On the Interpretation of Spectral Red-Shift in Astrophysics: A Survey of Red-Shift Mechanisms - II
Abstract
This paper gives a compilation of physical mechanisms which have been proposed to explain the spectral red-shift of distant astronomical objects. Over sixty selected mechanisms are listed for the purpose of quantitative comparisons. Some of these mechanisms may not completely account for all astrophysical observations but are relevant to particular situations such as the solar limb red-shift, the red-shift of quasars or the cosmological red-shift. However, this paper focuses mainly on the 59 mechanisms giving a quantitative description of the cosmological redshift-distance relationship. A description is given for each mechanism including its properties, limits of applicability, functional relationships and comments.
... The cosmic redshift is defined [1][2][3][4][5][21][22][23][24] as, ...
... In a non-expanding Euclidean universe, the angular size δ of an object is δ = 2 ( 2 ) [4,5,[21][22][23][24], where is a diameter (e.g. major or minor axis of a galaxy) and is the Euclidean space distance to the object. ...
... [21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29][30], either from the best fit of observational data or from theoretical derivations based on ad hoc assumptions. The exponential relationship with clearly defined physical meaning for every parameter is derived here upon the analysing of the simple physical model of a lightly damped oscillator for photon particles travelling through the vast free space from a mechanical perspective. ...
A lightly damped oscillator model for the propagation of photon particles in the vast free space is analysed from a mechanical perspective on a cosmological scale. Based on the model, an alternative to understand the Cosmic Redshift, the Hubble constant, the Cosmic Background Microwave Radiation, the Universal Gravity and the Tully-Fisher Relation is elucidated. An equation is deduced displaying the exponential relationship between the Cosmic Redshift z and the Hubble constant H, with clearly defined physical meaning of every parameter involved in the equation. The Hubble constant is an extremely low frequency with its origin from the time constant, the ratio between the equivalent inertial mass m of the photon particle and the viscous resistance of the vast free space that the photon travelling through. The energy dissipated by a photon during one cycle is deduced as the product of the Planck constant and the Hubble constant. The tiny fragment of energy dissipated per photon in each cycle is defined as an Elementary-photon. An Elementary-photon is a fundamental unit of energy and mass in dynamic circulation. There is an unnoticeable and vast ocean of Elementary-photons in the Universe. Through the analysing of the weak interactions between Elementary-photons, normal photons, immersed matter particles and the vast thermal bath of Elementary-photons, the Elementary-photon theory is developed quantitatively. The equation of inertial mass and its effective interacting radius is derived from the Elementary-photon theory and it is employed to calculate the effective radius of the Solar System and the Milky Way Galaxy based on their known masses or vice visa. The calculated results are in good agreement with the estimated values based on astronomical observations and calculations. The Universal Gravitational Constant is derived from the Elementary-photon theory and it is interpreted as the interacting coupling constant of the immersed matter particle with the rest of the Universe through the thermal bath of the ocean of Elementary-photons. The correlation between the Universal Gravitational constant and the Hubble constant is deduced theoretically. The mysteries behind the dynamic circulation and equilibrium of energy and mass of the Universe are uncovered; supporting evidences, demonstrating signs and validation methods are presented. Immersed matter particles absorb roaming Elementary-photons, normal photons and cosmic rays thus mass and energy from the vast thermal bath of Elementary-photons because they locate at places with low potential energies, they convert the absorbed energy to kinetic energy and higher-grade thermal energy through interactions of photon-photon, photon-matter and matter-matter to sustain their characteristic movements and temperatures. Immersed matter particles emit mass and energy to their surrounding spaces though radiation to achieve dynamic circulation and equilibrium. Immersed matter particles with different size and mass absorb and emit different range of frequency of photons, demonstrating relatively stable characteristic masses, temperatures, colours, brightness and movements, which manifests the states of dynamic equilibrium are achieved. A generalised Law of Universal Gravity is derived while applying the Elementary-photon theory to a two-body system. Thereafter, the Virial relation within the solar system, the Tully-Fisher relation and the MoND relation and acceleration within galaxies are derived theoretically. The cosmological insights into the origins of both the MoND and the Tully-Fisher empirical relations, which have been sought after for over thirty years, are revealed quantitatively based on the Elementary-photon theory. The temperature and the spectrum of the CMBR are explained theoretically and determined quantitatively using the Elementary-photon theory together with the fluctuation-dissipation theorem. The capability of a photon particle with an equivalent inertial mass travelling at a constant speed c along a straight pass inside the free space with a viscous friction force is theoretically verified, the speed of light is sorely determined by the intrinsic properties of the subtle substance inside the free space. A direction of experiments is proposed, which may further distinguish the Elementary-photon theory from the theories of General Relativity, Expanding Space and Big Bang cosmology. The initial results of the James Webb Space telescope in comparison with other telescopes are simply discussed.
... None, including any in the popular 'Tired Light' class of theory could derive the critical wavelength increase, whether assuming 'photons' or waves. A surprising 57 different proposals were analysed by Marmet (2018) [83], who found none consistent or verifiable using present methods. The inconsistencies found are explained by the variations of particle densities encountered. ...
... None, including any in the popular 'Tired Light' class of theory could derive the critical wavelength increase, whether assuming 'photons' or waves. A surprising 57 different proposals were analysed by Marmet (2018) [83], who found none consistent or verifiable using present methods. The inconsistencies found are explained by the variations of particle densities encountered. ...
We present a new vortex model of gravity not identified in old vortex theory, applying consistently across all dimensional orders. The smallest is a sub-matter 'Higgs Condensate' (HC) 'dark' or vacuum energy scale likely below the Planck length 10-35 m. to min 10-93 m. This tiniest 'granularity' is the 'stuff of' electromagnetic (EM) waves and condensed matter vortex pair (e+/-) fermions at 'dark matter' scale. Larger 'visible' scale vortices include weather systems and more massive orbital systems including galaxies, where a cyclic process of accretion, re-ionization and active nucleus (AGN) excretion is suggested. Ultimately, the sequence extends to a consistent cyclic cosmology able to reproduce the peculiar cosmic microwave background (CMB) anisotropies. At observable scales, the motion of vortices produces a radial pressure gradient proportional to the 'mass', as generated by the vortex orbital momentum. We may then treat 'matter' as the orbital energy of the small scale components of the larger scale vortices. A mid-scale example is in the * Corresponding Author's Email: pj.ukc.edu@physics.org. Peter A. Jackson 2 particles of air orbiting to form anticyclones. The resultant particle pressure/density gradient forming the vortex produces a standing 'force' towards the centre, reducing radially at the equivalent of Newton's Inverse Square Law but with significant anisotropies from such as the Lense-Thirring 'frame drag' effect. We also derive the relationship between gravity and centripetal force. The radial pressure distribution affects other matter, causing unequal pressure on each side; as in a standing gas-pressure gradient. Vortex formation is also visible at intermediate scales, by any motions forming shear planes between medium rest states. Vortex effects are additive. All massive bodies then have the combined potentials of each component added to that of its macro rotation. In free space, the smallest vortices will form Majorana 'dipole' pairs, having both clockwise and anticlockwise polar rotations, as do all spheroids and toroids, depending which pole faces the observer. The momenta pair is then equivalent to 'electron' (-) AND positron (+) orbital Chirality subject only to orientation with respect to the observer. Earth's ionosphere and all spiral and disc galaxies have a similar dipole morphology. The pressure differentials are proportional to accelerated motion of a continuous medium. The Bernoulli equations and Euler's 'vortex force' apply where "Accelerated motion gives lower pressure", which the Stokes-Navier equations can't resolve. The relative coefficient v 2 /c 2 and principle of least action modify Euler but apply throughout up to certain velocities.
... There was one alternative proposal by Zwicky in 1929 known as the "tired light" scenario [5]. Since that time there were proposed about 60 ad hoc modifications of this model [6] but none was accepted because this model could not interpret all experimental data found for the cosmological photons. ...
A new alternative model to the Friedmann-Lemaître-Robertson-Walker metric is presented based on Descartes’ code—the old color theory published in 1637. In this model, the photon spin-orbital speed is slowly decreasing in the free space of the Universe. The formulae for the wavelength, frequency, local time, momentum, energy, temperature, and photon energy dilation are presented for cosmological photons outside of a gravitational field. The Hubble constant H⊕ = 2.3195 ∗ 10−18 s−1 (= 71.572 kms−1Mpc−1) is calculated as (G M⊕)/(R⊕ c3) ∗ dcrotational/dt where G is the Newtonian gravitation constant, M⊕ is the Earth’s mass, R⊕ is the Earth’s radius, and crotational is the rotational speed of Descartes’ light “globules” without any fitting. The cosmological photons expand their wavelength in the Earth’s gravitational field based on the age of those photons determined via their redshift given as (1 + z). This newly defined Hubble constant can be falsified in the gravitational field of the Moon, and Mars. The simple formulae for the angular diameter distance dA, the luminosity distance dL, the distance modulus m—M, the concentration of galaxies at the redshift z can be tested on the recent data. E.g., the distance modulus was several times tested on the cosmological objects till their redshift z = 5 (references to those studies are given). The formula for the angular diameter distance dA was recently tested for the data taken using the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) by Lovyagin et al. and the value of dA followed the data trend better than the standard model. This Descartes’ hypothesis can start a discussion of Descartes’ cosmological photons can newly explain experimental data without fitting in Euclidean space.
... There are more than 43 known mechanisms for wavelength changes [8]. Most of these mechanisms are localized effects that would not contribute significantly to the overall wavelength changes that is the central issue of Hubble tension. ...
Space has a complex structure and investigations of any electromagnetic wave transmission theory need to consider the inhomogeneous and anisotropic nature. We have selected two cases for our investigations: regions of pulse energy changes and gravitational deflection. Numerical methods have been developed and examples given to show that these conditions do have their localized effects. But, since the total length of those regions are insignificant in comparison with the total transmission distance involved, their inclusion does not significantly alter the linear relationship between wavelength change and distance travelled. The possible exception is the case of gravitational deflection when the waves have passed through densely populated regions of space. Our findings could be of interest to the current debate on Hubble tension.
... km. The rotation speed of the Earth´s gravitational field at the HST is v⊕HSTrot =504.4 m s -1 : 18 ...
There were published very precise experimental values of the Hubble constant H0 in the range 66 -74 km/s/Mpc during the last decade. There is a very active discussion in the H0 community how to relieve this Hubble constant tension. In our model we have described the cosmological redshift as the expansion of old photons in the Earth´s gravitational field: the joint effect of the Earth´s gravitational redshift and the Earth´s diurnal aberration. This model predicts the value of the Hubble constant on the surface of the Earth EARTHH0 = 66.71 km/s/Mpc and on the board of the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) HSTH0 = 72.34 km/s/Mpc. The value H0 determines the expansion of old photons in the Earth´s gravitational field and not the age of the Universe or the age of that old photon. In order to falsify this model in the spirit of Karl Popper we predict the value of H0 for the surface of the Moon as MOONH0 = 6.62 km/s/Mpc. This experiment for the determination of the value H0 on the Moon´s surface is technically possible with the existing technology during this decade while several advanced countries have plans to realize experiments on the surface of the Moon. This proposed experiment on the surface of the Moon might open a new epoch in the description of our cosmological models.
... H 0 when 0 b = . A detailed analysis of this and other physical mechanisms which produce the observed redshift can be found in [48]. ...
... Though the idea that the Lemaitre-Hubble law is the result of some tired-light mechanism has already been proposed a number of times (e.g. [31,32,33,34,35,36,37]), note that the hypothesis that photons may all have the same range has been, to my knowledge, little considered so far. ...
According to a generic tired-light hypothesis found consistent with H(z) data, the density number of galaxies has been nearly constant over the last 10 Gyr at least, the density number of star-forming galaxies, as probed by sources of gamma-ray bursts, being constant as well, meaning that, as far as galaxies are concerned, the Universe has been stationary. On the other hand, an analysis of the luminosity distances of quasars and supernovae Ia shows that the Universe is far from being as transparent as assumed nowadays, the photon lifetime along the line-of-sight being one third of the Hubble time.
Cyclic soliton solutions of nonlinear Schrödinger equation could be found numerically. When they propagate through a medium with piecewise constant dispersion coefficient, the pulse width change in each segment is linearly proportional, but at different rate, to distance travelled. The overall pulse width change over a distance between two points is found to be the same as if the average dispersion coefficient is used. Applying these findings to light from cosmic sources, it can be concluded that electromagnetic wave theory based on nonlinear Schrödinger equation is the principal mechanism underlining the linear redshift-distance relation found is astronomy.
We investigate the propagation characteristics of dark solitons in a periodic dispersion managed medium. The numerical procedures used to solve the nonlinear Schrödinger equation (NLSE) include the Lanczos-Chebyshev pseudospectral reduction method and an iterative implicit stepwise algorithm. The dark exactly periodic (EP) solitons found show stationary propagating wave characteristics with slow varying pulse width but constant pulse energy. We show how to apply our findings to design a physical optical system. The wavelength change is linearly proportional to the distance travelled. When calibrated using observed data from astronomy, our solutions could be converted to what is given in Hubble’s law. We conclude that redshift is an important intrinsic property of light transmitting through space.
In this paper, we recall the mutation of the Minkowski spacetime for empty space into the covering isospacetime caused by physical media; we recall its experimental verifications via the isoredshift of laser light in a metal pipe containing air at pressure, as well as additional experimental verifications in other fields; and we present, apparently for the first time, experimental confirmations of Santilli's 1991 prediction of the isoredshift as the primary origin of the redness of direct Sunlight at Sunset and Sunrise without any appreciable relative motion between Earth and Sun, said isoredshift being proportional to the distance traveled by Sunlight in air. Absorption is dismissed as a source of said redness of the Sun because air predominantly absorbs red, as experimentally established, without dismissing minor contributions, e.g., for the shape (but not the shift) of wavelengths. The widely accepted conjecture that scattering is the origin of said redness of the Sun, without dismissing minor contributions, is shown to be inapplicable for direct Sunlight, to have no representational capability for the needed very large shifts (measured up to 200 nm), and to have been dismissed experimentally at the cosmological level with recent measurements via Hubble's telescope, as well as on Earth by recent scattering measurements by some of us. Since intergalactic spaces are far from being empty, and physical laws must be the same throughout the universe, the preceding experimental results are shown to be evidence for the absence of the expansion of the universe, the absence of the acceleration of the expansion, the absence of the big bang, and the elimination of the far reaching conjecture that space itself is expanding as needed, from Hubble's law, to prevent a return to the Middle Ages with Earth at the center of the universe. It is finally shown that the same experimental confirmations of Santilli isoredshift imply the absence of dark matter and dark energy since the universe is nowhere empty, with consequential universal validity of Santilli isospacetime and its Lorentz-Poincaré-Santilli isosymmetry.
Cosmic dust particles (DPs) may resolve the controversy of whether the Universe follows the expansion in the Big Bang (BB) or that of dynamic equilibrium without expansion according to Einstein. Either Universe is required to be consistent with the Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE) finding that the Cosmic Background Radiation (CBR) follows the thermal emission from a blackbody at 2.726 K. Consistency of the BB with COBE relies on the claim the CBR is the thermal remnant of the fireball assumed to occur about 14 billion years ago. Even though the BB claim is unverifiable, the fact remains that COBE showed the CBR temperature with great precision to be uniform everywhere, although not smooth over the whole sky consistent with the fluctuations that give rise to the structures in present-day galaxies. Einstein's Universe must do the same. In this regard, it has been known for some time the cyanogen (CN) molecule having a rotational emission at 2.64 mm corresponds almost precisely to the CBR temperature found in COBE. Until now, only the CBR produced by the BB was thought to excite the CN. In Einstein's Universe, the CBR is simply CN emission excited by microwaves produced in DPs. The DPs are treated as Planck oscillators absent specific heat that cannot conserve absorbed starlight by an increase in temperature. Conservation of absorbed starlight proceeds by frequency down-conversion to non-thermal microwave radiation in DPs induced by quantum electrodynamics (QED). Starlight is shown to always concentrate in larger DPs which in millimeter DPs produce the microwaves necessary to excite CN. CBR fluctuations observed in COBE are then primarily regions of stellar disks that contain millimeter DPs. Similarly, the light from distant quasars is redshift in interactions with submicron and micron DPs in dense clouds and AGN prior to reaching the earth, thereby holding in question the BB claim of an expanding Universe based on Hubble theory. With the CBR and the Hubble redshift both explained by cosmic dust, Einstein's Universe in dynamic equilibrium without expansion becomes far more credible cosmology for the origin of the Universe than the BB.
The Hubble diagram for type Ia Supernovae gives the value of the Hubble constant, H as 64±3 km/s Mpc -1 which, in SI units, is equal to 'hr e /m e per unit volume of space' (2.1x10 -18 s -1). This coincidence could suggest a relationship between H and the electrons in the plasma of intergalactic space that act collectively and oscillate if displaced. The possibility that light from distant galaxies is absorbed and reemitted by the electrons is considered with the electron recoiling on both occasions. A double Mössbauer effect leads to a redshift in the transmitted light. Introduction of the photoabsorption cross section 2r e λ leads to the relationship H = 2n e hr e /m e giving H = 12 km/s Mpc -1 when n e has the reported value of n e ≈ 10 -7 cm -3 . The small amount of energy transferred to the electron by recoil is radiated as bremstrahlung with a wavelength in the microwave region.
The redshift observed in astronomy is explained by optical forces on
electrons and atoms present in the intergalactic medium. The forces
occur as a result of momentum exchange between light and matter. This
produces an exchange of energy where the intergalactic medium is heated
and the radiation is redshifted. The spectra of different light rays
interact in the intergalactic medium to produce a spectral transfer
redshift. Two mechanisms are examined: the dipole force which acts on
atoms, and the ponderomotive force which acts on electrons. The dipole
force produces a redshift which is wavelength dependent and can be
distinguished from a Doppler redshift. The ponderomotive force produces
a redshift which is independent of the wavelength and mimics a Doppler
redshift. Both forces arise from a stimulated emission process which
preserves the direction of propagation of one of the two interacting
photons, a necessary condition to avoid blurring of images. This
property distinguishes the spectral transfer redshift from all other
redshift mechanisms proposed so far.
Lobachevskian Geometry provides a convenient framework to explain the cosmological observations more simply than the current standard model, or conventional view, of Cosmology. The red-shift is explained, and an alternative to the Big Bang is explored, based on the assumption that the universe is a physical realization of the Lobachevskian Geometry. It is further discussed that the conventional view first championed by Hubble is a mistake, which arises through linear extrapolation of the local data.
The nature and conventional explanation of the cosmological redshift are
briefly reviewed. A simple alternative explanation is offered.
Experimental bounds on the photon's Coulomb charge, mass, and standard speed do not exclude a finite electric dipole moment of strength P 0. If existent and oscillating at the photon frequency v, the dipole radiates energy from itself at a rate proportional to P 02V 4. Hubble's redshift results if P 02 V 3 = 8.8 × 10 -39 C 2 m 2s -3. If confirmed, this will be a law of the intrinsic electrodynamical structure of the photon and will modify or make irrelevant some applications of general relativity.
The empirical evidences in favor of the hypothesis that the speed of
light decreases by a few centimeters per second each year are examined.
Lunar laser ranging data are found to be consistent with this
hypothesis, which also provides a straightforward explanation for the
so-called Pioneer anomaly, that is, a time-dependent blue-shift observed
when analyzing radio tracking data from distant spacecrafts, as well as
an alternative explanation for both the apparent time-dilation of remote
events and the apparent acceleration of the Universe. The main argument
against this hypothesis, namely, the constancy of fine-structure and
Rydberg constants, is discussed. Both of them being combinations of
several physical constants, their constancy imply that, if the speed of
light is indeed time-dependent, then at least two other "fundamental
constants" have to vary as well. This defines strong constraints which
will have to be fulfilled by future varying-speed-of-light theories.
Energy conservation is inapplicable to frames of nonuniform time.
Generalized energy conservation is proposed. Classical mechanics is
shown to be a result of generalized energy conservation; mass is a
function of flow of time; CDM and CMBR are consequences of generalized
energy conservation; CMBR has nothing to do with big bang. A solution
for galaxy rotation is also suggested.
If the photon has an electric dipole moment (EDM) rotating about its spin axis at photon frequency V, it must radiate electromagnetic energy at a rate accounting simply for the observed "accelerated" Hubble redshift in a nonexpanding, non-contracting universe unbounded in 3 ⊕ 1 dimensions, subject to accelerations only by local aggregations of observable mass. The EDM along the spin axis is zero.