garden wall.”
Figure 2. “Institutional Setting”
(cf. Fiedler & Kieslinger, 2006, p. 80)
Figure 3. “Individual Setting”
(cf. Fiedler & Kieslinger, 2006, p. 81)
The diagram showing the “individual setting,” (Figure 3) on the other hand, shows a single
participant at the centre, and a wide range of entities arrayed around him or her. These entities
include not only the familiar institutional functions or tools for email, messaging, calendaring,
etc.; they also include those sociotechnical developments most closely associated with
microlearning, such as Weblogs, ePortfolios, RSS readers, etc. Significantly, many of these
tools in this diagram are shown to be connected to related tools offered through a different
“institutional setting” and the central participant in this diagram is also shown as connecting
directly to other services or tools offered by this same institution (these connections are
indicated by the dashed lines extending on the left of the figure; the entities to which they
ultimately connect have been cropped in this version of the diagram). In addition to these tools
(which are presumably still offered and centralized in a given institutional setting) the participant
is shown as having direct contact with other “participants” – labelled as “family,” “friends,”
“experts” and “peers” – outside of the institution, and involving no mediation by its systems or
tools. These, in turn, are connected to further individuals, who bring along their own array of
institutional tools and connections (as indicated by columns of institutional services or tools
arrayed towards the bottom of the diagram). Of course, the politics of this second diagram are
not those of institutional control, but of individual autonomy and self-direction. Specifically
interrogating issues associated with the adult or “life-long” learner, Fiedler and Kieslinger
describe a “technologically emancipated” education:
Do we expect adult students merely to adapt to centrally hosted and controlled
landscapes of tools and services? Or do we rather maintain a perspective of
(technological) emancipation, which suggests that adults should also control, at least
partially, the tools and services that they integrate into their personal workflows?
(2006,
p. 85)
This is perhaps even more explicit in the descriptions and the diagram of the “Personal
Learning Environment,” provided by Downes and mentioned earlier. The diagram in question,
although not reproduced here, does not even provide a single institutional frame of reference.
Instead it shows a central environment (a “Virtual Learning Environment” or a “Personal
Learning Environment”) as connecting to some half dozen services and technologies, with
institutions such as “Learndirect” or the Bolton Institute having the same diagrammatic status as
Flickr or del.icio.us: “It becomes,” as Downes explains, “not an institutional or corporate
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application, but a personal learning center, where content is reused and remixed according to
the student’s own needs and interests.” Writing elsewhere, Downes is even more explicit:
It’s just you, your community, and the web, an environment where you are the centre
and where your teachers – if there are any – are your peers. It is, I believe, the future –
and where, one day, the next generation of Blackboards and WebCTs and Moodles and
Sakais will make their mark.
(2006a)
Assuming that these kinds of statements take into account the complexity of the relationships
between the technological and educational, it would be too easy to dismiss their substance as
the product of either romanticism or desperation. The kind of emancipation-through-technology
envisioned by Downes and others underplays the dependence of these activities on carriers,
providers, division managers, infrastructures and more. Control of these infrastructures and
services presupposes a significant level of economic enfranchisement and social integration,
and technical and communicative competency. There are a large number of factors, in other
words, that exist externally to the Internet, and that play a decisive role in determining the
presence or absence. Assuming that all of these conditions are in place, the learner in his
“personal learning environment” is still encumbered by various issues: How many bright
bloggers, productive second lifers and erudite podcasters are there who have not been
recruited to media industries, or would struggle to survive on their “virtual” incomes? What of
creators and providers of quality content which is prevented from having its educational value
realized due to regionalized educational policy? The mass use of social software, the dynamics
of amateur content production and consumption, and the business models that have been
developing along with them require in-depth investigation rather than continued celebration.
Such investigation would require research into macro-level considerations (e.g., see:
“Parameters of the New Global Public Sphere;” Volkmer, 1999), into the meso-levels of
institutional decision-making, and down to the micro-levels of individual mouse clicks and
attention management. We are far away from conciliation of the heterogeneous desires of
consumer and participatory cultures, wealth generation and employability in its neoliberal or
critical versions, or the just distribution of recognition and educational opportunity. Neither self-
referential blogging nor unquestioning implementation of institution-wide “Blackboardization”
1
present viable solutions. We would argue that we face better chances of success (or survival) if
we at least partially abandon battles for attention or rankings for the sake of cultures of
deliberative learning (cf. Schmidt in this volume) and encouragement of phronesis (Aristotle).
By this, we refer to practical, situated and flexible knowledges and ways of acting: ones that are
sensitive to context, and are able to change in keeping with changing circumstances, able also
to take and support the appropriate actions and developments at the right time and place.
The discourses and diagrams of microlearning, however, have provided a place for articulating
and sketching out visions of a politically progressive, post-institutional education. Ways and
means of learning are envisioned as being freed – at least to various degrees – from the old
ways, forms, structures and limitations. One potential challenge that arises from these
developments, though, is that they blur the distinctions separating education from more generic
information and service provision, creation and consumption. For it is in some ways the
“bundling” of communication, content provision and other functions and tools that characterizes
their current educational use. And, more importantly, it is the embedding of this use with
institutional supports and funding, with communities of teachers and researchers, and with
curricular structures and organization that distinguishes it from more generic communication
and information access. To be fair, the authors cited above would likely counter that these are
precisely the traditional limitations from which education needs to be freed. However, the
tensions and issues that would be implied in such a debate might become clearer when they
are considered further below, in the light of another important theme in the microlearning
literature, pedagogy.
1
“Blackboardization” is used as an idiom for processes of norming learning cultures, trivialization of complex
issues, misleading of trustful users, selling an e-learning approach as mother-of-all e-education, normalization of
restraints, and implementation of structural bondages by asserting one Learning Content Management system as
proprietary solution of priority.

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5 Microlearning Morphology
The pedagogy associated with microlearning spans a wide range of possible approaches, from
emphases on its inherently “unstructurable” and improvisatory nature (Friesen, 2006) to
approaches involving the specification of actions and activities from moment-to-moment. One
striking example of the latter is by the relatively early contribution to a didactics of microlearning
developed by Swertz (2006), and earlier, by his supervisor, Meder (2006). Going by the name
of “Web Didactics,” this is an eclectic pedagogy, defined in terms of navigation, sequencing,
and particular content types:
Web-Didactics does not offer a single instructional design model (e.g., Problem Based
Learning, Tasks Oriented Learning) but a choice of didactical models, that were
approved in the educational tradition. These models were specified concerning the
granularity of the computer screen.
(2006, p. 56)
Swertz explains that the granularity of content called for by the computer screen is relatively
small, and that contents at this level of granularity need to be disaggregated
(“decontextualized”) to form general knowledge bases, in which these contents are labelled
according to specific knowledge types. These types include “receptive,” “interactive,” and
“cooperative knowledge” (ibid., pp. 58-62), in which “receptive knowledge” is subdivided into
“orientational,” “explanational,” “instructional,” and “source knowledge.” Swertz reasons that
each of these types can be sequenced (generally in linear fashion) according to a number of
“micro models,” including models he identifies as “abstracting,” “concretizing,” “theory-driven”
and “problem-based.” Abstracting involves a progression from text through drawing and
animation to video, with concretizing reversing this order. Omitting some intermediate stages,
the problem-based model involves progressive moves from task and content through
explanation and example to an activity and overview.
This overall approach – re-arranging small, recombinant resources to constitute given
instructional sequences – will likely sound familiar to anyone who has been exposed to learning
objects and technical e-learning standards. For similar processes have been envisioned as
occurring with learning objects as they are “packaged,” “sequenced,” or “scripted” in linear,
hierarchical and/or recursive order.
A similar emphasis on structure is evident in the development of applications for the integration
of microlearning activities in workflows and everyday life stream as done in Innsbruck
(Austria).
2
Based on the principle of making use of the use of media, time slots for small
learning steps are created according to the individual use of technical devices and learning
needs. There is, for example, a cell phone application usable for second language acquisition,
designed to prompt the user at pre-determined (and also customizable) intervals with questions
concerning vocabulary, grammar, phrases and basic comprehension in a foreign language.
These intervals can be tracked to ensure that they are optimized in accordance with
psychological studies in memory and retention. The result is a product which has shown some
promise in early studies (Hagleitner, Drexler & Hug, 2006), and which can be integrated in new
and interesting ways into everyday practices and routines. This is described as occurring
almost “interstitially,” under the aegis of “integrated microlearning” (cf. Gassler, 2004; Hug,
2005; Gstrein & Hug 2006), a model which tries to cope with paradoxical demands: it is open,
flexible and modular and – at the same time – allows the use of learning management functions,
2
In the context of a collaboration of the Institute of Educational Sciences, University of Innsbruck, with the
Research Studios Austria, which formerly was a division of the Austrian Reseach Centers GmbH, a server-client
application and prototypical PC and cell phone applications particularly with regard to second language acquisition
have been developed during 2003-2006. The applications research at the Research Studio eLearning Environments
was supported by the Federal Ministry of Economy and Employment and the Tyrolean Future Foundation. A new
mobile microlearning application has been launched by Yocomo.at, a spin-off of the University of Innsbruck and the
Austrian Reseach Centers GmbH. Information on further basic and use-inspired research as well as on development
of novel microlearning applications is available at http://www.hug-web.at
.

and it enables concomitant learning embedded in workflows together with the development of
knowledge architectures.
The level of pedagogical structuring entailed in this kind of interstitial, integrated microlearning
is broadly comparable to a rather different pedagogy for microlearning articulated under the
title: “The
Dr. Who
principle” (Newman & Grigg in this volume). Starting from the assumption
that learning and microlearning are “inherently episodic,” the authors point to the narrative
structure of the 30 minute
Dr. Who
episodes broadcast by the BBC from the 60’s to the 1980’s
as exemplary for microlearning. The two key characteristics they identify are 1) The structuring
of “content to fit the episode (and every episode with a cliff-hanger)” and 2) The delivery of “the
episodes in appropriate time intervals.” Of course, the second point is reminiscent of the
mnemonically optimized intervals utilized in integrated microlearning; and the episodic,
narrative structure suggested in the first point, is at least morphologically similar to the short
sequences suggested in the “Web Didaktik” of Meder (2006) and Swertz (2006).
If these organizational and broadly didactic strategies can be considered as at least a “partially
structured” pedagogy for microlearning, they serve as a transition to those pedagogies which
advocate an abandonment of structure and regulation, and an autonomous role for the learner.
This is described widely in terms of “learner-centered” didactic and especially in constructivist
discourse of learning (cf. Kösel 2003; Reich 2006). Also Downes clearly votes for learner- or
student-centered pedagogy, requiring above all “the placing of the control of learning itself into
the hands of the learner.” It is well represented by the likes of Freire and Papert, with Downes
citing one of the latter’s statements on “game-based learning” (Downes, 2005) as follows:
The most important learning skills that I see children getting from games are those that
support the empowering sense of taking charge of their own learning. And the learner
taking charge of learning is antithetical to the dominant ideology of curriculum design.
(Papert, 1998)
Any explicit structure applying to this “self-directed” learning is minimal: “insofar as there is
structure, it is more likely to resemble a language or a conversation rather than a book or a
manual,” as Downes explains (Downes, 2005). The learner directs and decides the affiliations,
links, contents, forms of guidance and direction (if any) that will be constitutive of the learning
process – in some cases creating these him or herself. There is no pre-ordained structure,
curricular, sequential or otherwise.
6 Microlearning Lessons
We argue that the as of yet inconclusive and polyvocal nature of microlearning discourse is a
good thing, and should be cultivated and encouraged. Indeed, this openness and heterogeneity
may well be, counterintuitively, the agenda of microlearning in the present age. Given the
developing and decentralized nature of the technologies and architectures that are associated
with microlearning, it seems unlikely that any kind of definitive consensus on microlearning
theory and technology is likely to emerge. At the same time, the emphasis on moments,
interstices, snippets, and fragments that is obvious in microlearning discourses generally is
likely to remain important. It is the fragment rather than the Wagnerian
Gesamtkunstwerk
that is
most suited to the Web, to the cell phone and to various forms of ubiquitous and mobile
computing – and to the dispositions and pacing of 21
st
century life.
Similarly, the architectural politics and the various pedagogies articulated in the microlearning
discourse also manifest productive tension and difference. Vital issues and questions about the
institutions, traditions and practices of education are kept alive and open through this
heterogeneity. It is in terms of this final issue of the political and pedagogical that this paper
makes one final point. This is to argue for a preservation of institutional and structured
pedagogies that are generally critiqued in microlearning. To argue for a completely
“emancipated,” user- or learner-controlled educational architecture and politics as does Downes
and Molnar (and to a lesser extent, Fiedler and Kieslinger) is to misapprehend the multiplicity of
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roles of the educational institution. And invoking questions about the feasibility of educational
institutions is not anything new.
Let us reference a 1958 essay entitled “The Crisis in Education” to make both of these points. In
this piece, philosopher Hannah Arendt argues explicitly against the notion that public
educational institutions are to be understood simply in terms of their overt educational functions
– whether these are sufficiently student-centered, or up to the challenges of the present age.
Schools and universities are not simply about their overt educational functions. People do not
simply become effective knowledge workers or even autonomous individuals there. Instead, the
school is also where society reproduces itself, where one generation takes over for another.
Learners (above all children) are introduced into a world that is environmentally and politically
broken, and for which their teachers, the generation handing it over, must be held responsible.
Arendt argues that
In education this responsibility for the world takes the form of authority. The authority of
the educator and the qualifications of the teacher are not the same thing. Although a
measure of qualification is indispensable for authority, the highest possible qualification
can never by itself beget authority. The teacher’s qualification consists in knowing the
world and being able to instruct others about it, but his authority rests on his assumption
of responsibility for that world. Vis-a-vis the child it is as though he were a representative
of all adult inhabitants, pointing out the details and saying to the child: This is our world.
(1958)
This responsibility also exists in the undergraduate classroom and in the dissertation
supervisor’s office: We are obligated to say that this is the past of education and this is its
present. Using a different frame of reference, this responsibility is also palpable in terms of the
“big spike” and “long tail” that governs the world of the blogosphere. It is the burden imposed by
the arbitrary way that things have worked out, or not worked out. It is sometimes called history
or tradition. As Arendt argues, it takes the form of the authority that is embodied, however,
poorly, in curriculum structure and that constrains the freedom of the student a pedagogical
responsibility. It is this ongoing dynamic of history, rather than simply historical inertia or the
arbitrary authority that will prevent the most radical versions of “personal” and personalized
learning from being realized. The impulse to conceive of microlearning and education generally
that is freed from these constraints is important and valuable, but it exists only to
counterbalance the recognition of the inescapability of this ongoing predicament or crisis.
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Authors
Norm Friesen Theo Hug
Canada Research Chair in E-Learning
Practices
Associate professor of educational sciences
University of Innsbruck, Austria
Thompson Rivers University, Canada
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