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Technical Potential for Photovoltaics on Buildings in the EU27
Abstract
Accurate knowledge on the technical potential for Building Integrated PhotoVoltaics (BIPV) in the various member states of the
European Union is unavailable. To estimate the potential for BIPV we developed a method using readily available statistical data on
buildings from European databases. Based on country-specific data on building characteristics and irradiation we estimate the BIPV
technical potential in the EU-27 at 951 GWp. Installed it can deliver about 840 TWh of electricity, which is equivalent to more than
22% of the expected European 2030 annual electricity demand.
... Izquierdo et al. estimate the rooftop area available for PV installation based on statistically representative data about common building types in Spain [13]. Using statistical data on buildings in the European Union, Defaix et al. assess the potential for rooftop photovoltaic on a nearcontinental scale [14]. Usually, statistics consulted for such assessments include information on population, building stock and global irradiation. ...
... Arnette, for example, bases his assessment [15] of rooftop PV generation potential on a per-capita estimate of available rooftop area. Defaix et al. choose an equivalent approach utilising existing data on floor area per capita and absolute population numbers [14]) to estimate rooftop area available for PV installation. Meteorological and data on temperature and irradiation is then typically used for PV yield calculations on resulting large scale rooftop area potentials, as has been done, for instance, by Liu et al. using spatially resolved information on yearly global irradiation [12]. ...
... Using the examples obtained in this case study, the resulting utilization factors will be compared to those found by other authors [13,14,27,44,45]. The factors were computed and grouped with regard to the constellations other authors have investigated. ...
In recent years, prices for photovoltaics have fallen steadily and the demand for sustainable energy has increased. Consequentially, the assessment of roof surfaces in terms of their suitability for PV (Photovoltaic) installations has continuously gained in importance. Several types of assessment approaches have been established, ranging from sampling to complete census or aerial image analysis methodologies. Assessments of rooftop photovoltaic potential are multi-stage processes. The sub-task of examining the photovoltaic potential of individual rooftops is crucial for exact case study results. However, this step is often time-consuming and requires lots of computational effort especially when some form of intelligent classification algorithm needs to be trained. This often leads to the use of sampled rooftop utilization factors when investigating large-scale areas of interest, as data-driven approaches usually are not well-scalable. In this paper, a novel neighbourhood-based filtering approach is introduced that can analyse large amounts of irradiation data in a vectorised manner. It is tested in an application to the city of Giessen, Germany, and its surrounding area. The results show that it outperforms state-of-the-art image filtering techniques. The algorithm is able to process high-resolution data covering 1 km2 within roughly 2.5 s. It successfully classifies rooftop segments which are feasible for PV installations while omitting small, obstructed or insufficiently exposed segments. Apart from minor shortcomings, the approach presented in this work is capable of generating per-rooftop PV potential assessments at low computational cost and is well scalable to large scale areas.
... Some researchers focus on geographic PV potential, which is the available solar radiation on roofs considering the roof planes' orientation and shadowing effects of surrounding structures [12,13]. Publications determine the technical potential, which takes the PV system efficiency into account and represents the actual energy generation [5,8,[14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21]. ...
... Furthermore, the effects of roof orientation, shadow, or roof superstructures are considered using constant factors. Statistical approaches often examine large study areas such as the European Union [21,35] or Brazil [23] and take a top-down perspective. The geospatial approach determines available roof areas based on geospatial vector data such as building cadasters or maps. ...
... The revenues differ between the two cases. The feed-in tariff stays constant over the entire lifetime of the plant while the electricity price increases based on historical data [21], which makes self-consumption even more attractive. The costs are divided into initial investment costs and yearly maintenance costs. ...
Roof-mounted photovoltaic systems play a critical role in the global transition to renewable energy generation. An analysis of roof photovoltaic potential is an important tool for supporting decision-making and for accelerating new installations. State of the art uses 3D data to conduct potential analyses with high spatial resolution, limiting the study area to places with available 3D data. Recent advances in deep learning allow the required roof information from aerial images to be extracted. Furthermore, most publications consider the technical photovoltaic potential, and only a few publications determine the photovoltaic economic potential. Therefore, this paper extends state of the art by proposing and applying a methodology for scalable economic photovoltaic potential analysis using aerial images and deep learning. Two convolutional neural networks are trained for semantic segmentation of roof segments and superstructures and achieve an Intersection over Union values of 0.84 and 0.64, respectively. We calculated the internal rate of return of each roof segment for 71 buildings in a small study area. A comparison of this paper’s methodology with a 3D-based analysis discusses its benefits and disadvantages. The proposed methodology uses only publicly available data and is potentially scalable to the global level. However, this poses a variety of research challenges and opportunities, which are summarized with a focus on the application of deep learning, economic photovoltaic potential analysis, and energy system analysis.
... Building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV) is a practical application of solar cells mounted on some components of buildings such as rooftops, walls, windows, and facades... not only to generate power but also to protect the buildings from the adverse external environment (Karthick et al., 2020;Roy et al., 2020). Defaix et al. predicted that the efficiency of the silicon wafer-based BIPV system could reach about 22% by 2030 (Defaix et al., 2012). So far, the BIPV system has mainly utilized the crystalline silicon (c-Si) based solar cells (Ghosh et al., 2019). ...
... The tandem solar cells with the outstanding η annual up to 22.68% (rooftop), which is superior to the predicted efficiency of 22% for the wafer-based BIPV system by 2030 (Defaix et al., 2012), is the potential option for the BIPV application. The result of this work is being expanded by examining and optimizing the perovskite and silicon wafer thickness in the different climatic zones to get a comprehensive overview of the optimal 2-T tandem cell structure. ...
A high-efficiency perovskite/silicon tandem solar cell has been a promising candidate for building-integrated photovoltaics. This work presents a deep learning approach to predicting the annual output energy harvested by the 2-terminal perovskite/silicon tandem solar cells, thereby optimizing the tandem structure design. The data set for training and validating an artificial neural network (ANN) is the Atlas-simulated results of the tandem cell with the various perovskite layer’s bandgap and thickness under the real-world conditions composed of the solar spectrum, incident spectral angle, and solar module temperature in a particular month of a year for a specific direction. Consequently, we reveal the significant influence of solar spectral shape on the ANN performance. The proposed ANN model has a mean square error of 1.26 and a correlation coefficient of 0.99979. Based on the spectral and environmental database in Gifu (Japan) in 2015, we predict that the optimal perovskite layer’s bandgap and thickness are 1.72 eV and 680 nm for the east, south, and west facades, 1.73 eV and 700 nm for the rooftop, respectively. Consequently, the highest annual output energy obtained is 282.54, 105.07, 174.71, and 90.79 kWh/m for the rooftop, the east, south, and west facades, respectively.
... The integration of PV with the building envelopes has started in the early 1990s to fulfill the building electrical demand and shortage inland availability (Hagemann 1996;Clarke et al. 1996). The potential of PV-integrated technologies for European countries is about 840 TWh, fulfilling 22% of energy demand alone (Defaix et al. 2012). However, the market growth rate of these technologies in the Asia/Pacific region is 10% higher than in European countries for the year 2014-2020, playing an essential role in developing countries (Tabakovic et al. 2017). ...
... The technologies performed well in higher solar irradiance areas . Further, with the predicted increase in efficiency of about 22% for PV wafer-based and 17% for thin-film technologies by 2030 (Defaix et al. 2012), the BIPV/BAPV technologies will be gaining more attention in upcoming years. In recent years, the review on the topic by the authors is discussed. ...
Integration of Photovoltaic (PV) technologies with building envelopes started in the early 90 to meet the building energy demand and shave the peak electrical load. The PV technologies can be either attached or integrated with the envelopes termed as Building Attached (BA)/Building Integrated (BI) PV system. The BAPV/BIPV system applications are categorized under the building envelope roof and facades as PV-roof, PV-Skin Facade, PV- Trombe Wall, PV claddings, and louvers. This review covers various factors that affect the design and performance of the BAPV/BIPV system applications. The factors identified are air gap, ventilation rate, a tilt angle of PV shading devices, adjacent shading, Semitransparent PV(STPV) glazings design, Cell Coverage Ratio (CCR), transmittance,
Window to wall ratio (WWR), and glazing orientation. Furthermore, the results of the possible factors are compared to building locations. This
review article will be beneficial for researchers in designing the BAPV/BIPV system and provides future research possibilities.Keywords: Photovoltaic,Double skin Facades,Trombe wall,Glazings
... Some factors like air conditioning, chimneys, shading and unfavorable orientation of roof parts will reduce the area for PV installations [72]. In some works, approximately half of the rooftop area is assumed to be the suitable area for PV [73][74][75]. Large-scale development and utilization of rooftop PV in the entire county has been carried out in many places in China, and it requires >50%, 40% and 30% of the rooftop area be used for PV in government buildings, public buildings and industrial, commercial buildings, respectively [76]. The effective rooftop area projected in this study is approximately 18,000 km 2 in 2020 (Regions with large bias of solar irradiance are not considered: Sichuan, Guizhou, and Chongqing Shi), which is about 51% to the total area estimated by Joshi et al. [71]. ...
... Although BIPV has appeared since the early 1990s [4], its growth rate is relatively slow. By 2030, it is estimated that the BIPV system could achieve an approximate efficiency level of 22% [5]. So far, two PV cell categories in the market are composed of crystalline silicon (c-Si) wafer-based technology and thin-film technology (amorphous silicon (a-Si), chalcogen, and organic PV cells). ...
Building integrated photovoltaic (BIPV), based on tandem PV cells, is considered a new alternative for combining solar energy with buildings. Accurately predicting the BIPV-harvested annual output energy (Eout,annual) is crucial for evaluating the BIPV performance. Machine learning (ML) is a potential candidate for solving such a problem without the time-consuming process of experimental investigations. This contribution proposes an artificial neural network (ANN) to predict the Eout,annual of 4-terminal perovskite/silicon (psk/Si) PV cells under realistic environmental conditions. The input variables of the proposed model consist of the input solar irradiance (Pin), incident light's angle (Ain), the PV module's temperature (Tmod), the psk absorber's thickness (Thpsk), and the psk absorber's bandgap (Bpsk). The input data were received from the simulated results. This work also evaluates the degree of importance of each input variable and optimizes the architecture of the ANN using the surrogate algorithm before predictions. The optimized ANN-3 (three hidden layers) model shows superior performance indicators, including a mean squared error of MSE = 0.02283, correlation coefficient R = 0.99999, and Willmott's index of agreement Iw = 0.99999. Consequently, the predicted highest Eout,annual at Bpsk of 1.71 eV is 297.73, 115.01, 193.98, and 97.6 kWh/m2 for the rooftop, east, south, and west facades, respectively.
... The conversion rate of thin-film photovoltaics (CIGS) is low [62] and inert to temperature [63]. Defaix et al. [64] forecast a 17% increase in thin-film technology efficiency by 2030. Singh et al. [65] showed that CIGS solar cells have lower material and energy requirements and better processing costs. ...
Population growth and urban expansion have led to increased demand for buildings. Optimizing the building façade design, using integrated photovoltaic (PV) shading and vertical farming (VF) can reduce building energy consumption while ensuring a partial food supply. However, the importance and prevalence of productive façades have not received significant attention. Furthermore, few studies have focused on the impact of productive façades on both indoor and outdoor environmental qualities. Therefore, this study aimed to explore the potential of integrating productive façades with residential façades in high-density cities. A typical community in Guangzhou, China was investigated. Thermal comfort, light comfort, electricity production, and crop yield were considered, and the optimal façade configuration was chosen from the established 146-model library. The integrated module can effectively improve the indoor lighting and thermal comfort of residential buildings. The module also mitigates the outdoor thermal environment to a certain extent, meeting 6.3–10.3% and 7.6–9.6% of the annual electricity and vegetable demands, respectively, in residential communities. This study can guide other densely populated cities with subtropical climates to advance the research and construction of productive façades, improving occupant comfort, reducing energy consumption, and mitigating food security and urban climate change issues.
... Building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV) are becoming highly attractive and are providing the momentum for future green and intelligent buildings. An estimated 22 % of the electricity in the EU countries is expected to be produced from BIPV by 2030 [135]. However, Hasan et al. [136] reported that the higher frame temperature of BIPV compared to rack-mounted free-back PV systems will considerably lower their efficiency. ...
With the global increase in population and temperature, cooling demand has increased tremendously in the building sector, especially in the GCC and African and South Asian countries where temperature can reach 50 °C from mid-May to August. Thermal performance of buildings can be effectively improved by using thermal energy storage (TES) systems based on phase change materials (PCMs). As PCMs melt during the daytime and solidify at nighttime, they can prevent rooms from overheating during daytime in hot months and may also reduce the need for heating during nighttime in the winter. This paper discusses the use of TES for the storage of sensible heat, latent heat, and thermochemical energy in buildings. Sustainable heating and cooling in buildings employing TES can be achieved with passive building envelope systems, active systems containing PCMs, sorption systems, and seasonal storage systems. This review presents results obtained in earlier studies on the incorporation of PCMs in building materials, the problems associated with the selection of PCMs, and various methods used to encapsulate PCMs for space heating and cooling applications. Furthermore, this article provides an outline of a range of PCM applications in buildings for decreasing the cooling loads under hot atmosphere conditions, and the parameters influencing the productive and viable use of PCMs under hot weather conditions. Several shortcomings in the application of PCMs, mostly due to the extreme summer weather conditions preventing the PCM from completely solidifying at night and thereby decreasing its effectiveness during the day, were identified. Although sunlight is abundant in the Middle East, the use of solar energy in conjunction with PCM technology for temperature control in buildings is rare. One of the main reasons for the status quo is the small temperature difference between day and night. Hence, the selection of a suitable PCM is crucial and challenging for this type of a hot atmosphere. As a consequence, the current study will fill a scientific gap concerning PCM usage in this vital hot temperature range. Under such extreme environmental conditions, thermal conductivity, density, and the specific heat of the insulation affect the heat flow. Finally, future research opportunities were explored and shortcomings of the technology as of today were discussed.
... Also, developments in thin-film BIPV technology in terms of their efficiency and cost effectiveness have made their integration into novel architectural designs with complex geometry feasible (Jelle et al., 2012;Kaelin et al., 2004;Kushiya, 2014;Wilson, 2015). It can thus be argued that "high electrical efficiency, low cost, and the ease of installation are key to the wide acceptance and adoption of BIPV" systems (Yu et al., 2021), for addressing growing energy demands (Defaix et al., 2012;Raugei and Frankl, 2009). Local electricity generation using eliminate losses incurred during energy transportation, thus proving to be more cost-effective. ...
Building envelopes invariably tend to be static systems that encounter various performance limitations such as inefficient illuminance admittance, and heat and moisture transmission owing to their non-responsiveness towards environmental fluctuations. In contrast to such façade solutions, responsive façade systems with embedded sensing, actuation, and control systems have been proven to perform with up to 65% higher efficiency by being able to adapt their physical characters, such as orientation, and material property in real-time as a response to fluctuating environmental conditions (visual and thermal) and user preferences. Advancements in artificial intelligence and machine learning processes further aid such responsive façade systems to optimize multiple parameters such as illuminance level and the associated lighting energy, visual discomfort caused by solar glare, solar heat gain, thermal resistance (heating energy and comfort level), and natural ventilation simultaneously. This research investigates the case of a real-time adaptive Building Integrated Photo Voltaic (BIPV) shading system and its ability (in comparison with traditional static building integrated photo voltaic façade systems) to perform as regards visual comfort and energy generation potential simultaneously within the humid subtropical climate of Sydney, Australia. A simulated case scenario wherein a real-time adaptive building integrated photo voltaic shading systems is deployed on a typical multistorey building façade in Sydney, Australia is accordingly presented. The conducted simulation considers the responsive building integrated photo voltaic system as a double-skin façade system and uses multi-objective evolutionary computing principles to decipher its integrability potential. A comparative analysis between traditional static mounted Photo Voltaic (PV) systems as opposed to multi-objective optimization driven real-time adaptive building integrated photo voltaic shading configurations is subsequently presented. The ability to maximize generated energy, while simultaneously maintaining visual comfort is thus a unique proposition of this research.
... For high-rise buildings, the roof area on which PV panels can be placed may not be sufficient to meet the building's needs. Attaching PV systems to the facade provides a solution to this problem [32,33]. In addition, the EPBD calls on EU countries and the public sector to improve the energy performance of the building stock and to develop only energyefficient buildings. ...
Based on the available literature, the status and prospects for further development of the building integrated photovoltaics (BIPV) market were analyzed. The results of the analysis show that the high investment costs and the lack of information about installed BIPV systems and BIPV technology are a problem for the stakeholders. BIPV technology is an interdisciplinary problem, so the cooperation of a large number of different experts is important. However, it is not yet at a satisfactory level. Another problem is the overlapping of responsibilities of HVAC installers, interior designers and facade manufacturers. On the other hand, the incentives of the EU regulatory framework and beyond to use renewable energy sources in both new buildings and renovation of old buildings, as well as the desire for energy independence, encourage the application of BIPV technology. An analysis of the electricity production potential of BIPV integrated into the walls and roof of the building was made for four geographical locations. A comparison of the production of electricity on the walls and on the roof of the building was carried out. The analysis shows that on the 4 walls of the building, where each wall has the same area as the roof of the building, approximately 2.5 times more electricity than on the roof can be generated. In the absence of available surface for installing a PV power plant on the roof, the walls represent a great potential for BIPV technology.
... The average performance ratio of the 6868 rooftop PV systems in France was 76% in 2010 (Leloux, Narvarte, & Trebosc, 2012). An evaluation of the building stocks of the 27 EU member states found that there was a building integrated PV technical potential of 951GWp, and that 840TWh of electricity could be generated annually (Defaix, van Sark, Worrell, & de Visser, 2012). The evaluation of four rooftop PV systems in Abu Dhabi, UAE, found PR values between 70% and 81% (Emziane & Al Ali, 2015). ...
A 30 kWp rooftop solar photovoltaic (PV) power plant was modelled using energy balance equations, 3-year energy production and its economic return is calculated according to the feed-in tariff agreement. Electricity production was calculated on an hourly basis, and the actual results and simulation results were closely compatible. The system generated 45.35 MWh, 47.05 MWh and 46.34 MWh of energy in year 1, 2 and 3, respectively. It has been observed that the performance ratio of the PV system varies between 84.50 % and 90.27 %, while the capacity factor varies between 17.26 % and 17.63%. While 93.90 MWh of electrical energy has been injected into the grid over a 3-year period, 46.40 MWh of energy has been taken from the grid. The price of electricity injected and consumed was calculated according to the FIT conditions at the time the system was installed, and the payback period was calculated as approximately 6 years.
... Después de estimar la superficie de tejados para las instalaciones solares con la aplicación de los factores de reducción definitivos a las manzanas, el siguiente paso será analizar el potencial para la producción de energía solar fotovoltaica y térmica de los tejados. Para una superficie determinada, en función de la radiación solar recibida, la potencia instalable y la energía eléctrica fotovoltaica anual se calculará con dos tecnologías de módulos fotovoltaicos de diferente eficiencia de los tipos silicio monocristalino y multicristalino (Defaix et al., 2012). Por otro lado, la producción de energía anual con colectores solares térmicos se realizará para varias temperaturas de referencia según el uso de los edificios. ...
Bajo el lema "TIG al servicio de los ODS", con el XIX Congreso de Tecnologías de la Información Geográfica se ha querido contribuir a la consecución de los ODS 2030, evidenciando la potencialidad de las geotecnologías e identificando los objetivos y las metas a los que colabora la actividad de la comunidad TIG para transformar el contexto económico, social y ambiental hacia un futuro más sostenible en todas las escalas, a nivel global, regional y local. Las TIG ofrecen herramientas de representación, análisis, integración, comprensión, proyección y modelado de la realidad espacial o geográfica. Las TIG, al igual que todas las partes interesadas, están llamadas a contribuir a la consecución de la nueva Agenda y a colaborar en el proceso de seguimiento de los progresos conseguidos en el cumplimiento de los Objetivos de Desarrollo Sostenible (ODS) y las metas, aportando información y sistematizando indicadores transversales para su evaluación. La publicación incluye las contribuciones científicas presentadas en el Congreso, celebrado en Zaragoza entre los días 12 y 14 de septiembre de 2022.
... The most important advantage of PV systems in this sector is that they can be easily integrated with buildings, which makes them the most suitable option when compared with other renewable energy systems. Hence, Building Integrated Photovoltaics (BIPV) are expected to provide an amount of energy that is equivalent to 22 % of the electricity production in Europe [19]. The flexibility of BIPV puts them on the top of the pyramid of renewable energy systems in the buildings sector as they can be easily integrated with rooftops and facades either for existing buildings or buildings yet to be built [20][21][22][23]. ...
Numerous electricity consumers tend to start consuming energy excessively after installing a photovoltaic system. In Jordan, almost all residential PV systems are grid connected and operate by net-metering agreements. Therefore, an increase in consumption after the installation of PV systems can result in a huge overload on the national electric grid. The challenge this presents is to find a specific level of comfort that will also protect the environment by saving energy. This paper examines the effects of residential photovoltaic systems on energy consumption and determines whether an increase or decrease occurs after installing these systems. This research was conducted to tackle the excessive energy consumption that occasionally occurs after installing renewable energy systems, especially in the residential sector in Jordan, and ascertains whether a pattern exists in the increase or decrease. Local energy consumption data within the period between 2016 and 2020 for 150 households in the governorates: Irbid, Ajloun, Al-Mafraq, and Jerash, as well as the municipality of Ar-Ramtha, were sampled after installing residential photovoltaic systems. Several attempts to correlate the results with key factors are also presented, the purpose of which is to limit some of these to reduce energy consumption after installing residential photovoltaic systems. The results indicate that 88% of households experienced a uniform increase in energy consumption after installing residential photovoltaic systems across the four governorates and the municipality. An average 41% increase in energy consumption was found with results varying across all studied areas but all exhibiting an overall incremental increase. Furthermore, the average share of self-consumed energy out of the total energy generated by PV systems was found to be 27.7% for the studied population, indicating the need of regulatory interactions to alleviate the pressure on the national electric grid, and to ensure the maximum benefits for PV systems’ installers.
... La potencia se calcula con la expresión [47]: El coeficiente performance ratio (PR) representa el rendimiento energético de la instalación fotovoltaica y en su valor influyen las pérdidas debidas a la presencia de suciedad en la instalación, la influencia de la temperatura y el cableado, el inversor u otros componentes del sistema. En el cálculo se aplica un valor por defecto del 80 % [60], [61]. ...
El aprovechamiento del potencial solar de un tejado está determinado por la superficie disponible, la radiación incidente y la producción final de energía. Para establecer este potencial, a nivel de toda una ciudad o vecindario, es preciso contar con información geográfica de una resolución y calidad adecuadas. En el caso de La Habana (Cuba) ha sido necesario diseñar una metodología ad-hoc ajustada a los datos disponibles. Las imágenes de Sentinel-2, Google Earth y la cartografía de OpenStreetMap son los recursos básicos disponibles para el desarrollo de esta nueva metodología. La unidad de representación, de acuerdo a la escala y resolución de estas bases de datos, serán las manzanas. Con la interpretación de las ortoimágenes se analiza la densidad de edificación, su tipología y se identifican las formas de los tejados. La aplicación del índice de vegetación NDVI a las imágenes Sentinel-2 permiten evaluar la distribución de las zonas arboladas que pueden generan sombras y limitan la generación de energía solar. Estos datos proporcionan una base suficiente para estimar la superficie potencial de captación solar en el caso de estudio. La implementación de esta metodología ha permitido obtener un primer mapa web del potencial solar del municipio de Guanabacoa (La Habana) al que seguirán otras áreas de la provincia. Los resultados obtenidos en su aplicación arrojan un balance optimista para el desarrollo solar de la ciudad.
... [177][178][179] The energy-harvesting potential of BIPVs is estimated to be more than 22% of the expected electricity demand by the year 2030 in the world's leading markets, including China, India, Brazil, the United States, and Europe. 177,[180][181][182][183] There are several advantages of BIPV technology like construction-material cost offset, building envelops, sound-and heat masking, insulation, aesthetics, etc. The rational BIPV design must include building ll OPEN ACCESS orientation and location, cost and utility issues, appropriate safety and building codes, electrical loads, etc. 145 Semitransparent PSMs are emerging because this device exhibits many unique features like flexibility, aesthetics, etc., which make them promising contestants for several BIPV products. ...
Perovskite solar cells (PSCs) have a comparable performance to silicon and other thin-film photovoltaic (PV) technologies, which are near commercialization. PSCs have several advantages over other established PV technologies such as higher power output, enhanced performance at low light intensities, and mechanical flexibility, which allow their integration into several applications. Industrial opportunities include specific applications in building-integrated photovoltaics, agrivoltaics, and the internet of things. Although it is likely that PSCs will enter a commercialization phase, there are remaining challenges related to various economic and technical issues, including scalable fabrication and operational stability. Here, we review advanced techniques for scalable fabrication and operational stability of PSCs and perovskite solar modules. The required characteristics, such as operational stability and fabrication costs, that remain a challenge to be resolved before entering the PV market are discussed. Moreover, a proposed framework is presented for PSC technology based on material evolution with the perspective of massive scale deployment and marketplace values.
... [177][178][179] The energy-harvesting potential of BIPVs is estimated to be more than 22% of the expected electricity demand by the year 2030 in the world's leading markets, including China, India, Brazil, the United States, and Europe. 177,[180][181][182][183] There are several advantages of BIPV technology like construction-material cost offset, building envelops, sound-and heat masking, insulation, aesthetics, etc. The rational BIPV design must include building ll OPEN ACCESS orientation and location, cost and utility issues, appropriate safety and building codes, electrical loads, etc. 145 Semitransparent PSMs are emerging because this device exhibits many unique features like flexibility, aesthetics, etc., which make them promising contestants for several BIPV products. ...
Perovskite solar cells (PSCs) have a comparable performance to silicon and other thin-film photovoltaic (PV) technologies, which are near commercialization. PSCs have several advantages over other established PV technologies such as higher power output, enhanced performance at low light intensities, and mechanical flexibility, which allow their integration into several applications. Industrial opportunities include specific applications in building-integrated photovoltaics, agrivoltaics, and the internet of things. Although it is likely that PSCs will enter a commercialization phase, there are remaining challenges related to various economic and technical issues, including scalable fabrication and operational stability. Here, we review advanced techniques for scalable fabrication and operational stability of PSCs and perovskite solar modules. The required characteristics, such as operational stability and fabrication costs, that remain a challenge to be resolved before entering the PV market are discussed. Moreover, a proposed framework is presented for PSC technology based on material evolution with the perspective of massive scale deployment and marketplace values.
... The technical potential depends on the solar irradiation and the available rooftop area. It is assumed that 40% of the available rooftop area can be used for solar energy (Defaix, et al., 2012). Solar PV competes with solar thermal for available rooftop area. ...
Increasingly, households and enterprises are getting involved in their own energy generation and storage. They not only consume energy, but are also actively engaged in producing energy from renewable sources, for example by installing solar PV on their rooftops. These so-called prosumers can act individually or as part of a broader collective. Either way, their actions are found to contribute to national and EU energy and climate goals, empower citizens and enhance their awareness of the ongoing transition from fossil to renewable energy.
The number of prosumers is increasing in many countries of the EU but an overall picture
of the extent to which EU-citizens could contribute to the future energy system is lacking.
To increase the understanding of the overall potential of prosumerism throughout the
EU + UK, CE Delft developed the CEPROM model. This model aims to answer the question: To what extent can EU citizens and enterprises in the tertiary sector (service providers) contribute to the energy transition in the role of prosumer?
The CEPROM model is an update of the model used in the 2016-study of CE Delft
‘The potential of energy citizens in the European Union’ (CE Delft, 2016). It was developed
in the PROSEU project, an EU-funded research project that brought together eleven project
partners from seven European countries and aimed to enable the mainstreaming of the
renewable energy prosumer phenomenon into the European Energy Union. Much of what is
presented in this report is also reported in Deliverable D5.2 of PROSEU, the Report on local,
national and EU scenarios. This additional report was drafted to enhance the accessibility of
the EU-wide scenarios and compare the results with those of the 2016 study.
... Una vez definida la superficie disponible en cada cubierta, se determina la potencia fotovoltaica y térmica que se podría generar y la producción de energía eléctrica anual (Defaix et al., 2012), generalmente, con módulos fotovoltaicos de silicio monocristalino y multicristalino. Además, se calcula la producción de energía térmica anual tomando como referencia varias temperaturas de uso (60 °C en viviendas y 40 °C, 70 °C y 90 °C en zonas industriales) con colectores solares términos de los tipos tubo de vacío, plano selectivo y plano no selectivo (IDAE y ASIT, 2020). ...
gSolarRoof es un modelo capaz de estimar el potencial de generación de energía solar,
aprovechando la superficie de los tejados, en entornos urbanos e industriales. Para
ello, este modelo aplica una serie de reglas de carácter variable que permiten generar
diferentes escenarios de aprovechamiento, en función de las tecnologías energéticas,
las normas de edificación, la demanda estimada o la protección y seguridad tanto del
edificio como de la instalación, entre otras. El análisis se realiza a partir de un MDS
elaborado con datos LIDAR (PNOA), o bien, de datos de restitución obtenidos mediante
vuelos no tripulados (dron), variando la resolución entre 1 m y pocos centímetros.
El resultado es un análisis pormenorizado de la superficie disponible de todos
los edificios analizados, y de su potencial para la generación de energía con fuentes
renovables. La ponencia se centra en el análisis comparativo de las diferentes técnicas
y fuentes de datos empleadas, los métodos de análisis de error e incertidumbre
aplicados, la validación del modelo y los resultados obtenidos en diferentes casos de
estudio.
... For most settlements and countries, all the necessary information is not available. Approximate calculations can be made using statistical data or GIS technologies [35][36][37][38][39]. Detailed assessment of the technical potential of building-integrated PV systems can be made by using data on building statistics and cadasters [40]. ...
This paper discusses the resource, technical, and economic potential of using solar photovoltaic (PV) systems in Belarus and Tatarstan. The considered countries are characterized by poor actinometric conditions and relatively low tariffs for traditional energy resources. At the same time, Belarus is experienced with solar power due to different incentive mechanisms that have been used over the past decade. Moreover, the cost of building solar power plants in Belarus in 2013–2017 was lower than the world average. The cost of electricity production is analyzed depending on the geographical location of sites and the type of owners of solar power plants (i.e., households, businesses and industrial enterprises, electricity producers). Using the data on the cost of photovoltaic systems as presented by IRENA and considering actinometric data for Belarus and Tatarstan, a long-term forecast of PV electricity cost is made. The moments of the break-even points and payback periods are defined for Belarus and Tatarstan.
... Buildings provide an ideal platform for solar energy capture given that no land use change is required and the energy is used directly where it is generated, creating what is typically called a prosumer. The technical potential of rooftop solar PV could make a notable contribution to electricity demands, for example up to 22% in the European Union (Defaix et al., 2012) and 38.6% in the United States (Gagnon et al., 2016). ...
Buildings provide an ideal platform for solar photovoltaics (PV) towards sustainable development goals, and the decision to invest in PV lies predominantly with building owners. Information delivery is critical for the diffusion of innovations, and this study aims to improve the quality of information for household PV investors in Sweden. A User Journey Mapping approach is applied with a combination of semi-structured interviews and a review of online solar calculators. The results show that despite a rapid growth in the quantity of information there is still a gap between demand and supply due to the lack of clarity and trustworthiness of information. This is clearly demonstrated in the review of online calculators, which show a high variance in results. Payback time, for example, ranged from 7 to 18 years for a single test case. The information gap can be closed by creating neutral, non-commercial online information sources that focus on transparency and education where household investors can validate supplier offers and analyses. The PV industry risks eroding trust in the market, which will likely slow adoption by the early majority and hinder sustainability goals.
... One of the reasons for the expected growth is the target of the European Union (EU) to increase renewable energy generation from 10% to 27% [7] and the EU Energy Performance of Buildings Directive that requires all new buildings to be nearly zero-energy buildings (nZEB) [8,9]. In addition, roof and façade potential capacities for PV are far from being fully exploited and are estimated to be near 1 TWp for the EU [6,10]. ...
Over the past years, a new technology has emerged in the solar photovoltaics market: building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV). Even though this technology has a lot of potential, the diffusion of BIPV has remained rather limited, globally and also in the Netherlands. In this paper, the Technological Innovation System (TIS) approach is used to analyze the historical development of the Dutch BIPV innovation system and to provide a comprehensive overview of the systemic problems that hamper further diffusion of BIPV in the Netherlands. Several systemic problems are identified, including 1) lack of policy support for the industrialization and commercialization of BIPV, 2) the absence of large firms from the construction industry resulting in the lacking industrial capacities of the BIPV innovation system, and 3) the limited value chain coordination and collaboration to help improve the compatibility and complementarity of BIPV with traditional building components and (electrical) installations. To overcome these systemic problems and enable the Dutch BIPV innovation system to move from the present niche market phase to the commercial growth phase, multiple recommendations are provided to both policymakers and value chain actors.
... Two major approaches are currently used to determine builtup area, or more specifically the extent and area occupied by building rooftops, Supplementary Table 7. The first approach addresses the problem from a "Bottom-up" [13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23] perspective and is the most common approach currently implemented to calculate rooftop area at scale. Such approaches establish the relationship between building footprint data (cadastral, crowd-sourced, satellite-derived) and socio-economic metrics (Gross Domestic Product (GDP), Population) for a small sample set and then estimate the extent of building footprints across a wider scale. ...
Rooftop solar photovoltaics currently account for 40% of the global solar photovoltaics installed capacity and one-fourth of the total renewable capacity additions in 2018. Yet, only limited information is available on its global potential and associated costs at a high spatiotemporal resolution. Here, we present a high-resolution global assessment of rooftop solar photovoltaics potential using big data, machine learning and geospatial analysis. We analyse 130 million km2 of global land surface area to demarcate 0.2 million km2 of rooftop area, which together represent 27 PWh yr−1 of electricity generation potential for costs between 40–280 $ MWh−1. Out of this, 10 PWh yr−1 can be realised below 100 $ MWh−1. The global potential is predominantly spread between Asia (47%), North America (20%) and Europe (13%). The cost of attaining the potential is lowest in India (66 $ MWh−1) and China (68 $ MWh−1), with USA (238 $ MWh−1) and UK (251 $ MWh−1) representing some of the costliest countries. Though a global assessment of rooftop solar photovoltaic (RTSPV) technology’s potential and the cost is needed to estimate its impact, existing methods demand extensive data processing. Here, the authors report a machine learning method to realize a high-resolution global assessment of RTSPV potential.
... To transform the solar energy received by the available roof area into electrical energy, the sub-potential is calculated by taking into account the technical transformation characteristics of the solar photovoltaic technology such as the efficiency and the performance [6]. The performance ratio is the difference between standard test conditions performance and the actual output of the system [9] which occurs due to the deviation from standard test conditions, and the losses of panel mismatch, dirt, cables, and inverters [6]. In addition to the technical characteristics of photovoltaics, the space needed between photovoltaic modules to avoid shadowing is another important aspect of determining the technical potential [2]. ...
In today’s world, the necessity of reducing greenhouse gas emissions to meet the global warming regulations has increased the demand for renewable energy sources. A notable portion of energy consumption is dedicated to urban environments. While solar energy is the most promising sustainable energy, urban environments can be considered as high-potential electricity producers by using rooftop-mounted photovoltaic systems. However, effective guidelines for optimal installation of solar photovoltaics remains a challenge. Although in recent years there has been a vast development of methods as well as improvement in availability of data sources. Since it is not always possible to apply the same techniques, specific approaches are needed for local, regional, or continental scales. It still remains to develop a uniform accurate multi-factor method that uses uniform open data sources to determine urban rooftop’s photovoltaic potential. The aim of this paper is to make a complete systematic review of various developed methodologies published in the current state of the art, and identify vital factors for urban rooftop solar photovoltaic potential assessment as well as to detect the best available methods to create a complete global basis for future studies.
... In densely built cities, the only renewable energy source that can be exploited is often solar energy [4]. North-facing roof areas are usually excluded from roof integrated photovoltaic (PV) technologies in the analysis of the technical potential [5]. Moreover, the various criteria used to evaluate the suitability of roofs can lead to significantly different results [6]. ...
It is common practice, in the production of photovoltaic energy to only use the south-exposed roof surface of a building, in order to achieve the maximum production of solar energy while lowering the costs of the energy and the solar technologies. However, using the south-exposed surface of a roof only allows a small quota of the energy demand to be covered. Roof surfaces oriented in other directions could also be used to better cover the energy load profile. The aim of this work is to investigate the benefits, in terms of costs, self-sufficiency and self-consumption, of roof integrated photovoltaic technologies on residential buildings with different orientations. A cost-optimal analysis has been carried out taking into account the economic incentives for a collective self-consumer configuration. It has emerged, from this analysis, that the better the orientation is, the higher the energy security and the lower the energy costs and those for the installation of photovoltaic technologies. In general, the use of south-facing and north-facing roof surfaces for solar energy production has both economic and energy benefits. The self-sufficiency index can on average be increased by 8.5% through the use of photovoltaic installations in two directions on gable roofs, and the maximum level that can be achieved was on average 41.8, 41.5 and 35.7% for small, medium and large condominiums, respectively. Therefore, it could be convenient to exploit all the potential orientations of photovoltaic panels in cities to improve energy security and to provide significant economic benefits for the residential users.
... The maximum electricity production by transforming the solar energy received by the available roof area into electrical energy considering the technical characteristics [7,9] of the solar photovoltaic technology such as the efficiency and the performance [6] is the third sub-potential. The performance ratio is the difference between standard test conditions performance and the actual output of the system [16] which occurs due to the deviation from standard test conditions, and the losses of panel mismatch [6], dirt and accumulated dust particles [17], cables and inverters [6,18]. So, it is required to have an appropriate energy management strategy to improve system performance [19]. ...
Urban areas can be considered high-potential energy producers alongside their notable portion of energy consumption. Solar energy is the most promising sustainable energy in which urban environments can produce electricity by using rooftop-mounted photovoltaic systems. While the precise knowledge of electricity production from solar energy resources as well as the needed parameters to define the optimal locations require an adequate study, effective guidelines for optimal installation of solar photovoltaics remain a challenge. This paper aims to make a complete systematic review and states the vital steps with their data resources to find the urban rooftop PV potential. Organizing the methodologies is another novelty of this paper to create a complete global basis for future studies and improve a more detailed degree in this particular field.
... For rooftop PV, Simoes et al. [32] show calculations with technical potentials adapted from the JRC-IET Times Model. Fechner [6] gives a comprehensive literature overview on PV in Austria (in German) citing generalized numbers from previous studies: Defaix et al. [33] presented rough, generalized numbers for the whole EU which were downscaled for Austria, Seidl [34] calculated numbers for Vienna which were scaled to cover whole Austria, Kjellsson [35] show a single number for rooftop PV potential for Austria and Streicher et al. [36] also presented generalized numbers in their report. ...
Austria aims to meet 100 of its electricity demand from domestic renewable sources by 2030 which means, that an additional 27TWh/a of renewable electricity generation are required, thereof 11TWh/a from photovoltaic. While some federal states and municipalities released a solar rooftop cadastre, there is lacking knowledge on the estimation of the potential of both, ground mounted installations and rooftop modules, on a national level with a high spatial resolution. As a first, in this work data on agricultural land-use is combined with highly resolved data on buildings on a national level. Our results show significant differences between urban and rural areas, as well as between the Alpine regions and the Prealpine- and Easter Plain areas. Rooftop potential concentrates in the big urban areas, but also in densely populated areas in Lower- and Upper Austria, Styria and the Rhine valley of Vorarlberg. The ground mounted photovoltaic potential is highest in Eastern Austria. This potential is geographically consistent with the demand and allows for a production close to the consumer. In theory, the goal of meeting 11TWh/a in 2030 can be achieved solely with the rooftop PV potential. However, considering the necessary installation efforts, the associated costs of small and dispersed production units and finally the inherent uncertainty with respect to the willingness of tens of thousands of individual households to install PV systems, installing the necessary solar PV on buildings alone is constrained.
... So far, the system represents roughly half of Europe's cumulative solar panel installation [4]. However, its total share in final energy consumption falls much below the actual technological potential estimated from various aspects [6], and the growth is often slowed down at buildings' design or construction stage due to the limited choice in its functionality and strong technical constraints [7]. On one hand, the academic research and energy industry consider BIPV, to a great extent, as a mere sub-branch of the PV sector, emphasizing the levelized-cost of electricity and the adaptation to building skins in different shapes [8,9]. ...
The present deployment of photovoltaic (PV) panels on the rooftop has been far below its potential. Stakeholders often see the PV as a strong design constraint, isolated from the built environment and not adapted to their requirements. Here, we propose a new design that combines the PV panels with a metal-organic framework based sorptive thermal battery, which serves as a multi-functional building element and is more actively involved in the indoor environment regulation. The open-loop thermal battery can stock moisture from air with 10⁵ times its volume so that the built environment with high humidity at night is dried to a comfortable and healthy level. The moisture is removed at daytime with unpleasant solar heat, thereby cools the PV panels simultaneously, improving electricity generation by 5%. The benefits of this design can be translated into economic added value to facilitate investment decisions of building-integrated PV projects.
... This is consistent with the findings of Yang et al. [58], who reported that an equivalent of 41% of the lighting energy needs could be satisfied by PV rooftop systems installed over a floor area equivalent to 250 m 2 . In EU countries, Defaix et al. [59] conducted an investigation on PV system installation on building structures, such as rooftops and facades. The results showed the availability of approximately 951 GWp of PV energy, which could provide approximately 840 TWh of electrical energy to EU buildings. ...
In urban environments, decentralized energy systems from renewable photovoltaic resources, clean and available, are gradually replacing conventional energy systems as an attractive source for electricity generation. Especially with the availability of unexploited rooftop areas and the ease of installation, along with technological development and permanent cost reductions of photovoltaic panels. However, the optimal use of these systems requires accurate estimates of supply (rooftop solar photovoltaic potential) and the design of an intelligent distributed-system integrated with power grids. Geographic information systems (GISs)-based estimation is justified as a promising approach for estimating rooftop solar photovoltaic potential, in particular, the possibility of combining GISs with LiDAR (Lighting-Detection-And-Ranging) to build robust approaches leading to accurate estimates of the rooftop solar photovoltaic potential. Accordingly, this study aims to present a comprehensive review of GISs-based rooftop solar photovoltaic potential estimation approaches that have been applied at different scales, including countries. The study classified GISs-based approaches into sampling, geostatistics, modeling, and machine learning. The applications, advantages, and disadvantages of each approach were reviewed and discussed. The results revealed that GISs-based rooftop solar photovoltaic potential estimation approaches, can be applied to the large-scale spatial-temporal assessment of future energy systems with decentralized electrical energy grids. Assessment results can be employed to propose effective-policies for rooftop photovoltaic integration in built environments. However, the development of a new methodology that integrates GISs with machine learning to provide an accurate and less computationally demanding alternative to LiDAR-based approaches, will contribute significantly to large-scale estimates of the solar photovoltaic potential of building rooftops.
As the industry has expanded and the population has increased recently, so have the World’s energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions. Buildings are responsible for almost 40% of this consumption and emissions. They should be designed following energy-efficient and sustainable strategies. One of the most practical methods for increasing building energy efficiency and reducing environmental effects is building-integrated photovoltaic systems, which use solar energy to generate electricity on-site. This thesis explores the potential of photovoltaic glass technology in an architecture studio at the Izmir Institute of Technology Campus in Izmir, Turkey. The initial part of the study uses simulation modeling and field measurements in three scenarios to test the benefits of this technology in terms of thermal and lighting energy consumption and comfort levels. Scenarios included amorphous silicon thin-film modules in three transmittance values modeled in existing windows. Research findings propose that photovoltaic glasses have the potential to balance the room’s lighting loads in a range between 15.1-and 20.3%. They improved occupant thermal and visual comfort by preventing overheating and glare risks. They also decreased cooling loads. Then, the study uses a genetic optimization algorithm to explore the optimum potential of the system in terms of annual energy consumption and daylight performance. Design variables are the window-to-wall ratio (i.e., window size and location) and amorphous-silicon thin-film solar cell transmittance to generate optimum Pareto-front solutions for the case building. Optimization objectives are minimizing annual thermal (i.e., heating and cooling) loads and maximizing Spatial Daylight Autonomy. Optimized results of Low-E semi-transparent amorphous-silicon photovoltaic modules applied on the window surface show that the Spatial Daylight Autonomy is increased to 82% with reduced glare risk and higher visual comfort for the occupants. Photovoltaic modules helped reduce the room's seasonal and annual lighting loads by up to 26.7%. Compared to non-optimized photovoltaic glass, they provide 23.2% more annual electrical energy.
Building-integrated solar photovoltaic (BIPV) systems have gained attention in current years as a way to recover the building's thermal comfort and generate sustainable energy in building structures. BIPV systems can provide shade against sunshine while generating ancillary electrical power. Over the last decades, engineers have been trying to improve the efficiency of BIPV systems. BIPV systems with various installation types, including rooftop, balcony, curtain, sunshade, and wall façade types, are being constantly researched and intensively presented for improving power efficiency and reducing air conditioning use. This work provides an overview of solar BIPV systems and focuses particularly on existing applications of the bifacial type of BIPV systems. The motivation and an overview of BIPV systems are first introduced, followed by the study methodology considered and the contributions. This work discusses PV technologies of bifacial PVs (monocrystalline and polycrystalline bifacial modules), BIPV installation [curtains, rooftop, flat rooftop, transparent faced, balcony windows (transparent), wall opaque facade, flat roof-faced, and skylight sunshade types], simulation and optimization software (simulation software and future trends), zero-energy BIPV technology, and optimization techniques of BIPV systems. Last, suggest amendments to the current BIPV design that possibly contribute to growing the system's effectiveness, reliability, and cost as future design theories for the whole system are presented.
According to energy consumption data of the European Union, buildings account for 40 % of overall energy consumption in all sectors. The rise in building energy demand seriously affects global warming. To reduce demand, buildings must be designed to be energy-efficient. As part of energy-efficiency initiatives, unique systems that employ renewable energy sources should be implemented in buildings. As a new technology, building-integrated photovoltaics is considered an essential technology to achieve this target. Several variables affect the thermal, daylight, and energy performance of building-integrated photovoltaic systems; related to environmental and photovoltaic-related parameters. Thus, the challenges and effects of these variables on the overall performance of these systems should be investigated. This research analyzes building-integrated photovoltaic implemented studies and presents a state-of-art review of recent developments. The study not only summarizes the existing studies developed in this field so far but also analyzes the variables and makes concrete generalizations and inferences. It enables finding gaps and deficiencies in the literature and provides a better understanding of all the variables that affect the performance of building-integrated photovoltaic systems by interpreting the results in detail and representing them graphically instead of only through textual analysis. Results show that building-integrated photovoltaics contribute to constructing a sustainable future for cities. Developments in this industry motivate researchers in this field, whose work will make it easier to cope with future ecological challenges. It helps to build a more sustainable future for society. With new developments, it will be possible to mitigate the effects of future environmental problems.
The rapid development of distributed photovoltaic (PV) systems poses great challenges to the integration capability of distribution networks. Traditionally, the transfer capacity of power distribution equipment is calculated as the maximum loading that prevents overheating under the assumption of extreme weather conditions. Dynamic thermal rating (DTR), which evaluates equipment capacity based on real-time weather conditions, could enhance the transfer capacity to improve distributed PV integration. Through case studies in Texas, Switzerland and China, we show that the application of DTR on power distribution equipment could increase installed PV capacities by 15%-27% and improve net revenues by 4%-27%. We also find that the application of DTR would be positively affected by climate change and is more profitable under the PV policies with higher tariffs for the surplus generation fed into the grid. Compared to energy storage systems, DTR provides a more cost-competitive option to enhance the integration capability of distribution networks.
Electricity generation with photovoltaic (PV) solar energy technology requires significant amounts of space; a particular point of discussion in a densely populated country like the Netherlands. Therefore, we developed a new analytical framework to analyse potential electricity generation for specific PV typologies on 43 different land utilisation and water types. Our results indicate that spatial potentials for PV are substantial compared to current Dutch scenarios and ambitions for its role in a long-term decarbonised energy economy. The spatial potential of PV on rooftop areas is sufficient to largely meet these ambitions; however spatial allocation depends on more factors than the potential alone, e.g. desired implementation speed. Therefore, we have sketched some variants with a more balanced allocation over the various land use types. Innovative options, such as PV within offshore wind parks and on infrastructure, parking spaces and façades offer considerable opportunities for additional generation. Furthermore, we illustrate the considerable impacts on PV potential of (i) current net metering policy, (ii) the upcoming societal preference for lower panel densities in land-based PV parks, and (iii) a focus on cost efficiency instead of spatial efficiency. Policy makers should bear these outcomes in mind when designing support schemes for PV.
Rooftop solar photovoltaics (RSPV) is critical for megacities to achieve low-carbon emissions. However, a knowledge gap exists in a supply-demand coupled analysis that considered simultaneously RSPV spatiotemporal patterns and city-accommodation capacities, a pivotal way to address solar PV intermittency issues. Here, we developed an aggregated model for a RSPV+ system by linking building-level potential assessment to dynamic optimization of building-related flexible loads. Taking Beijing, the capital city of China, as case in point, we show that annual RSPV potential in Beijing’s Greater-Metropolitan area amounts to 15.4 TWh, all of which could be accommodated environmentally friendly and cost-effectively through smart operation of electric vehicles and air conditioners equipped with thermal energy storage (TES). Additionally, the RSPV+ system would reduce 8.6 GW transmission capacity otherwise required for increasing electricity demand for 2035 in Beijing. The analysis offers an important reference for sustainable RSPV development in mega-cities in China and other countries globally.
Rooftop solar photovoltaics (PV) play increasing role in the global sustainable energy transition. This raises the challenge of accurate and high-resolution geospatial assessment of PV technical potential in policymaking and power system planning. To address the challenge, we propose a general framework that combines multi-resource satellite images and deep learning models to provide estimates of rooftop PV power generation. We apply deep learning based inversion model to estimate hourly solar radiation based on geostationary satellite images, and automatic segmentation model to extract building footprint from high-resolution satellite images. The framework enables precise survey of available rooftop resources and detailed simulation of power generation process on an hourly basis with a spatial resolution of 100 m. The case study in Jiangsu Province demonstrates that the framework is applicable for large areas and scalable between precise locations and arbitrary regions across multiple temporal scales. Our estimates show that rooftop resources across the province have a potential installed capacity of 245.17 GW, equivalent to an annual power generation of 290.66 TWh. This highlights the huge space for carbon emissions reduction through developing rooftop PVs.
European Union policies are encouraging the implementation of renewable energies to reduce fossil fuels dependency. This is further motivated by the effects of global warming and the relevant temperature rise in large cities. Thus, it is increasingly important to analyze the large-scale potential of solar energy, making use of the roof availability for renewable energy generation in cities. Furthermore, it is important to couple this analysis with the energy demand of the buildings analyzing the self-consumption possibilities and help in the decision-making process in regional investments. The proposed methodology estimates and matches the roof potential for electricity generation by PV and the building's energy demand, including the building characteristics as a novelty. As a result, we calculate the self-consumption possibilities and the retrofit requirements of a selected housing stock. Our methodology starts with the quantification and classification of the residential stock. This includes the characterization of the types of dwellings in the regional residential stock, taking into account the size of the municipalities. Then the energy demand of the dwellings, depending on the characteristics of the buildings and the roof generation potential, is compared. Catalonia region (Spain), including the city of Barcelona is studied to show the contributions of this methodology to the energy transition. Results indicate that between 8 and 30% of the residential electricity demand of the municipalities can be covered by rooftop PV. Important energy retrofits (reductions of 80% of the energy demand) are required to approach the feasibility of self-consumption. Nevertheless, there is a limited potential impact in larger cities due to the reduced available roof area per habitant.
The ambitious Net Zero aspirations of Great Britain (GB) require massive and rapid developments of Variable Renewable Energy (VRE) technologies. GB possesses substantial resources for these technologies, but questions remain about which VRE should be exploited where. This study develops a transferable methodology to explore the trade-offs between landscape impact, land use competition and resource quality for onshore wind as well as ground- and roof-mounted photovoltaic (PV) systems for the first time across GB. These trade-offs constrain the technical and economic potentials for these technologies at the Local Authority level. Our approach combines techno-economic and geospatial analyses with crowd-sourced ‘scenicness’ data to quantify landscape aesthetics. Despite strong correlations between scenicness and planning application outcomes for onshore wind, no such relationship exists for ground-mounted PV. The innovative method for rooftop-PV assessment combines bottom-up analysis of four cities with a top-down approach at the national level. The results show large technical potentials that are strongly constrained by both landscape and land use aspects. This equates to about 1324 TWh of onshore wind, 153 TWh of rooftop PV and 1200–7093 TWh ground-mounted PV, depending on scenario. We conclude with five recommendations that focus around aligning energy and planning policies for VRE technologies across multiple scales and governance arenas.
Building Integrated Photovoltaic (BIPV) system has proved to be an emerging area worldwide. It is an essential component of the building that simultaneously converts solar energy into electricity, provides protection from weather conditions, and minimizes the noise impact. Solar photovoltaic technology can be integrated into a zero energy building integrated system. It not only replaces the conventional building material but also acts as a power generation in the building. This paper aims to present an overview of the BIPV system in India and across the globe. This work also describes different types of a mounting structure of a BIPV system. The feasibility study of using this system was carried out in an existing building of a constituent institute named Siksha ‘O'Anusandhan Deemed to be University, Bhubaneswar. The total annual revenue generated from 1154.402 MWh system was found to be INR 62, 33,771. Considering the difference in the cost structure of PV facade and glass facade, the payback period was 9.52 years.
Recently, China’s Ministry of Finance continues to expand China’s photovoltaic (i.e., PV) power generation market to alleviate the energy problem. With the rapid development of the Internet, Internet of Things (IOT), and smart phones, more people express their views and concerns about rooftop PV through network channels. In this chapter, through keyword mining and extraction of Internet public opinion (IPO) data combined with literature research, a method for evaluating the comprehensive potential of rooftop PV is proposed. Then, the gray relation projection method (GRPM) is used to evaluate and rank the comprehensive potential of different objects. The case study selected five types of land for evaluation. The results show that the industrial land has the greatest potential for rooftop PV. This method can help decision makers to have a clearer understanding of PV development in the future. It is of great significance for promoting China’s PV industry development.
Research in buildings has lately focused on tackling two main issues: reducing energy use and building better and faster to cope with the expected expansion of cities. The building industry has struggled to adapt to these changes as it is one of the world's largest industries yet one of the least digitalized. One of the challenges is that buildings are becoming more complex to meet these goals and integrate more technologies like renewable energy systems. As a result, there is a need to adopt new methods and tools for designing buildings.
This PhD thesis focused on the design and development of Advanced Building Envelopes (ABEs), which are also sometimes referred to as smart, intelligent, or adaptive building envelopes. ABEs are innovative systems that intend to balance multiple performance aspects such as sustainability, aesthetics, and comfortable indoor environments using new technologies and design approaches. Examples of ABEs may be shading systems that slowly adapt their shape during the day following the sun's path or envelope components specifically designed to optimize energy flows and indoor comfort while harvesting solar energy.
This thesis aims to increase the uptake of ABEs in real-world projects by contributing to characterization systems of new envelope technologies and demonstrating the use of performance-based design approaches. Additionally, it also provided robustness assessments and developed best practice guidelines. This work includes simulations of a specific type of ABE that was an external Venetian blind system with integrated photovoltaic modules. The work developed for the case study used a combination of co-simulation, parametric design, and optimization. The actual performance of the system was also verified in a full-scale experiment.
The thesis' findings highlight that using a performance-based approach had several advantages in addition to providing accurate results. Parametrizing the system's design allowed searching and evaluating many more design alternatives, where eclectic designs could be considered and assessed in a much more efficient manner. Using optimization and co-simulation also allowed generating a set of higher-performing solutions from which one could select a suitable alternative. Finally, this work underlines that new design and evaluation methods can be integrated with initiatives aiming to digitalize building processes and increase collaboration across different engineering fields. However, the types of approaches also require users to develop inter-disciplinary skills and challenge the traditional separation of tasks between architects, engineers, and data scientists.
The ambitious Net Zero aspirations of Great Britain (GB) require massive and rapid developments of Variable Renewable Energy (VRE) technologies. GB possesses substantial resources for these technologies, but questions remain about which VRE should be exploited where. This study explores the trade-offs between landscape impact, land use competition and resource quality for onshore wind as well as ground- and roof-mounted photovoltaic (PV) systems for GB. These trade-offs constrain the technical and economic potentials for these technologies at the Local Authority level. Our approach combines techno-economic and geospatial analyses with crowd-sourced scenicness data to quantify landscape aesthetics. Despite strong correlations between scenicness and planning application outcomes for onshore wind, no such relationship exists for ground-mounted PV. The innovative method for rooftop-PV assessment combines bottom-up analysis of four cities with a top-down approach at the national level. The results show large technical potentials that are strongly constrained by both landscape and land use aspects. This equates to about 1324 TWh of onshore wind, 153 TWh of rooftop PV and 1200-7093 TWh ground-mounted PV, depending on scenario. We conclude with five recommendations that focus around aligning energy and planning policies for VRE technologies across multiple scales and governance arenas.
The role of hydrogen in future energy systems is widely acknowledged: from fuel for difficult-to-decarbonize applications, to feedstock for chemicals synthesis, to energy storage for high penetration of undispatchable renewable electricity. While several literature studies investigate such energy systems, the details of how electrolysers and renewable technologies optimally behave and interact remain an open question. With this work, we study the interplay between (i) renewable electricity generation through wind and solar, (ii) electricity storage in batteries, (iii) electricity storage via Power-to-H2, and (iv) hydrogen commodity demand. We do so by designing a cost-optimal zero-emission energy system and use the Netherlands as a case study in a mixed integer linear model with hourly resolution for a time horizon of one year. To account for the significant role of wind, we also provide an elaborate approach to model broad portfolios of wind turbines. The results show that if electrolyzers can operate flexibly, batteries and power-to-H2-to-power are complementary, with the latter using renewable power peaks and the former using lower renewable power outputs. If the operating modes of the power-to-H2-to-power system are limited - artificially or technically - the competitive advantage over batteries decreases. The preference of electrolyzers for power peaks also leads to an increase in renewable energy utilization for increased levels of operation flexibility, highlighting the importance of capturing this feature both from a technical and a modeling perspective. When adding a commodity hydrogen demand, the amount of hydrogen converted to electricity decreases, hence decreasing its role as electricity storage medium.
Solar energy planning becomes crucial to develop adaptive policies ensuring both energy efficiency and climate change mitigation. Cities, particularly building’s rooftops, constitute a promising infrastructure for enabling the use of locale solar resources. This study proposes a combined engineering–statistical methodology to assess the photovoltaic potential of residential rooftops. Using validated algorithms for solar simulation and geographical information system (GIS) for spatial dissemination, the proposed methodology deals with the lack of data and allows an accurate investigation of the geographical and technical potential. Applied to the municipality of Laghouat, the results reveal that suitable rooftops areas for PV installations in the examined typologies were approximately between 18 and 35%. Moreover, the deployment of distributed PV systems on residential rooftops provides significant technical potential, which could cover up to 55% of the annual electricity needs. These original findings offer a realistic assessment of the usable solar potential within municipalities, which helps decision-makers establish energy efficiency strategies by reducing energy consumption and increasing the share of renewable electricity production. Additionally, the discussion offers valuable insight into energy management and investigates eventual energy sharing among residential buildings to achieve a net-zero energy balance at the municipal level.
The use of solar photovoltaic has strongly increased in the last decade. A significant part of this growth comes from home owners installing rooftop photovoltaic. Despite this key role, most long-term model-based scenarios do not consider decentralized supply of rooftop photovoltaic but concentrate on utility-scale photovoltaic instead. In this paper, we implement rooftop photovoltaic in the Integrated Assessment Model IMAGE to study its possible role in energy and climate scenarios. We first calculated the global technical and economic potential to derive regional cost-supply curves for rooftop photovoltaic. Next, we have added a new decision in the IMAGE model allowing household investment in rooftop photovoltaic based on the comparison of the whole-sale electricity price with the price of rooftop photovoltaic. The global suitable roof surface area was assessed at 36 billion m², or 4.7 m² capita⁻¹, leading to a potential for rooftop photovoltaic of 8.3 PWh y⁻¹, roughly 1.5 times the 2015 global residential electricity demand. In the baseline scenario, adding rooftop photovoltaic could lead to a 80–280% increased share of photovoltaic electricity production in 2050 (i.e. from 6% to 17% in total power production). This increase depends on regional characteristics that are essential to the deployment of rooftop photovoltaic: differences in social-economic and policy factors (capital costs, household income, and electricity prices) are considerably more important than physical factors, such as solar irradiance.
High energy efficiency, energy autonomy, and improved living conditions are basic requirements of sustainable buildings. Advanced building envelope structures can provide these requirements. In the present paper, multipurpose façade structure designed as semi-transparent modular building-integrated photovoltaic façade with a forced ventilated cavity and enhanced heat storage capacity, using encapsulated phase change inserts installed on inner glass pane of photovoltaic module and on building envelope, is evaluated. The design of the façade structure, including simultaneous optimization of photovoltaic cell-packing factor, phase change material inserts properties, and heat transfer by convection in air gap, was based on transient modeling. A 60% photovoltaic cell-packing factor enables the highest overall energy efficiency, while phase change material inserts on the inner glass pane of photovoltaic module have no impact on diurnal photovoltaic cell efficiency. However, a phase change material layer installed on the envelope decreases the diurnal heat losses by half at solar radiation of 2200 Wh/m² day. The energy performance of an optimized modular structure was determined via in-situ experiments; the data were used for developing dynamic approximation models of energy efficiency indicators. It was found that multiple regression models with interactions and past values can predict dynamic responses with sufficient accuracy. Depending on the heating season’s climate conditions, the developed semi-transparent modular building-integrated photovoltaic façade decreases the energy needs 40% to 55% in comparison to the reference façade with solar energy utilization efficiency in the range between 44% and 63%. This proves that such structures can contribute to fulfilling of requirements of sustainable buildings.
In this study, we investigate the performance ratio (PR) of about 100 German photovoltaic system installations. Monitored PR is found to be systematically lower by ~2–4% when calculated with irradiation data obtained by pyranometers (henceforth denoted as PRPyr) as compared with irradiation amounts measured by reference cells (denoted as PRSi). Annual PRSi for the ~100 systems is found to be between ~70% and ~90% for the year 2010, with a median PR of ~84%. Next, simulations were performed to determine loss mechanisms of the top 10 performing systems, revealing a number of these loss
mechanisms may still allow for some optimization. Despite the fact that we do not see such values from our monitoring data base up to now, we believe PRSi values above 90% are realistic even today, using today’s commercially available components, and should be expected more frequently in the future. This contribution may help in deepening our knowledge on both energy loss mechanisms and efficiency limits on the system level and standardization processes of system-related aspects.
In this report the environmental aspects of solar cell modules based on multicrystalline silicon are investigated by means of the Environmental Life Cycle Assessment method. Three technology cases are distinguished, namely present-day module production technology, future probable technology and future optimistic technology. For these three cases the production technology is described, the material requirements and environmental emissions are inventarised and the energy requirements and energy pay-back times are discussed. Finally recommendations with respect to Dutch photovoltaic R&D policy are given.
In recent years there has been an increasing demand among home owners for cost effective sustainable energy production such as solar energy to provide heating and electricity. A lot of research has focused on the assessment of the incoming solar radiation on roof planes acquired by, e.g., Airborne Laser Scanning (ALS). However, solar panels can also be mounted on building facades in order to increase renewable energy supply. Due to limited reflections of points from vertical walls, ALS data is not suitable to perform solar potential assessment of vertical building facades. This paper focuses on a new method for automatic solar radiation modeling of facades acquired by Mobile Laser Scanning (MLS) and uses the full 3D information of the point cloud for both the extraction of vertical walls covered by the survey and solar potential analysis. Furthermore, a new method isintroduced determining the interior and exterior face, respectively, of each detected wall in order to calculate its slope and aspect angles that are of crucial importance for solar potential assessment. Shadowing effects of nearby objects are considered by computing the 3D horizon of each point of a facade segment within the 3D point cloud.
In Nederland zijn er twee nieuwbouwgebieden waar photovoltaïsche zonne-energie (PV) systemen op grote schaal zijn toegepast. Dit zijn de PV-projecten gerealiseerd in de wijk ‘Nieuwland’ in Amersfoort en in het HAL-gebied. Onder het HAL-gebied worden de PV-projecten verstaan die in Heerhugowaard, Alkmaar en Langedijk zijn uitgevoerd. In deze rapportage worden de resultaten van het project Nieuwland in Amersfoort, het project Stad van de Zon in Heerhugowaard en het project Vroonermeer in Alkmaar beschreven. In Nieuwland is bijna 10 jaar geleden meer dan 1 MWp aan PV-systemen geplaatst op ruim 500 huizen. Nieuwland is hiermee het eerste Nederlandse project waar PV op een dergelijk grote schaal op nieuwbouw is toegepast. Het tweede grote PV-project is Stad van de Zon in Heerhugowaard waar 2,45 MWp aan dakgeïntegreerde PV-systemen in de gebouwde omgeving gepland zijn. In Stad van de Zon zijn tot maart 2008 reeds 1.060 woningen gebouwd met een totaal van 1,6 MWp aan dakgeïntegreerde PV-systemen. In Vroonermeer in Alkmaar zijn 152 woningen bedekt met in totaal 516,8 kWp aan PV-systemen. Bij deze projecten is veel kennis en praktische ervaring opgedaan. Om de prestaties van de PV-systemen te kunnen bepalen worden de systemen gemonitord. Over een periode van minimaal één jaar wordt de energieopbrengst van de PV-systemen gemeten. Met deze gegevens kan de zogenaamde Performance Ratio (PR) van de systemen bepaald worden.
The performance of about 400 decentralised PV systems has been evaluated for a period of five years (2001-2006). The systems are situated in the urban area Nieuwland in the town of Amersfoort in the Netherlands and are part of one of the largest decentralised PV projects in the world. The evaluated systems are situated in eight sections and are characterized by different architectural designs, tilt and azimuth angles. In six of the sections the majority of the systems perform well. Data indicate that in those cases there is no substantial lowering of the performance during 5 years. However, several individual systems in those sectors do not perform well. Often defects in the PV system or changes in the roof construction are the cause. For example, string errors are not recognized as such and as a consequence not repaired. In two other sections the performance of the systems is insufficient, but no clear explanation could be found
Building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV) requires institutional support to become a viable technology and a sustainable solution. Between 1990 and 2000, the solar industry demonstrated the viability of BIPV technology by installing hundreds of thousands of successful systems around the world. Architects have created award-winning, elegant solar buildings. Utility companies and municipalities have adopted this technology to augment their infrastructure and electricity services network. The potential for BIPV is widely recognized as significant; however, institutional barriers can slow its deployment. Our research emphasizes institutional issues related to introducing and commercializing photovoltaic (PV) power systems in the built environment. This overview includes an assessment of barriers in the marketplace, the potential for PV in the built environment, the determination of the value and economic considerations and guidelines, and an overview of current international market strategies.
The existing buildings stock in European countries accounts for over 40% of final energy consumption in the European Union (EU) member states, of which residential use represents 63% of total energy consumption in the buildings sector. Consequently, an increase of building energy performance can constitute an important instrument in the efforts to alleviate the EU energy import dependency and comply with the Kyoto Protocol to reduce carbon dioxide emissions. This is also in accordance to the European Directive on the energy performance of buildings (EPBD), which is currently under consideration in all EU member states. The Energy Performance Assessment for Existing Dwellings (EPA-ED) and for Non-Residential Buildings (EPA-NR) are two new methodologies supported by software, developed in the framework of two European projects that focus on energy related issues and are suitable for audits, labeling and issuing an Energy Performance Certificate for existing buildings, in accordance to the EPBD. This paper presents an overview of the two EPA methods and software that can be used to perform building energy audits and assess buildings in a uniform way, perform demand and savings calculations, provide owners with specific advice for measures that can improve energy performance, issue an Energy Performance Certificate for existing buildings, and include some representative results from the pilot studies performed in several European countries.
The pilot production of Cu(In,Ga)Se2 (CIS) modules at Würth Solar has progressed steadily, and the pilot line could be transferred successfully into a continuous operation reaching maximum capacity in 2005 of 1.5 MWp. Best modules on the standard size of 60 cm × 120 cm reached 85 Wp, which corresponds to 13% aperture area efficiency. The average module efficiency has been steadily improved reaching values between 11% and 12% in the year 2005. The overall process yield of the pilot line could be increased and stabilised at high values well above 80%.In April 2005 the Würth Group has decided to invest in a new production line with a starting capacity of 15 MWp/a. This capacity will be available at the end of 2006. The new building at the new location in Schwäbisch Hall/Germany will be ready in mid 2006.The long-time reliability of Würth Solar CIS modules could be proven by passing successfully the certified test according to EN61646 and by stable operation in the field for several years. Additionally, outdoor results with CIS modules in various applications show high energy ratings which are at least as good as the best c-Si systems. Furthermore, various CIS module types have been developed for building integration and other applications.
During the years 2001–2005, a European solar radiation database was developed using a solar radiation model and climatic data integrated within the Photovoltaic Geographic Information System (PVGIS). The database, with a resolution of 1 km × 1 km, consists of monthly and yearly averages of global irradiation and related climatic parameters, representing the period 1981–1990. The database has been used to analyse regional and national differences of solar energy resource and to assess the photovoltaic (PV) potential in the 25 European Union member states and 5 candidate countries. The calculation of electricity generation potential by contemporary PV technology is a basic step in analysing scenarios for the future energy supply and for a rational implementation of legal and financial frameworks to support the developing industrial production of PV. Three aspects are explored within this paper: (1) the expected average annual electricity generation of a ‘standard’ 1 kWp grid-connected PV system; (2) the theoretical potential of PV electricity generation; (3) determination of required installed capacity for each country to supply 1% of the national electricity consumption from PV. The analysis shows that PV can already provide a significant contribution to a mixed renewable energy portfolio in the present and future European Union.
Small grid-connected photovoltaic systems up to 5 kWp are often not monitored because advanced surveillance systems are not economical. Hence, some system failures which lead to partial energy losses stay unnoticed for a long time. Even a failure that results in a larger energy deficit can be difficult to detect by PV laymen due to the fluctuating energy yields. Within the EU project PVSAT-2, a fully automated performance check has been developed to assure maximum energy yields and to optimize system maintenance for small grid-connected PV systems. The aim is the early detection of system malfunctions and changing operating conditions to prevent energy and subsequent financial losses for the operator. The developed procedure is based on satellite-derived solar irradiance information that replaces on-site measurements. In conjunction with a simulation model the expected energy yield of a PV system is calculated. In case of the occurrence of a defined difference between the simulated and actual energy yield, an automated failure detection routine searches for the most probable failure sources and notifies the operator. This paper describes the individual components of the developed procedure—the satellite-derived irradiance, the used PV simulation model, and the principles of the automated failure detection routine. Moreover, it presents results of an 8-months test phase with 100 PV systems in three European countries.
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