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Review of the Satisfaction With Life Scale

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William Pavot at Southwest Minnesota State University
William Pavot
Ed Diener at University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign
Ed Diener
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Abstract

The Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS) was developed to assess satisfaction with the respondent’s life as a whole. The scale does not assess satisfaction with life domains such as health or finances but allows subjects to integrate and weight these domains in whatever way they choose. Normative data are presented for the scale, which shows good convergent validity with other scales and with other types of assessments of subjective well-being. Life satisfaction as assessed by the SWLS shows a degree of temporal stability (e.g., 54 for 4 years), yet the SWLS has shown sufficient sensitivity to be potentially valuable to detect change in life satisfaction during the course of clinical intervention. Further, the scale shows discriminant validity from emotional well-being measures. The SWLS is recommended as a complement to scales that focus on psychopathology or emotional well-being because it assesses an individuals’ conscious evaluative judgment of his or her life by using the person’s own criteria.
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... Some of these studies report a single-factor structure, but when examining the items, the presence of correlated errors has been found between items one and two (Bagherzadeh et al., 2018;la Cruz et al., 2018;Sachs, 2003) and items four and five (la Cruz et al., 2018;Jovanović, 2016;Moksnes et al., 2014). Also, a two-factor factor structure has been found, where items 1, 2, and 3 load on the first factor and assess present achievements of satisfaction, while items 4 and 5 load on the second factor and focus on past achievements (Bagherzadeh et al., 2018;Pavot and Diener, 1993;Sachs, 2003). These differences in the factor structure could be due to cultural differences. ...
... To determine the factor structure of the scale, the goodness-of-fit indices of two different models were compared: (1) One factor, based on the results obtained in the EFA and the consistent results in the CFA of several previous studies including the original author of the scale and his collaborators (Diener et al., 1985), and (2) two factors, satisfaction with life with present achievements (items 1, 2 and 3) and past achievements (items 4 and 5) reported by Bagherzadeh et al. (2018), Pavot and Diener (1993) and Sachs (2003). ...
... On the other hand, no differences were found in satisfaction with life between men and women. This finding is consistent with the studies of Pavot and Diener (1993), Vázquez et al. (2013), Vinaccia Alpi et al. (2019) and Zerpa et al. (2023), in latitudes other than Ecuador, and in Ecuador in university students (Hidalgo-Fuentes et al., 2021). Research in the Ecuadorian adult non-university population and elderly population does find differences by sex. ...
Psychometric properties and factor structure of the satisfaction with life scale in Ecuadorian university students
Article
Full-text available
  • Mar 2025
Background The Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS) measures the global cognitive judgment about one’s own life. Although it has been validated in different countries and populations, in the Ecuadorian context, it has not been validated for a university population. Objective The present study aimed to analyze the psychometric properties of the SWLS in a large sample of Ecuadorian college students. Methods Instrumental-psychometric study with a sample of 4,524 participants from three Ecuadorian universities, with an average age of 22 (±3.15). The SWLS was evaluated in terms of its factor structure, factorial invariance, internal consistency and correlations with other measures related to mental health. Results The SWLS factor structure optimally fits the single-factor model ( X ² /df = 3.79; CFI = 0.998; TLI = 0.996; SRMR = 0.023; RMSEA = 0.030). This model is invariant between men and women. The internal consistency of this instrument is acceptable according to the omega coefficient ( ω = 0.84). The scores of this scale correlate, as expected, negatively with constructs such as depression and stress. Conclusion The SWLS is a valid and reliable instrument to assess the personal perception of life satisfaction of Ecuadorian university students.
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... SWB was assessed using the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS), the Social Adjustment Scale (SAS), and the Social Support Scale (SSS), all of which are recognised for their reliability and cross-cultural applicability (e.g., [20,22,25]). The SWLS has demonstrated strong reliability, with a Cronbach's alpha ranging from 0.85 to 0.90 across studies, indicating high internal consistency (e.g., [26,27]). Similarly, the SAS has shown reliability coefficients typically exceeding 0.80 [28,29], while the SSS has reported alpha values between 0.84 and 0.87 [30], reflecting its robustness in measuring perceived social support. ...
... The interview protocol (Appendix B) was developed during phase two, using research on SWB, beliefs, and lifestyles (e.g., [20,21,27]). It included items aimed at gaining deeper insights into these well-being indicators, such as ratings of statements like "I am happy" on a seven-point scale. ...
“How Do I Start Strong?”: Exploring the Subjective Well-Being, Beliefs, and Lifestyles of First-Year University Students in the UK
Article
Full-text available
  • Mar 2025
Mental well-being is an integral part of university students’ overall well-being, and has been a matter of increasing concern in the UK. The main purpose of this study was to examine the subjective well-being of first-year university students in the UK by investigating the impact of their beliefs and lifestyles on their overall well-being, as well as the factors contributing to such changes. A total of 197 participants, including domestic and international students with ages ranging from 18 to 24, completed a survey assessing subjective well-being, beliefs, lifestyles, and demographic information. Thirty-one of the participants took part in the follow-up interviews. The findings revealed diverse experiences among students, including variations in well-being, belief systems, and lifestyles. Key findings of the research include all three categories of subjective well-being (i.e., emotional, social, and physical well-being) were positively correlated with both philosophical and religious beliefs, and negatively correlated with inactive community engagement. This study also revealed that personal beliefs and lifestyles had an important impact on these changes. This paper discusses the implications of these findings for university support services, and offers insights into the challenges and experiences of first-year students.
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... It contains five items and uses a 7-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (strongly agree) to 7 (strongly disagree). The internal consistency reported by Pavot and Diener (1993) was 0.85. ...
Development and validation of the Chinese mental health value scale: a tool for culturally-informed psychological assessment
Article
Full-text available
  • Mar 2025
Background Mental health values play a significant role in defining, promoting, and intervening in mental health. As part of an individual’s value system, these values are inherently cultural. However, they remain underexplored in Chinese culture context, particularly among the large young adult population of university students. A culturally informed tool to assess mental health values is much needed to support China’s efforts in promoting mental health among college students. Methods Four steps were taken to complete the Chinese Mental Health Value Scale (CMHVS) development, namely, item pool construction including expert reviews, a pilot study for item revision and selection, data collection for explorative and confirmatory factor analyses, and validity testing. Results A 35-item, seven-factor model was identified with high reliability (Cronbach’s alpha of 0.96), and evidence for convergent validity. The seven factors were Expected Self, Relating to Others, Life Principles, Family, Purpose and Meaning, Achievement , and Communication . Conclusion The CMHVS provides a culturally grounded method for assessing mental health values in Chinese university students. It has potential applications in research and clinical settings, improving culturally sensitive mental health promotion and intervention.
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... To make the transformed scale more compatible with the other scales, the scores were divided by 4, which yielded a scale range from .25 to 5.02. Life satisfaction was the average of the 5-item Satisfaction with Life Scale (Pavot & Diener, 1993), with a Cronbach's α of .90. Respondents indicated how strongly they agreed on 7-point scales (1=strongly disagree and 7=strongly agree) with the five items (e.g., My life is close to ideal). ...
Wisdom as a Resiliency Factor for Subjective Well-Being in Later Life
Article
Full-text available
  • Jun 2022
Objectives. Research has shown that wisdom tends to be positively associated with subjective well-being (SWB) in later life, especially if older adults encounter physical or social hardship. Yet, the role of resiliency in the wisdom and well-being relationship has not been investigated. We extended our earlier study that investigated the buffering effect of wisdom on the inverse relationship between adverse life events and SWB (Ardelt & Jeste, 2018) to analyze whether resiliency mediates the association between three-dimensional wisdom and SWB by reducing stress. Method. A structural equation path model was employed, using data from the Successful AGing Evaluation (SAGE) study of 994 adults between the ages of 51 and 99 years (M = 77, SD = 12). Wisdom was assessed as an integration of cognitive, reflective, and compassionate (affective) dimensions, resiliency as resilience and a sense of mastery and control, and SWB as a latent variable with mental health, happiness, and life satisfaction as effect indicators. Results. Resilience, mastery, and perceived stress fully mediated the positive association between wisdom and SWB. Discussion. Wisdom seems to strengthen resilience, mastery, and equanimity during the later years of life, which helps older adults to maintain a sense of well-being despite aging-related losses. The study indicates that wisdom is a valuable psychological resource in old age.
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... This tool assesses various aspects of individuals' satisfaction with their lives, including life ideality, personal goals, and conditions. The validity of the SWLS-5 tool was established in a prior study [39], and in the present study, the tool demonstrated good reliability (Cronbach's alpha of 0.89). Participants were asked to indicate their level of agreement with each of the five items using a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). ...
Depressive symptoms among resettled Bhutanese older adults in Ohio: a cross-sectional study
Article
Full-text available
  • Mar 2025
Background There has been growing attention given to the mental health challenges faced by older adult populations, particularly among resettled refugee communities. Among these groups, the prevalence of depressive symptoms often remains high due to a multitude of factors associated with displacement, trauma, and acculturation stress. Since 2008, Bhutanese refugees have been resettled in the United States, making them one of the largest refugees in the country. However, mental health issues often remain obscured for this demographic, as they are typically subsumed within largely heterogeneous Asian populations. This study aimed to determine depression symptoms in resettled Bhutanese older adults and analyze the associated factors. Methods Snowball sampling was used to collect data from 276 55+-year-old adults in Ohio from January to June 2022. The questionnaire covered demographics, lifestyle, social support, life satisfaction, chronic disease, and depression. Binary logistic regression assessed the associations between associated factors and depressive symptoms. Results and Conclusions Approximately one-third (31.8%) of the participants had depressive symptoms. Factors associated with lower odds of having depressive symptoms included better self-reported health, strong social support, life satisfaction, and high resilience. Individuals with chronic diseases were more likely to have depressive symptoms. The high percentage of depressive symptoms among resettled Bhutanese older adults emphasizes the need for a supportive environment in the host country, ensuring access to resources, and comprehensive and tailored interventions to address their mental health needs.
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... Fourth, the use of a single item is supported by Bergkvist and Rossiter (2007), Sarstedt et al., (2016), Rossiter (2002), Bergkvist (2015) and Diamantopoulos et al., (2012). There is a increasing body of investigation that supports the use of single-item measures for certain variables, such as global life satisfaction and happiness (Pavot & Diener, 1993;Diener et al., 1985). ...
When Following Digital Influencers On Social Media And Buying Their Products Used Shapes Consumption
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While social influencers as streamers promote and endorse brands in social media, we do not know how following the influencer can shape the consumer’s shopping behavior. Twitch.tv is a social media and a live streaming platform for players and gamers. Social influencers work in Twitch.tv aiming influence consumer shopping behavior. Drawing on Social Identity Theory and Endorsement Theory, the authors propose a theoretical framework that consumers following an influencer on social media and buying products used by him/her both moderate the impact of brand recall, trust, and involvement on the total spent in game monthly. We collected data through social media by posting our questionnaire at the Twitch.tv with 270 gamers. The results showed that following the influencer in social media strengthens the main effect of trust and brand recall on total spent in game monthly. Moreover, the greater the number of products bought after seeing an influencer using them, the greater the main effect of trust and involvement on total spent in game monthly. The theoretical reason is because the consumers that buy trustworthy products used by the influencer do so to modify their self-concept and develop relationships with social media celebrities.
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... Subjective well-being, which reflects a good life, is an important issue in social health. Subjective well-being includes two components: cognitive and affective components [2]. ...
Responsibility on physical activity and health to adult over 40 years old in Tirana
Article
  • Mar 2025
The health problem is more current than ever. There are positive relationships between physical activity and life satisfaction. All the above components are included in almost every training program, regardless of the age of the individual. The purpose of the study is to realize a clear and simple panorama on the engagement in physical activity among adults in the age group over 40 years old. The methodology will use the literature research method and observation method, utilizing CrossRef, PubMed, and Google Scholar. In conclusion, by physical activity, we mean systematic and regular exercise with the aim of achieving or maintaining high levels of the components of fitness. To achieve fitness, we must understand the difference between exercise and recreation. Moderate intensity physical activity is positively related to subjective well-being; however, the time spent on high intensity physical activity is negatively related to subjective well-being.
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... The scale consists of five items with a 7-point Likert response scale (1-strongly disagree; 7-strongly agree). The scale has high internal consistency (Pavot & Diener, 1993;Vassar, 2008). The calculated Cronbach alpha for the total score was 0.70. ...
Direct and Indirect Effect of Anger and Cognitive Failures on Subjective Well-being: Mediating Role of Psychological Distress
Article
  • Mar 2025
  • Psychol Stud
Despite the apparent significance of anger and cognitive failures (CF) in shaping Subjective Well-being (SWB), surprisingly, only some studies have investigated the nature of relationships between these variables. This study aims to investigate the direct and indirect effects of predictors anger (state & trait anger) (SA & SA) and CF on SWB through mediator, psychological distress (PD). SWB was operationalized as cognitive and affective evaluations and these components were measured through Satisfaction with life scale and PANAS, respectively. Employing a cross-sectional design with multi-level cluster sampling technique, 600 young adults aged 18–40 years (M = 22.13, SD = 4.06) from Uttar Pradesh, India, were assessed for relevant variables in classroom setting. The findings assert that predictors were positively associated with PD and negatively with SWB, whereas PD was negatively associated with SWB. Preacher and Hayes' (2004) mediation analysis indicates that the SA's standardized direct (β = − 0.17; p < 0.005) and indirect effect (Via PD) (β = − 0.26; p < 0.05) were significant; thus, PD partially mediated between SA and SWB. Whereas a full-mediation of PD existed between TA and SWB with a significant standardized indirect effect (β = -0.34, p < 0.01), similarly, full-mediation of PD existed between CF and SWB with a significant indirect effect of PD (β = − 0.43, p < 0.01). The predictors emerged as substantial risk factors for SWB, especially when exacerbated by PD. Interventions with a component of emotion regulation and distress management may reduce the detrimental impacts of anger and CF by reducing the induced distress.
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Structure of subjective well-being among the elderly.
Article
Full-text available
  • Jun 1986
The present authors interpret subjective well-being within the framework of cognitive theories of emotion. A model consisting of 3 recurrent components of expressions of well-being—positive affect, negative affect, and cognition—was compared with 2 variations of models proposed by J. Liang (see record 1985-19079-001 ). Ss included 2 groups of individuals aged 65+ yrs (688 in Sample 1 and 689 in Sample 2) who participated in the Myth and Reality of Aging in America Survey. LISREL analyses were completed on 17 items from the Affect Balance Scale and the Life Satisfaction Index—Form A. All models provided an acceptable fit as indicated by ratios of chi-square to degrees of freedom. (62 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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On the structure of subjective well-being
Article
Full-text available
  • Dec 1988
  • SOC INDIC RES
This paper reviews literature on the structure of subjective well-being, and examines the support for a number of proposed well-being dimensions. It is considered that a distinction between cognitive and affective dimensions is conceptually useful, but poorly researched. Clear support, however, is available for a distinction between positive and negative affective dimensions, as well as for a general second-order dimension of subjective well-being. Proposals for a distinction between inner and outer dimensions of well-being are considered promising but speculative at present. Although the intensity and frequency of affective experience are clearly distinct, it is considered that affect intensity should not be regarded as a dimension of well-being. Three issues related to the dimensionality of well-being, the time focus of assessment, attempts at cross-classification of dimensions, and research on the stability of well-being structure, are also discussed. Although considerable research into subjective well-being exists, the structure of well-being is not yet well established or researched.
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The Satisfaction With Life Scale
Article
  • Jan 1985
  • J PERS SOC PSYCHOL
This article reports the development and validation of a scale to measure global life satisfaction, the Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS). Among the various components of subjective well-being, the SWLS is narrowly focused to assess global life satisfaction and does not tap related constructs such as positive affect or loneliness. The SWLS is shown to have favorable psychometric properties, including high internal consistency and high temporal reliability. Scores on the SWLS correlate moderately to highly with other measures of subjective well-being, and correlate predictably with specific personality characteristics. It is noted that the SWLS is suited for use with different age groups, and other potential uses of the scale are discussed.
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