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School Discipline: A Source or Salve for the Racial Achievement Gap?
Abstract
Racial disparities in school discipline are believed to contribute to the persistent achievement gap between black and white students. In this article, I estimate the relationship between school discipline and achievement within a structural model, taking into account the spillover effects of disruptive behavior. I find that discipline has an overall positive influence on student performance and that the racial gap in discipline stemming from cross‐school variation in discipline policies is consistent with achievement maximization. Integrating schools can close both the discipline and achievement gaps; however, overall achievement is reduced since schools are less able to target their discipline policies.
... However, other researchers [e.g., 3,4,5,6] pointed to correlations between academic performance and discipline practices in schools, and, in recent years, the number of researchers investigating disparities in school discipline practices between White students and students of other races and ethnicities has surged [7,8,9,10,11]. ...
... Lastly, the top three consequences most often assigned were in-school suspension, outof-school suspension, and Disciplinary Alternative Education Program. Several researchers [45,5] noted an increase in the rate of office referrals that led to school suspensions for students at the middle school level existed. Because student discipline has a direct correlation to academic performance [4,5,6], decreasing the number of disciplinary consequence assignments would have a positive influence on academic performance. ...
... Several researchers [45,5] noted an increase in the rate of office referrals that led to school suspensions for students at the middle school level existed. Because student discipline has a direct correlation to academic performance [4,5,6], decreasing the number of disciplinary consequence assignments would have a positive influence on academic performance. Black boys and Black girls who were enrolled in KG-8 schools were less likely to receive a placement in a Disciplinary Alternative Education Program and assigned to in-school suspension than were Black boys and Black girls who were enrolled in middle schools. ...
Examined in this study were the effects of grade span configuration on disciplinary consequence assignments and the reasons for disciplinary consequence assignments for Black boys and Black girls in Texas schools. The results of the study were statistically significant for each of the three school years examined. Higher percentages of Black boys and Black girls who were enrolled in middle school settings were assigned to a Disciplinary Alternative Education Program placement than were their peers in KG-8 school settings. Code of Conduct violation, fighting, and serious/persistent misconduct were top reasons for disciplinary consequences assignment. Code of Conduct violation consequence assignment was highest among students enrolled in KG-8 school settings.
... Similarly, Eden (2017) argues that as New York City reformed its discipline policy to reduce suspensions, schools experienced deteriorations in climate, as well as more violence. Using a structural approach, Kinsler (2013) argues that discipline has a positive effect on student achievement, due to the negative spillover effects from uncontrolled disruptive behavior. ...
... Summary of students in self-contained classrooms in grades 3 through 5 in NorthCarolina Public Schools, 2008-2013 ...
... Summary of teachers in self-contained classrooms in grades 3 through 5 in North CarolinaPublic Schools, 2008-2013 ...
While a growing body of literature has documented the negative impacts of exclusionary punishments, such as suspensions, on academic outcomes, less is known about how teachers vary in disciplinary behaviors and the attendant impacts on students. We use administrative data from North Carolina elementary schools to examine the extent to which teachers vary in their use of referrals and investigate the impact of more punitive teachers on student attendance and achievement. We also estimate the effect of teachers' racial bias in the use of referrals on student outcomes. We find more punitive teachers increase student absenteeism and reduce student achievement. Moreover, more punitive teachers negatively affect the achievement of students who do not receive disciplinary sanctions from the teacher. Similarly, while teachers with a racial bias in the use of referrals do not negatively affect academic outcomes for White students, they significantly increase absenteeism and reduce achievement for Black students. The results suggest punitive disciplinary measures do not aid teachers in productively managing classrooms; rather, teachers taking more punitive stances may undermine student engagement and learning. Moreover, bias in teachers' referral usage contributes to inequities in student outcomes. Abstract While a growing body of literature has documented the negative impacts of exclu-sionary punishments, such as suspensions, on academic outcomes, less is known about how teachers vary in disciplinary behaviors and the attendant impacts on students. We use administrative data from North Carolina elementary schools to examine the extent to which teachers vary in their use of referrals and investigate the impact of more punitive teachers on student attendance and achievement. We also estimate the effect of teachers' racial bias in the use of referrals on student outcomes. We find more punitive teachers increase student absenteeism and reduce student achievement. Moreover, more punitive teachers negatively affect the achievement of students who do not receive disciplinary sanctions from the teacher. Similarly, while teachers with a racial bias in the use of referrals do not negatively affect academic outcomes for White students, they significantly increase absenteeism and reduce achievement for Black students. The results suggest punitive disciplinary measures do not aid teachers in productively managing classrooms; rather, teachers taking more punitive stances may undermine student engagement and learning. Moreover, bias in teachers' referral usage contributes to inequities in student outcomes.
... This paper extends existing literature by employing panel data to implement student fixed effects and instrumental variable (IV) strategies to bound the effect of suspensions on the outcomes of suspended students. While a true causal estimate is difficult to obtain without experimental conditions, we leverage detailed panel data on individual students to eliminate many sources of potential bias present in existing correlational estimates that typically rely on cross-school variation in suspension rates (Perry & Morris, 2014;Rausch & Skiba, 2005) or cross-sectional variation in student behavior and outcomes (Kinsler, 2013). The student fixed effects approach, which relies on within-student variation in the receipt of suspension, conditions on time-invariant student characteristics that may be correlated with both the likelihood of committing a behavioral infraction resulting in a suspension and student outcomes, including academic achievement. ...
... A meta-analysis by Noltemeyer et al. (2015) includes 34 studies examining the relationship between suspensions and achievement, and finds overall negative correlations between in-school and out-of-school suspensions and academic outcomes. In contrast, Kinsler (2013) finds that suspensions do not negatively affect the achievement of middle-school students after controlling for each student's estimated risk of misbehavior. However, results from Kinsler (2013) rely on cross-sectional data and several assumptions about the degree of school-level control over discipline policies and student knowledge of discipline policies, calling into question the utility of the findings. ...
... The influence of peers may be particularly strong in middle school: Using the results of a lotterybased school selection mechanism, Deming (2011) finds that enrollment in a preferred school reduces crimes committed by students up to 7 years following assignment, and the gains among middle-school students are primarily due to less exposure to "crime-prone" peers. Another study finds that the level of minor infractions committed by middle-school peers, including rowdiness, disruptive behavior, and rule violations, is related to decreases in math test scores (Kinsler, 2013). Focusing on discipline, one study finds that greater school-level use of exclusionary discipline, such as suspension, is associated with declines in the achievement of nonsuspended students (Perry & Morris, 2014). ...
Discipline reformers claim that suspensions negatively affect suspended students, while others suggest reforms have unintended consequences for peers. Using student panel data from the School District of Philadelphia, we implement student fixed effects and instrumental variable (IV) strategies to examine the consequences of suspensions for offending students and their peers. A suspension decreases math and reading achievement for suspended students. The effects are robust to IV estimates leveraging a district-wide policy change in suspension use. Suspensions are more salient for students who personally experience suspension than for their peers. Exposure to suspensions for more serious misconduct has very small, negative spillovers onto peer achievement, but does not change peer absences.
... Despite this extensive literature, "the racial gap in school discipline has yet to be fully explained" (Wright, Morgan, Coyne, Beaver, & Barnes, 2014, p. 257), and additional research is needed which focuses on the moderating influence that other factors might have on informing teachers' and administrators' decision-making, thereby aggravating or mitigating racial/ethnic disparities in school discipline. Specifically, despite clear theoretical connections between disciplinary outcomes and students' race/ethnicity, gender, and academic success (Gregory, Skiba, & Noguera, 2010;Kinsler, 2013;Morris & Perry, 2016), no prior study has explored whether school performance conditions the effects of race/ethnicity and gender on school discipline. By investigating this issue, research can illuminate whether unwarranted racial/ethnic and gender disparities in suspension are more pronounced among high-or low-performing students, which thereby can help inform how schools might confront inequalities in the application of school discipline. ...
... Morris & Perry, 2017;Raffaele Mendez & Knoff, 2003;Wallace, Goodkind, Wallace, & Bachman, 2008). Similarly, while scholars have found that academic achievement is negatively related to school discipline (Mizel et al., 2016;Morrison, Anthony, Storino, & Dillon, 2001) and that racial/ethnic disparities in school success mirror similar inequalities in school discipline (Gregory et al., 2010;Kinsler, 2013;Morris & Perry, 2016), the interactive relationship between race/ ethnicity and academic achievement, as well as variation in these effects by gender, has not yet been explored. ...
... Several scholars argue that racial/ethnic disparities in disciplinary outcomes are closely related to the racial "achievement gap" in school performance (Kinsler, 2013;Morris & Perry, 2016;Noguera, 2003), and it is possible that the theoretical processes underlying these relationships might be "two sides of the same coin" (Gregory et al., 2010). Indeed, due to the negative consequences of suspension and expulsion for short-term and long-term success in school, it is plausible that racial/ethnic disparities in school discipline might contribute to the gap in academic success between minority and White students. ...
A vast body of research demonstrates that the consequences of the “criminalization” of school discipline are not racially equitable, and Black and Hispanic students are more likely than White youth to experience exclusionary school punishments. However, limited prior work has examined the factors that might strengthen or weaken racial/ethnic inequalities in school discipline. Theoretically, academic achievement could moderate the effects of race and ethnicity, especially in conjunction with gender, though the expected direction of these interactive relationships is unclear. To explore these issues, the current study makes use of data from the 2018 Florida Youth Substance Abuse Survey (N = 54,611). The analyses reveal that, while Black male youth are the most likely to be suspended, racial/ethnic disparities are greater among females than males. Additionally, racial differences in the likelihood of suspension are more prominent at higher levels of academic achievement, particularly among female students.
... As the 'captain of the ship', school leaders play a vital role in behaviour of students through development of policies, procedures, rules and regulations but also by initiating and undertaking safe, collegial and caring environment in the schools and classroom settings (Spillane, 2012;Kinsler, 2013). In fact, research studies have demonstrated that school leadership plays a pivotal role in protecting the teachers from interruptions in their instructional time (Teddlie, 1994). ...
... In line with research on the role of school leaders to provide the collegial and caring environment (e.g. Teddlie, 1994;Spillane, 2012;Kinsler, 2013), the extent to which headmasters in Mauritian primary schools help teachers achieve instructional goals when classroom indiscipline behaviours arise needs to be further explored. ...
... In addition, using a sample of middle and high schools students from a large urban school district in Kentucky, Perry and Morris (2014), demonstrated that higher rates of out-of-school suspension had a negative impact on math and reading achievement for nonsuspended students-even when controlling for school-level behavior. Alternatively, using a cross-sectional sample of middle-school students in North Carolina, Kinsler (2013) found that the number of days students were suspended out of school deterred their future infractions, which ultimately increased the math achievement of their peers. Essentially, while being suspended entails a loss of instructional time for the suspended student, Kinsler's (2013) findings suggest that repeated exposure to a disruptive student may entail a greater "loss" of instructional time for his or her peers. ...
... Alternatively, using a cross-sectional sample of middle-school students in North Carolina, Kinsler (2013) found that the number of days students were suspended out of school deterred their future infractions, which ultimately increased the math achievement of their peers. Essentially, while being suspended entails a loss of instructional time for the suspended student, Kinsler's (2013) findings suggest that repeated exposure to a disruptive student may entail a greater "loss" of instructional time for his or her peers. ...
Even the least severe forms of exclusionary discipline are associated with detrimental effects for students that attend schools that overuse them. With a nationally representative longitudinal study of high school students, we utilize propensity score weighting to limit selection bias associated with schools that issue high numbers of in-school suspensions. Accounting for school social order and individual suspensions, we find that high-suspension schools are negatively associated with students’ math achievement and college attendance. We also find that when we account for high and low-suspension schools, attending an urban schools is associated with an increase in both math achievement and college attendance.
... Therefore, the relationship between discipline gaps and achievement gaps is theoretically ambiguous. While there are some reasons to theorize that discipline gaps may exacerbate existing racial achievement gaps (Gregory, Skiba & Noguero, 2012); some studies that have used simulation analysis suggest that the causality may be reversed (Kinsler, 2013). Till date, very few studies (Morris & Perry, 2016) have empirically examined the impact of school discipline outcomes on achievement gaps. ...
... I use the pooled (across grades, years, and subjects) achievement gap measures available in the SEDA version 2.1 for all analyses. The achievement gap measures are derived from the U.S. Department of Education's EDFacts data system, which provides aggregated test score data (on over 200 million standardized tests in English/language arts (ELA) and math taken by students in grades 3-8 from AY 2008-2009to AY 2012-2013 from each state's standardized testing program. To make the achievement data comparable across states and years, they are linked to the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP; Reardon, Kalogrides, & Ho, 2019;Reardon et al., 2018). ...
This study estimates racial/ethnic discipline gaps, using multiple measures of school discipline outcomes, in nearly all school districts in the United States with data collected by the Office of Civil Rights between 2013 and 2014. Just like racial/ethnic achievement gaps, discipline gaps also vary substantially, ranging from negative to greater than two standard deviations, across districts. However, unlike the correlates of racial achievement gaps, the extensive set of district-level characteristics available in the Stanford Education Data Archive (SEDA) including economic, demographic, segregation, and school characteristics, explain roughly just one-fifth of the geographic variation in Black-white discipline gaps and one-third of the variation in Hispanic-white discipline gaps. This study also finds a modest, statistically significant, positive association between discipline gaps and achievement gaps, even after extensive covariate adjustment. The results of this analysis provide an important step forward in determining the relationship between two forms of persistent inequality that have long plagued the U.S. education system.
... And despite its intuitive appeal, there is at least some evidence to question the proposed magnitude and perhaps even the proposed direction of the association between discipline and achievement gaps. For instance, although discipline disparities between White and minority students have steadily grown over the past several decades (Losen, Hodson, Keith, 2 recent studies have demonstrated potentially positive impacts of suspension on the academic achievement of suspended students as well as their peers (Anderson, Ritter, & Zamarro, 2017;Kinsler, 2013). This counterargument to what many regard as conventional knowledge in matters of racial equity in schooling-that discipline gaps are part and parcel with achievement gaps-suggests the need for a rigorous evaluation of the relationship between racial disproportionality in suspension rates and the racial achievement gap at a scale sufficient to make generalized claims about any relation between them. ...
... As noted in the introduction, however, only recently have scholars begun to frame the two as related to one another, and there is not yet consensus on the expected direction or magnitude of the relationship (Anyon, Zhang, & Hazel, 2016;Hirschi, 1969;Hoffmann, Erickson, & Spence, 2013). Some research suggests that larger discipline gaps would be associated with larger achievement gaps (e.g., Anyon et al., 2016;Goodman, 2014;Hinze-Pifer & Sartain, 2018;McNeely, Nonnemaker, & Blum, 2002), whereas other research suggests that larger discipline gaps could be associated with smaller achievement gaps (e.g., Anderson et al., 2017;Carrell, Hoekstra, & Kuka, 2016;Imberman, Kugler, & Sacerdote, 2012;Kinsler, 2013;Losen et al., 2015;Morris & Perry, 2016;Reid, 2012;Zhang, Musu-Gillette, & Oudekerk, 2016). (See online Supplemental Appendix A for a full summary of this literature.) ...
There is growing interest in the relation between the racial achievement gap and the racial discipline gap. However, few studies have examined this relation at the national level. This study combines data from the Stanford Education Data Archive and the Civil Rights Data Collection and employs a district fixed effects analysis to examine whether and the extent to which racial discipline gaps are related to racial achievement gaps in Grades 3 through 8 in districts across the United States. In bivariate models, we find evidence that districts with larger racial discipline gaps have larger racial achievement gaps (and vice versa). Though other district-level differences account for the positive association between the Hispanic-White discipline gap and the Hispanic-White achievement gap, we find robust evidence that the positive association between the Black-White discipline gap and the Black-White achievement gap persists after controlling for a multitude of confounding factors. We also find evidence that the mechanisms connecting achievement to disciplinary outcomes are more salient for Black than White students.
... Relatedly, there is also a gap in discipline between ethnic minority and ethnic majority students such that ethnic minority students are overrepresented in discipline referrals (Gregory and Mosely 2004;Monroe 2005;Kinsler 2013). Hence, this gap in discipline has been transported to teacher expectations as well. ...
... However, other studies have not provided evidence that ethnic minority students would profit from an ethnic match with their teachers. Such research has reported that ethnic minority teachers do not contribute to reducing these disparities (Pigott and Cowen 2000;Downey and Pribesh 2004;Jordan and Anil 2009;Bradshaw et al. 2010;Rocque and Paternoster 2011;Kinsler 2013). More specifically, these studies have not found that benefits to ethnic minority students' academic achievement scores depended on teachers' own ethnic minority background (Howsen and Trawick 2007) or on ethnic minority teachers' perceptions of ethnic minority students (Anderson-Clark et al. 2008). ...
The ethnic match between teachers and students is widely believed to be beneficial for the achievement of ethnic minority students, who often lag behind their ethnic majority peers. In a quasi-experimental vignette study, we investigated whether preservice teachers who shared the same ethnic background as the student in the vignette had different judgments of the achievement, working and learning habits, and other social variables of the target student than ethnic majority preservice teachers and preservice teachers who had an ethnic minority background different from that of the student. Additionally, we asked about the causes of ethnic disparities. The preservice teachers who shared the same ethnic background as the target student more favorably judged the student’s language proficiency in his mother tongue and perceived the student as more proficient in mathematics, science, and general competence than the two other teacher groups. Moreover, the causal attributions showed that the preservice teachers with the same background as the target student generally perceived the causes of the student’s lower school success as multifaceted. The results reveal that simply having a teacher with an ethnic minority background is not sufficient for benefitting ethnic minority students. Only teachers who have the same ethnic background as the students might contribute to the reduction of ethnic disparities in school.
... We know little about the causal effect of disciplinary consequences on student outcomes (Steinberg & Lacoe, 2016), yet a large body of evidence has documented correlations between exclusionary discipline (e.g., suspensions and expulsions) and negative student outcomes including lower academic achievement (Arcia, 2006;Beck & Muschkin, 2012;Cobb-Clark, Kassenboehmer, Le, McVicar, & Zhang, 2015;Kinsler, 2013;Noltemeyer, Ward, & Mcloughlin, 2015;Raffaele-Mendez, 2003), school drop-out and grade retention (Balfanz, Byrnes, & Fox, 2014;Carpenter & Ramirez, 2007;Fabelo et al., 2011;Suh & Suh, 2007;Swanson, Erickson, & Ritter, 2017), and involvement in the criminal or juvenile justice systems (Fabelo et al., 2011;Nicholson-Crotty, Birchmeier, & Valentine, 2009;Wolf & Kupchik, 2017). ...
... Several student-level studies have found a negative relationship between OSS and academic achievement conditional on demographic and contextual characteristics (Arcia, 2006;Cobb-Clark et al., 2015;Kinsler, 2013;Raffaele-Mendez, 2003). Yet these studies did not control for baseline achievement, leaving an important variable omitted. ...
While numerous studies have demonstrated a correlation between exclusionary discipline and negative student outcomes, this relationship is likely confounded by other factors related to the underlying misbehavior or risk of disciplinary referral. Using 10 years of student-level demographic, achievement, and disciplinary data from all K–12 public schools in Arkansas, we find that exclusionary consequences are related to worse academic outcomes (e.g., test scores and grade retention) than less exclusionary consequences, controlling for type of behavioral infraction. However, despite controlling for a robust set of covariates, sensitivity checks demonstrate that the estimated relationships between consequences and academic outcomes may still be driven by selection bias into consequence type. Implications for policy and practice are discussed.
... For instance, greater use of exclusionary discipline has been shown not to deter classroom disruptions or student misbehavior or improve school climate (Perry and Morris 2014;Raffaele Mendez 2003;Skiba 2000). Moreover, removing students from their learning environments through exclusionary discipline has been associated with a range of adverse academic outcomes, such as a reduction in standardized test scores, graduation rates, educational matriculation, and postsecondary enrollment (Balfanz, Byrnes, and Fox 2015;Christle, Jolivette, and Nelson 2007;Fabelo et al. 2011;Kinsler 2013;Morris and Perry 2016;Raffaele Mendez 2003). ...
School suspension has been linked to numerous adverse social outcomes in adolescence and adulthood. While research continues to highlight the deleterious consequences tied to suspension, less is known about how exposure to suspension influences health over the life course. Drawing from panel data, we address this gap by investigating whether school suspension is associated with self-rated health from adolescence to midlife. Compared to youth with no history of suspension, suspended youth were more likely to report poorer health in adolescence. Findings also demonstrate that school suspension plays a significant role in self-rated health patterns over time. Specifically, we find suspended youth experience a persistent health gap in excellent health from adolescence to midlife and a more rapid acceleration of fair and poor health from their late 20s to midlife. Taken together, this study provides new evidence of the role of exclusionary discipline in shaping health disparities from adolescence to midlife.
... The shortage of educational materials and staff tend to be negatively related to students' outcomes [49,50]. The relationship between disciplinary climate and students' outcomes tends to be positive [51,52]. Finally, urban schools tend to have better infrastructure and teachers than rural ones, which contributes to increase the students' outcomes [53,54]. ...
• Study whether the country's development affects the relationship between ICT use and outcomes.
• More accurate measurement of ICT use at school: subject-specific time using ICT.
• Two alternative measures to classify the countries' development level: GNI per capita and HDI.
• Negative relationship between ICT use for learning at school and students' outcomes.
• Stronger negative relationship between ICT use and outcomes in developing countries.
The use of Information and Communications Technologies (ICT) in educational systems has become a policy priority over the last decades. However, empirical evidence is inconclusive on whether there is a positive relationship between ICT use and students' outcomes. The literature has largely ignored the role that the country context, and in particular the country's development level, may play in shaping this relationship. This paper empirically addresses whether the relationship between ICT use for learning at school and students' outcomes differs from developed to developing countries. We employ data for 236,540 students attending 10,193 schools in 44 countries, obtained from the OECD Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA 2018). We use two alternative measures to classify the countries by their development level: The Gross National Income (GNI) per capita and the Human Development Index (HDI). The estimations, based on a Hierarchical Linear Model, show a negative relationship between ICT use for learning at school and students' outcomes. This negative relationship is more intense for students from developing countries than for those from developed countries. These findings imply that policymakers should be cautious about replicating interventions and technological applications from developed to developing countries (and vice versa).
... For example, in a longitudinal study of one large, urban school district Arcia (2006, p. 367) finds "…marked associations between suspensions and delays in reading achievement." In another longitudinal study, Mendez (2003, p. 30) finds that sixth grade suspension negatively correlates with on-time graduation from high school (For an opposing perspective on school discipline and achievement, see Kinsler, 2013) Even more dramatic is a line of empirical research suggesting that "exclusionary discipline practices" are an essential piece of the cluster of school-based experiences contributing to juvenile delinquency and subsequent uptake into the criminal justice system, "especially for minority students and those with disabilities" (Christie et al., 2005, p. 70). This notion of what is often called a "school to prison pipeline" has inspired a substantial body of empirical research (Casella, 2003;Krezmien et al., 2014) and advocacy activity (ACLU, 2014;Advancement Project, 2014;Juvenile Law Center, 2014). ...
Our project investigates the impact of minority bureaucratic and political representation on the distribution of disciplinary measures in public schools, in contrast with its impact on gifted and talented class placement. It is motivated by the contrast in accumulating research on the consequences of minority bureaucratic representation between findings that minority teacher representation yields beneficial outcomes for minority students while minority representation on police forces does not yield beneficial outcomes for minority residents. Similarly, we note that public school teaching involves two kinds of organizational roles: one involving distribution of benefits (such as placement in gifted and talented programs) which is consistent with an educator role, while the other, involving the distribution of discipline, approximates a policing role, which could be less consistent with an educator role. In short, the educator role benefits the client and the policing role regulates the client. We theorize that (a) modeling the impact of greater minority representation on teaching staffs will yield contrasting results for these two roles, (b) that there will also be differences based on type of discipline at issue, and that (c) the role of minority representation on the school board must also be taken into account. We examine these issues by employing merged data from several data sources ranging from 2007 to 2010 for our analyses. Our results suggest that higher minority teacher representation does increase minority student placement in gifted programs, but does not significantly reduce punishment of minority students. Our analyses also suggest that future research needs to more fully incorporate contextual variables, such as school board representation and state policy. Scholars of representative bureaucracy should also consider the multiple organizational roles that many bureaucrats have.
... In Malaysia, the focus is on orienting the management process towards the value of love, honesty, tolerance with school leadership. It plays an important role in policies, procedures and strategies required critical to the management of student behaviour and the smooth functioning of the school (Kinsler, 2013). This type of training has not been effectively established in Kenya. ...
Purpose: The study examined the influence of withdrawal of student privileges on students discipline in public schools, Matungu Sub-County, Kenya. Methodology: The study adopted a cross-sectional study design to conduct the survey as it was suitable for comparing the following aspects: Demotion of prefects, denial of school trips and denial in co-curricular activities in relation to the development of values among learners. Data was collected using interviews, questionnaires and document analysis. Data were analysed both qualitatively and quantitatively. Qualitative data was analysed thematically while quantitative data was analysed using linear regression. Reliability was attained through test re test method using Cronbach’s alpha with coefficients between 0 and 1 thus rating the internal consistency of the development of values amongst learners. Findings: The findings of the study indicated that withdrawal of privileges as a disciplinary strategy was effective in developing values among public school students in Matungu Sub-County. The results of the regression analysis revealed that the variables of students who were denied from participating in school trips, demotion of prefects and denial from participating in co-curricular activities were predicted to reduce students discipline mean score by 7.146,15.347 and 5.0123 points respectively. Furthermore, demotion of prefects seemed to contribute more in development of values among learners compared to denial to participate in co-curricular activities and denial from participating in school trips. Unique contribution to theory, practice and policy: The researchers focused on withdrawal of students privileges as one of the effective disciplinary actions implemented by many Kenyan schools but with little documentation available for evidence on its contribution to development of values among learners.
... Principal leadership by producing a thriving core of leaders among teachers, parents, and community members drives most changes in the school (Bryk, 2010). To prevent the occurrence or escalation of student deviant behavior, Principals as leaders manage students' behaviors by developing practices and policies, rules, and regulations (Kinsler, 2013) that are expected to improve a collegiality, safe and caring environment. Nooruddin and Baig (2014) carried out a study in secondary school in Karachi, Pakistan on teachers and students, the study found that school leadership influences student behaviors positively by selecting policies and practices that permeate school cultures. ...
Violence is a widespread global problem in society and schools in particular; education stakeholders are charged with the urgency of diminishing violent behavior and delinquency in schools. This research was conducted using the cross-national principal data set from the 2018 Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS) administered by the Organization for Economic and Co-operation and Development (OECD). The study examined the relationship between school violence and professional development in leadership, it also explored how multicultural diversity policies and practices, school multicultural environments relate to violence in schools. Country fixed effect estimate was conducted to explore the relationship between school leadership, multicultural environment, multicultural policies and practices, and school violence in 47 countries. Results indicate that school leadership is adversely related to school violence, multicultural policies and practices were interestingly found to affect school violence positively. The results added nuance to previous studies that school leadership can play a cogent role in school violence, schools should invest in creating policies and practices that are core in self-affirmation and inclusive of all students.
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... The SPMR allows leaders to review information related to student behavior referrals, inschool removals from class, out-of-school suspensions and expulsions. While it is commonly accepted that removal-based consequences for behavior incidents negatively impact the achievement of the students directly involved (Lacoe & Steinberg, 2019;Rausch & Skiba, 2005;Balfanz, Byrnes, Fox, 2014;Noltemeyer, Ward, & Mcloughlin, 2015), negative peer effects on achievement also have been documented (Demming, 2011;Kinsler, 2013;Perry & Morris, 2014). Students in schools with high levels of behavior incidents have reported feeling less safe and more distracted during the school day (Lacoe, 2015;Steinberg, Allensworth, & Johnson, 2011;Burdick-Will, 2018). ...
In 2017, the Kentucky Department of Education (KDE) set out to develop a new monitoring instrument for low-performing schools. This report, called the Student Performance Monitoring Report (SPMR), standardizes the incremental school improvement monitoring system, allowing for greater scalability and analysis by users at the school, system and agency levels. Instead of traditional academic measures, which vary from school to school and district to district, the SPMR uses indicators that are known to be influenced by multiple system-level factors; including attendance, behavior and early warning indicators. This study uses exploratory data analysis procedures to examine the relationships between these variables and established indicators of school quality such as identification for Comprehensive Support and Improvement (CSI) and other federally required classifications. In sum, this analysis provides early evidence that these indicators can be utilized as standardized measures of overall institutional health by demonstrating clear alignment and relationships between the variables and school outcomes. This report establishes a theoretical framework upon which future work can be built.
... Advocates of suspension and zero tolerance suggest that removing offending students from school will result in a more conducive climate where teachers can teach and students can learn (Martinez, 2009). One study of suspensions in North Carolina middle schools found that exposure to disruptive behaviors was related to lower academic achievement for students in general; this finding was interpreted to mean that removing misbehaving students would result in improved academic achievement (Kinsler, 2013). ...
Zero tolerance as an approach to school safety has been around for almost 3 decades. Despite widespread criticisms of zero tolerance policies, few empirical studies have investigated the relationship of zero tolerance with school safety. More generally, the Government Accountability Office report on school shootings noted the need for research on the link between school discipline and school safety. Using a statewide survey from 108,888 students and 10,990 teachers from almost all Virginia middle schools, we found that a majority of surveyed teachers (74%) supported the use of zero tolerance as an effective discipline practice. Analysis using both linear and logistic regression indicated that support for zero tolerance was associated with higher rates of out-of-school suspension. Contrary to the goals of zero tolerance, both students and teachers in schools with greater support for zero tolerance had lower feelings of safety at school, even after controlling for school and student characteristics associated with safety. These findings offer new evidence to support efforts by school psychologists to discourage the use of zero tolerance and promote more effective school discipline practices.
... Similarly, students who demonstrate academic achievement are less likely to be seen as having behavioral problems (Savage et al. 2017;Schneider et al., 1998), evaluated based on their behavior (Oakes 2005), or commit delinquent offenses (Maguin and Loeber 1996;Yun et al. 2014). Other researchers, however, have shown that the negative link between school discipline and academic achievement may actually be driven by unconsidered academic achievement measures earlier in the life course (Anderson et al. 2019;Kinsler 2013). Regardless, the drive to understand if and how these areas are connected remains high. ...
STEM curricula and school disciplinary regimes are key foundations of the transition to adulthood, and they may be connected within school contexts in ways that reflect and exacerbate the intergenerational transmission of inequality. This study examines such connections with particular attention to student race/ethnicity and the racial/ethnic composition of high schools. Bivariate probit analyses of the High School Longitudinal Study of 2009 and the Civil Rights Data Collection of 2012 revealed that early suspension was associated with truncated trajectories of Calculus course taking later in high school while taking Algebra I in grade 9 was associated with avoiding suspension. The proportion of disciplinary cases of racial/ethnic peers was associated with the math coursework of boys and the proportion of Calculus enrollment moderated the association between Algebra I in 9th grade and suspension during high school for girls. These results confirm the value of studying the interplay of formal and informal processes of schooling.
... While we recognize the possibility that some punishments can have a positive impact on the learning environment for non-punished students (see Kinsler, 2013), we instead focus on the educational opportunities of punished students. In doing so, we operationalize the punishment track as a structure of educational inopportunity that continually excludes students from learning environments through increasingly frequent and severe measures of surveillance and punishment (Kupchik et al., 2009). ...
Students in punishment “tracks” are rarely in advanced course-taking “tracks” in high school. Yet, there is little research that demonstrates the relationships between punishment and advanced course-taking, nor research that demonstrates how punishment and advanced course-taking together can impact long-term student trajectories. Using multi-level modeling with a national longitudinal study of high school students, we observed reciprocal disruptions. Advanced math courses significantly impacted future suspensions when accounting for prior suspensions, while suspensions significantly impacted future advanced math course-taking when accounting for prior math courses. We also observed that both suspensions and advanced math courses significantly influenced dropout status and college attendance. As baseline measures often maintained a strong relationship with their respective outcomes, disadvantages appeared to accumulate when students were excluded both from advanced math courses and through suspensions. Nevertheless, while we cannot undo the harms of previous disadvantages in punishment, our findings suggest that we can facilitate potential turning points in students’ lives by opening up new opportunities in math. By doing so, we can redirect students towards college. We conclude with a discussion of implications for policy and practice.
... Related work by Lacoe and Steinberg (2018) suggests that the same reform increased truancy rates, despite having little impact on the total suspension rate in Philadelphia schools. Kinsler (2013) takes a structural approach. Based on a model that accounts for potential spillovers from disruptive behavior, his calibration suggests that stricter discipline may have a positive effect on student performance through improvements in behavior. ...
Does relaxing strict school discipline policies improve student achievement, or lead to classroom disorder? We study a 2012 reform in New York City public middle schools that eliminated suspensions for non-violent, disorderly behavior, replacing them with less disruptive interventions. Using a difference-in-differences framework , we exploit the sharp timing of the reform and natural variation in its impact to measure the effect of reducing suspensions on student achievement. Math scores of students in more-affected schools rose by 0.05 standard deviations relative to other schools over the three years after the policy change. Reading scores rose by 0.03 standard deviations. Only a small portion of these aggregate benefits can be explained by the direct impact of eliminating suspensions on students who would have been suspended under the old policy. Instead, test score gains are associated with improvements in school culture, as measured by the quality of student-teacher relationships and perceptions of safety at school. These improvements benefited students even if they were unlikely to be suspended themselves.
... It is possible that friendship discontinuity after suspension is a result of weakened institutional attachment instead of the mechanisms I have described. Students may be less likely to maintain ties to conforming peers (and vice versa) not because of the stigma or separation associated with suspension but because of negative effects suspension may have on school engagement and achievement (Morris & Perry, 2016;Pyne, 2019; but see Kinsler, 2013). Lower achieving youth experience more peer exclusion and have fewer friends, although the evidence in rural schools is mixed (Austin & Draper, 1984;Flashman, 2012). ...
School suspension is a common form of punishment in the United States that is disproportionately concentrated among racial minority and disadvantaged youth. In labeling theories, the implication is that such stigmatized sanctions may lead to interpersonal exclusion from normative others and to greater involvement with antisocial peers. I test this implication in the context of rural schools by 1) examining the association between suspension and discontinuity in same‐grade friendship ties, focusing on three mechanisms implied in labeling theories: rejection, withdrawal, and physical separation; 2) testing the association between suspension and increased involvement with antisocial peers; and (3) assessing whether these associations are stronger in smaller schools. Consistent with labeling theories, I find suspension associated with greater discontinuity in friendship ties, based on changes in the respondents’ friendship preferences and self‐reports of their peers. My findings are also consistent with changes in perceptual measures of exclusion. Additionally, I find suspension associated with greater involvement with substance‐using peers. Some but not all of these associations are stronger in smaller rural schools. Given the disproportionate distribution of suspension, my findings indicate that an excessive reliance on this exclusionary form of punishment may foster inequality among these youth.
... Another issue is that the disproportionate sorting of minority students into more punitive school environments does not imply evidence of discrimination per se. Previous studies found that minority students are disproportionately exposed to punitive institutional environments (Gregory & Weinstein, 2008;Kinsler, 2013;Peguero & Shekarkhar, 2011;Skiba et al., 2014;Wu et al., 1982). Wu et al. (1982), Kinsler (2011), andSkiba et al. (2014) found that schoolbased disciplinary policies account for a substantial portion of the race-based discipline gap. ...
We explore the discipline gap between Black and White students and between Hispanic and White students using a statewide student-level panel data set on Indiana public school students attending prekindergarten through 12th grade from 2008–2009 through 2013–2014. We demonstrate that the Black-White disciplinary gaps, defined in a variety of ways and robust to a series of specification tests, emerge as early as in prekindergarten and widen with grade progression. The magnitude of these disciplinary gaps attenuates by about half when we control for many student- and school-level characteristics, but it persists within districts and schools. In contrast, we find that Hispanic-White gaps are initially null and statistically insignificant at the prekindergarten/kindergarten level and attenuate substantially after adjustment for cross-school (district) variation and other covariates. We further disentangle the discipline gap using a decomposition technique that provides empirical support for the hypothesis that Black students nonrandomly sort into more punitive disciplinary environments.
... Research has shown that black students, on average, attend schools where certain behaviors are more likely to earn suspensions than the same behaviors would in other schools, and where suspensions last longer. 61 Although inter-school racial variation isn't always evident within individual school districts, which may operate under uniform disciplinary codes, vast differences prevail from district to district. 62 Analyzing data from 2009-10, one study found that the percentage of black students strongly predicts higher suspension/expulsion rates at both the district and school level. ...
... However, before such punishments can take place, the school often tries to solve the problem along with the parents in a school conference (Booth & Dunn, 1996). Although students may experience removal from the classroom as punishment because the excluded student cannot interact with peers (Marzano et al., 2005), the excluded student misses valuable learning time, which might hinder academic achievement growth (Kinsler, 2013;Milner & Tenore, 2010). ...
Schools must balance student behavior management with the potential negatives of strict discipline. These policies can deter misbehavior but may stigmatize students and expose them to the criminal justice system early. We assess the impact of attending a strict discipline school on achievement, educational attainment, and adult criminal activity. Using data from a boundary change and principal switches, we find that higher suspension rates have significant negative long-term effects. Students at such schools are 15–20 percent more likely to be arrested and incarcerated as adults. Negative impacts on educational attainment are particularly pronounced for males and students of color. (JEL H75, I21, I28, J15, K42)
Student behaviour management is one of the contemporary problems faced by managers of schools. This study explored how school principals address behavioural challenges of orphaned learners for positive outcome. Using qualitative approach, purposive sampling was used to select eight principals whose schools had a visible population of learners from child headed households who exhibited behavioural challenges. Data was collected using unstructured focus group interviews to encourage spontaneity and in-depth discussions. Focus group interviews were used to collect data to allow for spontaneity and in-depth conversations with respondents. The results showed that most of the intervention strategies employed by the principals in schools did not generate restorative learner behaviour. It was also revealed that most of the behavioural management strategies were not effective since undisciplined learners who returned from suspensions often repeated similar behaviours that got them suspended. From the inadequate managerial skills on orphaned learners’ behavioural challenges revealed by the study, it is recommended that school managers need staff development on how to implement restorative disciplinary approaches on learner management. Received: 11 November 2022 / Accepted: 24 November 2023 / Published: 5 January 2024
This paper estimates the impacts of cumulative lead exposure on the short‐run discipline and academic achievement of elementary school students. An exogenous, heterogeneous shock of lead‐in‐water levels within classrooms at Flint Community Schools provides the treatment variation used to focus on the understudied, short‐run effects of lead on older children. At the mean level of classroom lead exposure disciplinary actions increased by 8 actions per grade within each school, and the share of students proficient in both math and reading declined. These results may help explain observed disparities in both behavior and academic achievement for underprivileged groups.
This qualitative study explores Black and Latinx high school girls’ experiences with
school discipline while also examining their sense of belonging and its potential to mediate behaviors and disciplinary outcomes. Historically, discipline rates for minoritized students exceed those of white students, leading to many negative outcomes that are detrimental to minoritized students. We investigate how school discipline is experienced by students of intersectional identities. Preliminary results reveal that many participants had no discipline problems when they exhibited a strong sense of belonging. Thus, sense of belonging can serve as a protective factor against disciplinary outcomes. Nonetheless, these students often witnessed and were impacted by their peers’ disciplinary encounters. Findings from this study will inform schools’ disciplinary policies and practices.
Research using school discipline and infraction data has contributed to public policy conversations by helping elucidate the effects of and disproportionate experience of school disciplinary outcomes. This research brief presents results from an analysis of the public availability of such data from state departments of education. Findings suggest that while public availability of discipline data has not changed significantly over the past decade, states are more likely to disaggregate such data by subgroups. Unfortunately, such data remain generally focused on a small number of exclusionary practices rather than nonpunitive or nonexclusionary alternatives. Infraction data are slightly less available than discipline data and significantly less likely to be disaggregated by subgroup.
Minority students are suspended at a disproportionately higher rate compared with others. To reduce racial suspension gaps, four California school districts banned schools from suspending students for willful defiance, a category consisting of relatively minor disruptive offenses. I evaluate the impact of these policies on high school student discipline outcomes using a difference-in-differences strategy that exploits the temporal variation in the enactment of these policies across school districts. The results suggest that while these policies decreased willful defiance out-of-school suspension rates by around 69%, they did not reduce overall out-of-school suspension rates. In fact, the policies significantly increased out-of-school suspension rates among Black students, particularly in schools with a small share of Black teachers. Taken together, the results suggest that the willful defiance suspension bans failed to address implicit and explicit biases in California schools.
The school discipline literature has expanded rapidly in recent decades, yet the conceptualization and measurement of school discipline patterns remains overlooked. In this paper, we present a comprehensive analytic framework to examine school discipline patterns that encompasses school-level metrics that capture the prevalence and disparity in exclusionary discipline and regression-based approaches that examine the likelihood that students experience exclusionary discipline. We apply the framework to New York City and, based on school-level metrics, find that Black students have the highest prevalence and the highest disproportionality. Results from regression models affirm that Black students are most likely to receive office discipline referrals and suspensions and experience differential processing of suspensions for similar categories of infractions. The findings illustrate the nuances of the disciplinary process in schools and inform the consideration of a range of available analytic tools that educational stakeholders may employ to better measure and understand exclusionary discipline.
Previous literature reported that Black students receive out-of-school suspensions (OSSs) and expulsions at disproportionately higher rates and have lower test scores than White students. This study provides recent evidence on the relation between racial disparities in discipline and in achievement, with particular focus on achievement gains, in schools across the nation. We link school-level discipline data in 2017–2018 from the Civil Rights Data Collection (CRDC) to student-level assessment data from NWEA. Leveraging assessment data in the fall, winter, and spring for 1,308,004 students in grades 6–8 in 6,841 schools, this is the first study to estimate the association between exclusionary discipline and within-year academic gains. We report two main findings. First, Black-White suspension gaps and achievement gaps persist (correlation= .15 for math, .19 for reading) in the vast majority of schools in 2017–2018 despite the announcement of many reforms in school discipline practices. Second, Black-White disparities in exclusionary discipline rates are associated with lower learning rates during the school year for Black students in math but there is no association for reading. These findings point to discipline disparity as a key factor contributing to the expansion of Black-White achievement gaps during the school year reported in the extant literature.
School discipline is a significant problem of practice and policy. The differences in disciplinary patterns across schooling levels have received relatively little attention. This study examines the differences in disciplinary infractions and consequences across elementary, middle, and high schools. The results illustrate there are important variations in students’ disciplinary experiences across elementary, middle and high schools. In elementary schools, there is low overall prevalence of out of school suspension (OSS) yet disparities in OSS exist, especially for Black students and students with disabilities (SWDs). In middle and high schools, there is high overall prevalence of both in-school suspension (ISS) and OSS. The Black OSS and ISS risk indices as well as Black-White disparities in OSS and ISS are highest in middle schools. Differential processing (receiving harsher consequences for similar infractions) also varies across suspension types and schooling levels. In high schools, female students are more likely to receive an OSS for subjective offenses, whereas male students are more likely to receive an OSS for attendance-related offenses. Similar to elementary schools, there is differential processing of subjective offenses for SWDs in high schools. Scholarly and policy implications are discussed.
This paper explores the equity in school suspension between Black and white students and among students from families with different economic backgrounds. The existing literature and popular press report that Black students are more likely to be out-of-school suspended than white students, on average. Using administrative data on students from North Carolina public schools over eight academic years, we find that the direction of racial disparity depends importantly on the type of offenses when students are compared within the same school. While Black students are more likely to be suspended for fighting and theft, white students are more likely to be suspended for insubordination and disrespect toward faculty. We also find that economically disadvantaged students are more likely to be suspended across all types of offenses.
We study how athletic participation relates to two measures of engagement, school attendance and disciplinary suspension, among students in an urban school district. Following one strand of the literature, we study within‐student variation, comparing the same student when playing sports versus not. To this literature, we contribute a microeconomic model to better interpret estimates obtained using such variation, and we propose and employ novel instrumental variables based on lagged season‐specific sports choices and the sports‐specific participation trajectories of other students. Our most rigorous models suggest positive effects of athletics on student attendance, but no significant effects on disciplinary suspension.
This study examined pre-service teachers’ initial perceptions of urban communities and schools. Furthermore, it explored whether engaging in critical service-learning coursework incorporating an anti-racist curriculum disrupted the mechanisms that perpetuate racist ideological habits and associations. The narrative analysis deconstructed 12 participants’ reflective essays using a critical race theoretical lens. The overall findings revealed that the participants experience urban communities through racist associations and ideologies promoting white supremacist thinking. The critical service-learning course did influence the perceptions of the participants. However, findings suggest that a single critical service-learning course is insufficient to prepare pre-service teachers with the anti-racist pedagogies necessary for disrupting the ideological habits they bring to the classroom. Therefore, this study concluded that teacher education programs should infuse anti-racist development as an ongoing and progressive aspect of their program.
The practice of temporarily removing students from school as a form of punishment (i.e., suspensions) remains quite common. This study uses longitudinal data from a large, urban school district in California to assess whether the use of suspensions improves school safety in the following school year. Additional analyses by student race and ethnicity are included to examine whether disproportionately punishing minority students can be partially justified by a reduction in the school crime rate. The number of student offenders, rather than the number of criminal incidents, is also investigated in relation to school suspensions. In general, the findings demonstrate that changes in suspension rates do not impact school crime rates or the number of student offenders in the following school year. However, increasing suspension rates for violent incidents significantly reduces the minor crime rate. Implications for policy are provided in light of these results.
Students with disabilities (SWDs) are more likely to be suspended or expelled than their general education peers and more likely to be chronically absent. This study uses 5 years of student-level data for all Michigan special education students to examine the relationship between educational setting, absenteeism, and disciplinary outcomes. Using within-student variation in an educational setting, I find that the degree of inclusion is associated with fewer disciplinary incidents and better attendance. However, the relationship between inclusion and disciplinary outcomes only exists for certain subgroups, and primarily for students who transitioned from more to less inclusive settings experiencing more disciplinary referrals and suspensions after these moves.
Purpose
To determine whether and how exclusionary school punishment experienced by parents affects the drug use of their offspring.
Methods
Using panel data of 360 parent-child dyads from the Rochester Youth Developmental Study and its intergenerational component, the Rochester Intergenerational Study, we conduct path analysis to evaluate the adequacy of a theoretical model that explicates the intergenerational pathways from parental school exclusion to offspring drug use.
Results
Parents who were suspended or expelled during adolescence are more likely to drop out of school, which, in turn, leads to parental adult drug use, economic hardship, and ineffective parenting of their children. As a result, their offspring are likely to hold attitudes/beliefs favoring drug use and have reduced bonding to school, which, ultimately, contribute to offspring drug use.
Conclusions
Exclusionary school disciplinary practices not only result in a number of adverse collateral consequences within one generation of respondents, the negative effects of such experiences are also felt by the next generation. Therefore, exclusionary school punishment should only be used as a last resort. Whenever possible, disciplinary practices in school need to involve inclusionary efforts to re-integrate students into the larger school community.
Se presenta un estudio de la evolución de las faltas de disciplina en un período de tres años escolares para prevenir acciones violentas en el contexto educativo. Se han analizado 204 faltas cometidas por los estudiantes de primero a quinto de primaria desde un enfoque mixto de investigación. El análisis de correlación (Pr > F 0.037) es significativo con la variable que indica que los estudiantes del género masculino agreden mayormente a sus compañeros. Los resultados muestran que las principales faltas cometidas han sido faltas graves (50.5%) como agredir a un compañero y faltar el respeto a un profesor. En conclusión, las infracciones disminuyen en la aplicación de las medidas disciplinarias en el contexto escolar.
In recent decades, school discipline policies and practices in K-12 education resulting in school exclusion have garnered substantial attention and represent an important challenge with significant policy and equity implications. Given the central role that school exclusion plays in discipline policies and practices, it is important to critically assess the pathways, rates, and harms associated with school exclusion. This study provides a systematic review of the interdisciplinary literature on the relationship between school exclusion and students' short- and long-term educational and life outcomes. Although there are a handful of possible pathways, the most frequent pathway though which school discipline results in school exclusion are suspensions. The results of this systematic review indicate that school exclusion is not an efficacious response to student misbehavior given the short and long term correlates with negative student educational and life outcomes. There are several plausible mechanisms through which school exclusion may affect student outcomes but there is little empirical evidence on these mechanisms.
Understanding peer effects is critical to evaluating the effect of public school seg-regation on the achievement gap. This paper develops a new approach to identifying the effect of peer behavior on achievement, using a framework that integrates previ-ously unexplored types of heterogeneity in peer spillovers. Applying the strategy to North Carolina public elementary school students, I find stronger peer effects within than across race-based reference groups, the magnitude of which varies substantially across the percentiles of the achievement distribution. Desegregating peer groups helps nonwhites in the lowest performing peer groups but leads to only marginal changes in the achievement gap.
This paper examines an empirical regularity found in many societies: that family influences on the probability of transiting from one grade level to the next diminish at higher levels of education. We examine the statistical model used to establish the empirical regularity and the intuitive behavioral interpretation often used to rationalize it. We show that the implicit economic model assumes myopia. The intuitive interpretive model is identified only by imposing arbitrary distributional assumptions onto the data. We produce an alternative choice-theoretic model with fewer parameters that rationalizes the same data and is not based on arbitrary distributional assumptions.
This paper provides structural estimates of a dynamic model of schooling, work, and occupational choice decisions based on eleven years of observations on a sample of young men from the 1979 youth cohort of the National Longitudinal Surveys of Labor Market Experience (NLSY). The authors find that a suitably extended human capital investment model can in fact do an excellent job of fitting observed data on school attendance, work, occupational choices, and wages in the NLSY data on young men and also produces reasonable forecasts of future work decisions and wage patterns. Copyright 1997 by the University of Chicago.
Research suggests that suspension is not an effective deterrent and that more should be done to meet the needs of those who are continually suspended.
Gender segregation in the labor market may be explained by women's re- luctance to choose technical occupations, although the foundations for career choices are certainly laid earlier, during education. Educational experts claim that female students are doing better in math and science and are more likely to choose those subjects if they are in single-sex classes. Possible explanations are the lack of self-confidence of girls in male-dominated subjects, the domi- nating behavior of boys in the classroom and unequal treatment by teachers. In this paper, we identify the causal impact of gender composition in coedu- cational classes on the choice of school type for female students. We propose that girls are less likely to choose a female-dominated school type at the age of 14 after spending the previous years in classes with a higher share of female students. We address the problem of endogenous school choice by using nat- ural variation in gender composition of adjacent cohorts within schools. The results are clear-cut and survive powerful falsification and sensitivity checks: Females are less likely to choose a female-dominated school type and more likely to choose the technical school type if they were exposed to a higher share of girls in previous grades. Our paper contributes to the recent debate about coeducation either in certain subjects or at the school level.
This paper proposes an unusual identification strategy to estimate the effects of disruptive students on peer behavior and academic outcomes. I suggest that boys with names most commonly given to girls may be more prone to misbehavior as they get older. This paper utilizes data on names, classroom assignment, behavior problems and student test scores from a large Florida school district in the school years spanning 1996-97 through 1999-2000 to directly study the relationship between behavior and peer outcomes. I find that boys with female-sounding names tend to misbehave disproportionately upon entry to middle school, as compared to other boys and to their previous (relative) behavior patterns. In addition, I find that behavior problems, instrumented with the distribution of boys' names in the class, are associated with increased peer disciplinary problems and reduced peer test scores, indicating that disruptive behavior of students has negative ramifications for their peers.
We propose a simple model of trooper behavior to design empirical tests for whether troopers of different races are monolithic in their search behavior, and whether they exhibit relative racial prejudice in motor vehicle searches. Our test of relative racial prejudice provides a partial solution to the well-known infra-marginality and omitted-variables problems associated with outcome tests. When applied to a unique dataset from Florida, our tests soundly reject the hypothesis that troopers of different races are monolithic in their search behavior, but the tests fail to reject the hypothesis that troopers of different races do not exhibit relative racial prejudice.
This paper formulates a simple, regenerative, optimal-stopping model of bus-eng ine replacement to describe the behavior of Harold Zurcher, superinte ndent of maintenance at the Madison (Wisconsin) Metropolitan Bus Comp any. Admittedly, few people are likely to take particular interest in Harold Zurcher and bus engine replacement per se. The author focuses on a specific individual and capital good because it provides a simp le, concrete framework to illustrate two ideas: (1) a "bottom-up" a pproach for modeling replacement investment and (2) a "nested fixed point" algorithm for estimating dynamic programming models of discre te choice. Copyright 1987 by The Econometric Society.
Police checking for illegal drugs are much more likely to search the vehicles of African-American motorists than those of white motorists. This paper develops a model of police and motorist behavior that suggests an empirical test for distinguishing whether this disparity is due to racial prejudice or to the police's objective to maximize arrests. When applied to vehicle search data from Maryland, our test results are consistent with the hypothesis of no racial prejudice against African-American motorists. However, if police have utility only for searches yielding large drug finds, then our analysis would suggest bias against white drivers. The model's prediction regarding nonrace characteristics is also largely supported by the data.
This paper examines the relationship between student misbehavior and academic performance and the effects of family structure and mother's employment on misbehavior and performance. Using panel data on high school sophomores from the High School and Beyond (HSB) survey, we estimate a number of linear panel models. The findings indicate that sophomores with low grades misbehave more as seniors than those with high grades. Academic achievement in the sophomore year has little effect on changes in misbehavior. Misbehavior, however, has negative effects on changes in grades and achievement test scores. Finally, living in a single-parent family and mother's employment negatively affect both achievement and behavior.
Anecdotal evidence has long suggested that boys in general and African American males in particular are disproportionately represented among students who receive corporal punishment (CP) in school. Until 1994, no national data disaggregated by race and gender were available to determine if African American boys are indeed subjected to physical discipline at excessive rates. This study provides the first analysis of such race/gender-disaggregated data; it also lamentably confirms the popular belief. The incidence of African American males receiving CP was found to be extremely high, as was the likelihood ratio comparing Black male students' CP rates to those for other race/gender cohorts, especially White females. Limitations of the data set and implications of the findings are discussed.
Policy Research Report #SRS2 August, 2000 The contents of this publication were developed in part under grant #H325N990009 from the Office of Special Education Programs, Department of Education. However, those contents do not necessarily repre-sent the policy of the Department of Education, and no endorsement by the Federal Government should be assumed. The Indiana Education Policy Center is funded by Lilly Endowment, Inc. and Indiana University to provide nonpartisan information, research, and communication on education issues to Indiana policymakers and other education stakeholders to improve education. The views expressed in this Policy Research Report do not necessarily represent the views of Indiana University, the Lilly Endowment, or other supporters of the Policy Center. Despite the controversies that it has created in school districts throughout the coun-try, zero tolerance continues to be a widely used response to school disruption and violence. This paper explores the history, philosophy, and effectiveness of zero toler-ance school disciplinary strategies. Growing out of Reagan-Bush era drug enforcement policy, zero tolerance discipline attempts to send a message by punishing both major and minor incidents severely. Analysis of a representative range of zero tolerance suspensions and expulsions suggests that controversial applications of the policy are not idiosyncratic, but may be inherent in zero tolerance philosophy. There is as yet little evidence that the strategies typically associated with zero tolerance contribute to improved student behavior or overall school safety. Research on the effectiveness of school security measures is extremely sparse, while data on suspension and expulsion raise serious concerns about both the equity and effectiveness of school exclusion as an educational intervention. Community reaction has led some districts to adopt alter-natives to zero tolerance, stressing a graduated system matching offenses and consequences, and preventive strategies, including bullying prevention, early identifi-cation, and improved classroom management. Building a research base on these alternatives is critical, in order to assist schools in developing more effective, less intru-sive methods for school discipline.
Congress enacted the Sentencing Reform Act of 1984 to structure judicial discretion. Its goal was to reduce unwarranted disparity while retaining flexibility to individualize sentences in proportion to the seriousness of crimes and the history and characteristics of offenders. Pursuant to the Sentencing Reform Act, the U. S. Sentencing Commission implemented sentencing guidelines. These guidelines, now in force for five years, have stressed uniform sentences at the expense of proportionality. The district courts' response to the guidelines has been overwhelmingly critical: the prescribed sentences are too complex and severe, and the system too inflexible to accommodate the basic mission of judges-to do justice. Appellate courts have exacerbated the problem. As trial judges have departed from guideline prescriptions in accord with the statute, appellate courts have countered with strict guideline enforcement decisions, rejecting efforts to individualize sentences in proportion to case facts. These circuit court decisions have often misread the statute and misunderstood the impact of restrictions on the multi-discretionary process that produces sentences. This Article describes how a new system of informal discretionary sentencing at the district court level is responding to these restrictions. Prosecutors, defense attorneys, and probation officers are negotiating dispositions that adjust or sidestep the guidelines in order to produce reasonable sentences that trial judges will accept and that will not be appealed. This system is reintroducing individualized justice in sentencing, but at the expense of a new form of disparity: between those who follow the guidelines as gospel and those who avoid them as unjust.
At state and national levels, black students are more likely to be suspended from school, and conditional on misbehavior, receive stiffer penalties when compared with white students. Racial bias is often cited as a primary contributor to these gaps. Using infraction data from North Carolina, I investigate gaps in punishment within and across schools, and explore how student-teacher and student-principal race interactions affect discipline. I find a significant statewide gap in discipline that is largely generated by cross-school variation in punishment. In addition, there is little evidence that black students are treated differentially according to teacher or principal race.
A survey on school suspension was conducted with 620 middle and high school students. Two school districts, located in an inner city and in a rural town, were represented. All respondents provided demographic information and completed the Student Rating Scale (SRS) (Hightower, 1988). Students who reported they had been internally and/or externally suspended completed additional questions regarding their perceptions of this event. Males and Black students were overrepresented in the suspended subsamples. Students who had been suspended were more likely to be involved with the legal system. Two factor scores, Rule Compliance and School Interest, and the total score on the SRS differed in the three groups of students. Responses from the suspended subsamples of students indicated that physical aggression, attributed to lack of self-control, was the most common reason for suspension. When suspended, students reported that they felt “angry” or “happy to get out of the situation.” Of all students who had been suspended, 32% found suspension “not at all” helpful and thought that they would “probably be suspended again”; 37% found it of little use. The efficacy of school suspension practices is questioned; implications for school psychologists are discussed.
Examined the disciplinary actions taken by school building administrators after receiving a discipline referral to identify evidence of race and gender bias in administration of corporal punishment (CP). Race was recorded as Black, White, Hispanic, and Asian. The relationships between race and CP, and gender and CP, were examined after controlling for the severity and frequency of punishable behaviors by students in each group. Analyses of 6,244 discipline files demonstrated a small, yet statistically significant relationship between race and CP, and a larger, statistically significant relationship between gender and CP. Results show evidence of race and gender bias in the administration of CP. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Finite mixture distributions arise in a variety of applications ranging from the length distribution of fish to the content of DNA in the nuclei of liver cells. The literature surrounding them is large and goes back to the end of the last century when Karl Pearson published his well-known paper on estimating the five parameters in a mixture of two normal distributions. In this text we attempt to review this literature and in addition indicate the practical details of fitting such distributions to sample data. Our hope is that the monograph will be useful to statisticians interested in mixture distributions and to re search workers in other areas applying such distributions to their data. We would like to express our gratitude to Mrs Bertha Lakey for typing the manuscript. Institute oj Psychiatry B. S. Everitt University of London D. l Hand 1980 CHAPTER I General introduction 1. 1 Introduction This monograph is concerned with statistical distributions which can be expressed as superpositions of (usually simpler) component distributions. Such superpositions are termed mixture distributions or compound distributions. For example, the distribution of height in a population of children might be expressed as follows: h(height) = fg(height: age)f(age)d age (1. 1) where g(height: age) is the conditional distribution of height on age, and/(age) is the age distribution of the children in the population.
Drawing upon control theory, school climate theory, and social disorganization theory, this study examined the relative influence of individual, institutional, and community factors on misconduct in Philadelphia middle schools. Using U.S. census data, school district data, police department data, and school climate survey data obtained from the administration of the Effective School Battery to 7, 583 students in 11 middle schools, we examined the following predictors of student misconduct: community poverty and residential stability; community crime; school size; student perceptions of school climate (school attachment); and individual student characteristics (e.g., age, race, sex, school involvement and effort, belief in rules, positive peer associations). “Community” was conceptualized in two ways: “local” (the census tract around the school), and “imported” (aggregated measures from the census tracts where students actually lived). We used hierarchical linear modeling techniques (HLM) to examine between- and within-school factors. Individual-level factors accounted for 16% of the explained variance; school and community-level factors (both local and imported) added only small increments (an additional 4.1–4.5%). We conclude that simplistic assumptions that “bad” communities typically produce “bad” children or “bad” schools are unwarranted.
We examine peer effects in early education by estimating value-added models with school fixed effects that control extensively for individual, family, peer, and teacher characteristics to account for the endogeneity of peer group formation. We find statistically significant and robust spillover effects from preschool on math and reading outcomes, but statistically insignificant effects on various behavioral and social outcomes. We also find that peer externalizing problems, which most likely capture classroom disturbance, hinder cognitive outcomes. Our estimates imply that ignoring spillover effects significantly understates the social returns to preschool. (c) 2010 The President and Fellows of Harvard College and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
There is a widespread perception that externalities from troubled children are significant, though measuring them is difficult due to data and methodological limitations. We estimate the negative spillovers caused by children from troubled families by exploiting a unique dataset in which children's school records are matched to domestic violence cases. We find that children from troubled families significantly decrease the reading and math test scores of their peers and increase misbehavior in the classroom. The achievement spillovers are robust to within-family differences and when controlling for school-by-year effects, providing strong evidence that neither selection nor common shocks are driving the results. (JEL D62, I21, J12, J13, K42)
There is scant research concerned about punishment of handicapped, minority students in public schools. The purpose of this study was to investigate race and gender, types of rules violations, types of punishments, referral rates, referral frequencies, and follow-up activities to determine differences in treatment by race, sex, and handicapping condition. The sample consisted of 4,391 discipline files representing records from 9 schools in a district (K-12). All data were analyzed using the Chi Square statistic. It was demonstrated that racial bias existed in the administration of punishment, and that Black, male handicapped students were punished more severely than others for commission of the same offenses.
A survey on school suspension was conducted with 620 middle and high school students. Two school districts, located in an inner city and in a rural town, were represented. All respondents provided demographic information and completed the Student Rating Scale (SRS) (Hightower, 1988). Students who reported they had been internally and/or externally suspended completed additional questions regarding their perceptions of this event. Males and Black students were overrepresented in the suspended subsamples. Students who had been suspended were more likely to be involved with the legal system. Two factor scores, Rule Compliance and School Interest, and the total score on the SRS differed in the three groups of students. Responses from the suspended subsamples of students indicated that physical aggression, attributed to lack of self-control, was the most common reason for suspension. When suspended, students reported that they felt “angry” or “happy to get out of the situation.” Of all students who had been suspended, 32% found suspension “not at all” helpful and thought that they would “probably be suspended again”; 37% found it of little use. The efficacy of school suspension practices is questioned; implications for school psychologists are discussed.
Violence in and around schools has drawn increasing attention lately from both the public and policymakers. Despite the importance of the problem, however, research on this topic has been limited. In this paper I analyze how local violence affects high school graduation and college attendance. Using data from the High School and Beyond survey, I find that local violence has important effects. Moderate levels of violence reduce the likelihood of high school graduation by 5.1 percentage points on average, and lower the likelihood that a student will attend college by 6.9 percentage points.
Using administrative, longitudinal data on felony arrests in Florida, we exploit the doscontinous increase in the punitiveness of criminal sanctions at 18 to estimate the deterence effect of incarceration. Our analysis suggests a 2 percent decline in the logodds of offending at 18, with a standard errors ruling out declines of 11 percent or more. We interpret these magnitudes using a stochastic dynamic extension of Becker's (1968) model of criminal behavior. Calibrating the model to match key empirical moments, we conclude that deterrence elasticities with respect to sentence lengths are no more negitive than -0.13 for young offenders.
This paper formulates and estimates multistage production functions for child cognitive and noncognitive skills. Output is determined by parental environments and investments at different stages of childhood. We estimate the elasticity of substitution between investments in one period and stocks of skills in that period to assess the benefits of early investment in children compared to later remediation. We establish nonparametric identification of a general class of nonlinear factor models. A by-product of our approach is a framework for evaluating childhood interventions that does not rely on arbitrarily scaled test scores as outputs and recognizes the differential effects of skills in different tasks. Using the estimated technology, we determine optimal targeting of interventions to children with different parental and personal birth endowments. Substitutability decreases in later stages of the life cycle for the production of cognitive skills. It increases in later stages of the life cycle for the production of noncognitive skills. This finding has important implications for the design of policies that target the disadvantaged. For some configurations of disadvantage and outcomes, it is optimal to invest relatively more in the later stages of childhood.
Over the last two decades juvenile violent crime has grown almost twice as quickly as that of adults. This paper finds that changes in relative punishments can account for 60 percent of that differential. Juvenile offenders are at least as responsive to criminal sanctions as adults. Sharp drops in crime at the age of majority suggest that deterrence (and not merely incapacitation) plays an important role. There does not, however, appear to be a strong relationship between the punitiveness of the juvenile justice system that a cohort faces and the extent of criminal involvement for that cohort later in life.
Classroom education has public good aspects. The technology is such that when one student disrupts the class, learning is reduced for all other students. A disruption model of educational production is presented. It is shown that optimal class size is larger for better-behaved students, which helps explain why it is difficult to find class size effects in the data. Additionally, the role of discipline is analyzed and applied to differences in performance of Catholic and public schools. An empirical framework is discussed where the importance of sorting students, teacher quality, and other factors can be assessed. © 2001 the President and Fellows of Harvard College and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology
This paper estimates models of the evolution of cognitive and noncognitive skills and explores the role of family environments in shaping these skills at different stages of the life cycle of the child. Central to this analysis is identification of the technology of skill formation. We estimate a dynamic factor model to solve the problem of endogeneity of inputs and multiplicity of inputs relative to instruments. We identify the scale of the factors by estimating their effects on adult outcomes. In this fashion we avoid reliance on test scores and changes in test scores that have no natural metric. Parental investments are generally more effective in raising noncognitive skills. Noncognitive skills promote the formation of cognitive skills but, in most specifications of our model, cognitive skills do not promote the formation of noncognitive skills. Parental inputs have different effects at different stages of the child’s life cycle with cognitive skills affected more at early ages and noncognitive skills affected more at later ages.
This paper studies the determinants of children’s scores on tests of cognitive achievement in math and reading. Using rich longitudinal data on test scores, home environments, and schools, we implement alternative specifications for the cognitive achievement production function that allow achievement to depend on the entire history of lagged home and school inputs as well as on parents’ ability and unobserved endowments. We use cross‐validation methods to select among competing specifications and find support for a variant of a value‐added model of the production function augmented to include information on lagged inputs. Using this specification, we study the sources of test score gaps between black, white, and Hispanic children. The estimated model captures key patterns in the data, such as the widening of minority‐white test score gaps with age and differences in the gap pattern between Hispanics and blacks. We find that differences in mother’s “ability,” as measured by AFQT, account for about half of the test score gap. Home inputs also account for a significant proportion. Equalizing home inputs at the average levels of white children would close the black‐white and the Hispanic‐white test score gaps in math and reading by about 10–20 percent.
Because there is little or no evidence of the efficacy of zero tolerance, schools and school districts need to explore preventive alternatives.
This paper examines the effects of private schooling on adolescent non-market behaviors. We control for differences between private and public school students by making use of the rich set of covariates available with our NELS micro-dataset. We also employ an instrumental-variables strategy that exploits variation across metropolitan areas in the costs that parents face in transporting their children to private schools, which stem from differences in the quality of the local transportation infrastructure. We find evidence to suggest that religious private schooling reduces teen sexual activity, arrests, and use of hard drugs (cocaine), but not drinking, smoking, gang involvement, or marijuana use.
Sizeable achievement differences by race appear in early grades, but substantial uncertainty exists about the impact of school quality on the black-white achievement gap and particularly about its evolution across different parts of the achievement distribution. Texas administrative data show that the overall growth in the achievement gap between third and eighth grade is higher for students with higher initial achievement and that specific teacher and peer characteristics including teacher experience and peer racial composition explain a substantial share of the widening. The adverse effect of attending school with a high black enrollment share appears to be an important contributor to the larger growth in the achievement differential in the upper part of the test score distribution. This evidence reaffirms the major role played by peers and school quality, but also presents a policy dilemma. Teacher labor market complications, current housing patterns, legal limits in segregation efforts, and uncertainty about the overall effects of specific desegregation programs indicate that effective policy responses will almost certainly involve a set of school improvements beyond simple changes in peer racial composition and the teacher experience distribution.
Citizens of two groups may engage in crime, depending on their legal earning opportunities and on the probability of being audited. Police audit citizens. Police behavior is fair if both groups are policed with the same intensity. We provide exact conditions under which forcing the police to behave more fairly reduces the total amount of crime. These conditions are expressed as constraints on the quantile-quantile plot of the distributions of legal earning opportunities in the two groups. We also investigate the definition of fairness when the cost of being searched reflects the stigma of being singled out by police.
In this paper, we structurally estimate a sequential model of high school attendance and work decisions. The estimates imply that youths who drop out of high school have different traits than those who graduate, e.g., they have lower school ability and/or motivation, lower expectations about the rewards from graduation, and a comparative advantage at jobs that are done by non-graduates. We also found that working while in school reduces school performance. However, policy experiments indicate that even a complete prohibition on working would have a limited impact on the high school graduation rates of white males.
Opportunitites Suspended: The Devastat-ing Consequences of Zero Tolerance Policies and School Discipline Policies Missing Out: Suspending Students from Connecticut Schools
- J Braden
- S And
- Shaw
−6.764 * −5.537 * (0.131) (0.143) (0.265) (0.253) Male 0.491 * 0.575 * 1.072 * 0.979 * (0.030) (0.034) (0.047) (0.043) Black 0.972 * 1.002 * 1.782 * 1.658 * (0.071) (0.094) (0.106) (0.138) Hispanic 0.034 0.266 * 0.112 0.316 * (0.079) (0.073) (0.116) (0.096) Parents are HS dropouts 0.235 * 0.229 * 0.552 * 0.484 * (0.040) (0.047) (0.072) (0.063) Parents graduated 2 year college −0.224 * −0.199 * −0.407 * −0.355 * (0.041) (0.046) (0.065) (0.059) Parents graduated 4 year college −0.551 * −0.576 * −1.069 * −0.950 * (0.040) (0.043) (0.057) (0.052) Retained 0.592 * 0.196 * 1.276 * 0.664 * (0.048) (0.065) (0.090) (0.084) Disabled 0.432 * 0.263 * 0.815 * 0.558 * (0.029) (0.035) (0.051) (0.046) Actual policies ->85% Type I 2.34 2.53 2.71 3.34 3.62 4.55 Predicted policies ->85% Type I 2.25 2.62 2.70 3.06 3.67 3.96 Achievement maximizing policies ->85% Type I 3.24 4.26 4.65 3.64 4.64 5.07 Actual policies -≤85% Type I 2.47 2.66 3.27 3.51 3.84 4.48 Predicted policies -≤85% Type I 2.46 2.86 3.23 3.71 4.32 4.63 Achievement maximizing policies -≤85% Type I 4.02 4.44 4.74 4.36 5.02 5.22 REFERENCES ADVANCEMENT PROJECT AND THE CIVIL RIGHTS PROJECT, " Opportunitites Suspended: The Devastat-ing Consequences of Zero Tolerance Policies and School Discipline Policies, " Technical Report, www.civilrightsproject.harvard.edu, 2000. ALI, T., AND A. DUFRESNE, " Missing Out: Suspending Students from Connecticut Schools, " Technical Report, Connecticut Voices for Children, www.ncchild.org, 2008. BRADEN, J., AND S. SHAW, " Race and Gender Bias in the Administration of Corporal Punishment, " School Psychology Review 19 (1990), 378–83.
Desegregation and the Achievement Gap: Do Diverse Peers Help? " mimeo, University of Cambridge School Suspension: A Study with Secondary School Students
- J Cooley
- V Costenbader
- S And
- Markson
COOLEY, J., " Desegregation and the Achievement Gap: Do Diverse Peers Help? " mimeo, University of Cambridge, 2011. COSTENBADER, V., AND S. MARKSON, " School Suspension: A Study with Secondary School Students, " Journal of School Psychology 36 (1998), 59–82.
Sex, Drugs, and Catholic Schools: Private Schooling and Non-Market Adolescent Behaviors Federal Sentencing in the Wake of Guidelines: Unacceptable Limits on the Discretion of Sentencers
- And J Ludwig ———
- D Freed
———, AND J. LUDWIG, " Sex, Drugs, and Catholic Schools: Private Schooling and Non-Market Adolescent Behaviors, " NBER Working Paper No. 7990, 2000. FREED, D., " Federal Sentencing in the Wake of Guidelines: Unacceptable Limits on the Discretion of Sentencers, " The Yale Law Journal 101 (1992), 1681–754.
One Out of Ten: The Growing Suspension Crisis in North Carolina Optimal Replacement of GMC Bus Engines: An Empirical Model of Harold Zurcher
- North Carolina Child Advocacy Institute
- J Rust
NORTH CAROLINA CHILD ADVOCACY INSTITUTE, " One Out of Ten: The Growing Suspension Crisis in North Carolina, " Technical Report, www.ncchild.org, 2005. RUST, J., " Optimal Replacement of GMC Bus Engines: An Empirical Model of Harold Zurcher, " Econo-metrica 55 (1987), 999–1033.
Public Teacher Questionnaire
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- J Greene
- And P Jenkins
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, NATIONAL CENTER FOR EDUCATION STATISTICS, SCHOOL AND STAFFING SURVEY, " Public Teacher Questionnaire, " 2000. WELSH, W., J. GREENE, AND P. JENKINS, " School Disorder: The Influense of Individual, Institutional, and Community Factors, " Criminology 37 (1999), 73–115.
One Out of Ten: The Growing Suspension Crisis in North Carolina
- North Carolina Child Advocacy Institute
North Carolina Child Advocacy Institute, " One Out of Ten: The Growing Suspension Crisis in North Carolina, " Technical Report, www.ncchild.org 2005.
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