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The visible implant elastomer marking technique in use for small reptiles

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The visible implant elastomer marking technique in use for small reptiles
Penney, Kristen M;Gianopulous, Kristie D;McCoy, Earl D;Mushinsky, Henry R
Herpetological Review; Dec 2001; 32, 4; ProQuest Central
pg. 236
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
... The resulting tag is small, flexible, biocompatible, and can be visualized in daylight or enhanced with an ultraviolet (UV) light [5]. Along with fish, the use of VIE tags has been reported in amphibians, reptiles, and invertebrates with little effect on growth and survival but variable retention rates over time [2,[6][7][8]. Within the literature across taxa, tag retention appears to be variably affected by species, individual size, injection location, volume injected, experience of the injector, and observer variability [3,6,7,[9][10][11][12]. ...
... Within the literature across taxa, tag retention appears to be variably affected by species, individual size, injection location, volume injected, experience of the injector, and observer variability [3,6,7,[9][10][11][12]. Tag migration, breakage, granuloma formation, and complete loss have all been reported [2,[7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16]. Microscopic evaluation of VIE tagging sites has only been reported in shrimp (Penaeus vannamei) and stertlet (Acipense ruthenus) in which mild, chronic inflammation and fibrosis were found at the injection sites [14,16]. ...
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Passive integrated transponder (PIT) and visible implant elastomer (VIE) tags are commonly used to identify reptiles, amphibians, and fish. Despite reports of good retention rates and little to no negative effect on survival time, migration remains a concern and histologic changes have not been widely evaluated. Fifty-six wild-caught marine toads (Rhinella marina) were marked with a PIT tag in the left caudal thigh and a VIE tag over the right gastrocnemius muscle prior to transport to the North Carolina Zoo. Fourteen toads were then humanely euthanized on day 9, 15, 32, and 62 for postmortem examination and histopathology which were compared to 10 control toads with no tags. All PIT tags were functional and 95% remained at the insertion site with minimal to no histologic changes. Externally, 48% of VIE tags were visible through the skin at the original site of injection under fluorescent or UV light. Upon gross examination of the tissues, VIE tags had an overall retention rate of 62% at the injection site, with similar retention rates across time points. Migrated VIE material was visible grossly and histologically in the kidneys of 98% of toads and along the right leg, proximally and distally, in 25% of toads. VIE material was also found sporadically in mesentery, colon, and free in the coelomic cavity. Histologically, VIE material in the skin was surrounded by minimal to mild granulomatous inflammation while in the kidney it was associated with dilation of the small vessels, edema, and granulomatous nephritis that progressed in severity over time. Based on these findings, the authors recommend the use of PIT tags over VIE tags for identification of adult anurans, when feasible.
... We are unaware of any current methodology to confidently identify sex of individual S. scincus based on external characteristics, so we are unable to report sex (though we note current work in the lab is directed toward this goal). Individuals were marked with visible implant elastomer on the ventral surface between osteoderms and epidermis (Penney et al., 2001;Schmidt & Schwarzkopf, 2010). Animals were kept in two plastic bins (38 × 54 × 33 cm) filled to a depth of 14 cm with all-purpose sand (Mastercraft, Eau Claire, Wisconsin, USA). ...
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Little is known about the natural history of Sandfish Skinks (Scincus scincus), despite a range spanning two continents.In arid and hot environments across North Africa and the Arabian Peninsula, these lizards are uniquely adapted to asand dune environment. However, much about the basic biology of this species remains unknown, especially concerningadaptations to its thermal environment. With this study, we compiled a robust suite of thermal biology parameters toassess within-individual trait covariation in Sandfish Skinks (n = 8). We found one of the highest recorded critical thermalmaxima for a vertebrate ectotherm (mean: 48.2 °C), suggesting a large thermal safety margin. We quantified thermalpreferences and documented use of sand horizons to thermoregulate. We monitored individual body temperatures dayand night for one week and found significant differences in active and inactive thermoregulation. Additionally, wequantified thermal dependence of performance by recording sprinting speed and diving speed, important for prey captureand predator avoidance, across a range of temperatures. Finally, we measured the critical thermal minimum (CTMIN)and maximum (CTMAX), allowing us to build a complete thermal performance curve (TPC) for two behaviors, which weused to estimate optimal temperatures for performance. We then tested the relationship between thermal preferencesand performance, finding no support for the thermal coadaptation hypothesis in the context of hunting or predatoravoidance. Overall, these data provide understanding of how this unique ectotherm survives in the extreme thermalconditions of a hot desert.
... We did not come across any lizard species during surveys other than Pachydactylus rangei. When a gecko was sighted, we approached slowly, and using a blacklight (68 LED UV Flashlight: Glossday GD0005-FBA), determined whether the gecko already had been marked (i.e., recapture or new capture) with ultraviolet Visual Implant Elastomer (VIE; Penney et al., 2001; Northwest Marine Technology, Inc., Shaw Island, WA USA). We generated identification codes by injecting VIE directly under the skin using 1-3 colours placed in 1-6 positions (i.e., four dorsal quadrants plus one on each femur). ...
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The Namib web-footed gecko, Pachydactylus rangei, is a nocturnal dune-dwelling gecko endemic to southern Africa. Although noted for their webbed feet and semi-transparent skin, little is known about the population characteristics and spatial ecology of P. rangei. We conducted surveys to assess population characteristics (e.g., density, sex ratio), home range size, and habitat use of P. rangei focusing on potential demographic differences in body size, activity, and behavior. We captured 260 geckos in a ratio of 1 adult male:1 adult female. The species exhibits sexual size dimorphism with females being larger in both SVL and mass compared to males. We estimate that there were 575 geckos on our 29.7 ha study site, yielding a density of 19.4 geckos/ha. Home range estimates were large (>4 ha) for some adults, with median estimates tending to be larger for females. Demographic groups differed in their use of compact sand, loose sand, and slipfaces with juveniles occurring on slipfaces more often and males occurring on slipfaces less often than random expectations. Males were most likely and juveniles were least likely to be resighted. Additional research could elucidate observed patterns in social organization, as well as demographic variation in activity and home range use.
... Given the number of elastomer color combinations possible, coupled with using multiple positions on the body, it is possible to mark hundreds of individuals uniquely. VIE tagging has been used widely in many fishes (Frederick 1997;Olsen and Vollestad 2001;Curtis 2006;Hohn and Petrie-Hanson 2013) and amphibians (MacNeil et al. 2011;Hudgens 2018;Tapley et al. 2019) but is used less commonly in reptiles (Penney et al. 2001;Waudby and Petit 2011). A few studies have tested VIE markers on caenophidian snakes weighing as little as 12 g (Hutchens et al. 2008;Major et al. 2020). ...
... Invasive techniques involve a potential traumatic event, especially in reptiles that present epidermal sensitivity, and the difficulty in marking reptile species with a small size with potential for tissue regeneration, and also juveniles of larger species, has been reported (Powell 2000;Seigel et al. 2005;Plummer and Ferner 2012). The invasive techniques used to mark reptiles include toe and scale clipping (Mellor et al. 2004;Ikeuchi et al. 2005;Winne et al. 2006;Ferner 2007;Perry et al. 2011), injecting fluorescent elastomer dyes, implanting a passive integrated transponder into the body cavity (Penney et al. 2001;Mellor et al. 2004;Winne et al. 2006), DNA analysis and molecular parentage assessment (Perase et al. 2001), shell notching (Stubbs et al. 1984;Kazmaier et al. 2001), tattooing, painting, tagging, freeze branding, and heat branding (Lewke and Stroud 1974;Lang 1992;Ehmann 2000;Mellor et al. 2004;Roe and Georges 2007). ...
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Natural marks have increasingly been used as a tool for individual identification in capture–mark–recapture techniques. Photo-identification is a noninvasive alternative to traditional marking techniques, allowing individual recognition of species through time and space. We tested the APHIS (Automatic Photo Identification Suite) software as a software capable of identifying individuals of Hermann’s Tortoise (Testudo hermanni Gmelin, 1789) and European Pond Turtle (Emys orbicularis (Linneaus, 1758)) in different populations during capture–release sessions in the field based on plastron color patterns, since they can be used as natural marks for identification. For this individual identification, spot pattern matching (SPM) and image template matching (ITM) procedures were tested, achieving 100% success of individuals recognized in both procedures and visually verified by comparing the images. However, the ITM procedure was more efficient at recognizing recaptures than SPM because ITM allowed faster recapture verification, since most of the matches were directly placed in the first position on the candidate list. Previous studies used photo-identification on freshwater or sea turtles but never with terrestrial tortoise species. Consequently, it was corroborated that APHIS is a competent and efficient software considering photo-identification of T. hermanni and E. orbicularis, and that it can be applied to close species with similar and unique individual color patterns in their plastron.
... Visible implant elastomer (VIE; Northwest Marine Technology, Inc, Anacortes, USA) is used to mark individuals by injecting a small bead of inert, colored polymer under the skin or cuticle. VIE has been widely used in both natural and laboratory populations of reptiles, amphibians, and fish (Bainbridge et al., 2015;Bushon et al., 2007;Penney et al., 2001). VIE has also been trialed in blow flies and earthworms, with results suggesting no impact on survival or development (Butt & Lowe, 2007;Moffatt, 2013). ...
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• Advances in individual marking methods have facilitated detailed studies of animal populations and behavior as they allow tracking of individuals through time and space. Hemimetabolous insects, representing a wide range of commonly used model organisms, present a unique challenge to individual marking as they are not only generally small-bodied, but also molt throughout development, meaning that traditional surface marks are not persistent. • Visible implant elastomer (VIE) offers a potential solution as small amounts of the inert polymer can be implanted under the skin or cuticle of an animal. VIE has proved useful for individually marking fish, crustaceans, and amphibians in both field and laboratory studies and has recently been successfully trialed in laboratory populations of worms and fly larvae. We trialed VIE in the single-piece nesting termite Zootermopsis angusticollis, a small hemimetabolous insect. • We found that there was no effect of VIE on survival and that marks persisted following molting. However, we found some evidence that marked termites performed less allogrooming and trophallaxis than controls, although effect sizes were very small. • Our study suggests that VIE is an effective technique for marking small hemimetabolous insects like termites but we advocate that caution is applied, particularly when behavioral observation is important.
... Physically marking animals with conspicuous identifi ers can have a similar discouraging effect. Although perhaps not as extreme as the engraved scarifi cation employed to mark stolen ploughshare tortoises (Astrochelys yniphora) that were to be returned to Madagascar (see Smith, 2011), more subtle permanent markings including shell notching and engraving in chelonians (Plummer & Ferner, 2012), ventral scale clipping or marking in snakes (FitzSimons, 1925a;Brown & Parker, 1976), fl uorescent tattoos (Petit et al., 2012) and visible implant elastomers (VIEs) in smaller lizards and amphibians (Nauwelaerts et al., 2000;Penney et al., 2001) could be highly effective. With visibly discernible markings that can be traced back to a specifi c individual in a specifi c zoological collection, it may be diffi cult for thieves to sell or offl oad stolen animals. ...
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As one of their many core responsibilities, zoological parks are entrusted with safeguarding their animal collections from a broad range of hazards and threats. Many zoos and related facilities have experienced thefts of collection animals over the past century, with reptiles and amphibians ranking among the most targeted animal groups. This article discusses general trends in reptile and amphibian thefts from zoos and related facilities and provides an historical overview of noteworthy thefts from these institutions dating back to the late 19th Century, with a particular focus on some of the more brazen and outlandish incidents primarily in English-speaking countries. Based on this review, I conclude with a discussion of how zoological parks can improve upon how they display and safeguard their herpetological collections from theft.
... A visible implant elastomer (VIE; Northwest Marine Technology, Shaw Island, Washington, USA) was used as a marking to identify geckos. Several previous studies in which VIE tags were used for reptiles, including a gecko, indicated that they are retained at least for a year (Penney et al., 2001;Hutchens, 2008;Smith et al., 2012;Anderson et al., 2015). Six separate fixed positions (forelimbs, each side of midbody, hindlimbs) on the dorsal side of a gecko were chosen for marking, but the number of marks on an individual was limited to three. ...
... Creating visible and identifiable marks on individual animals is often crucial for collecting behavioral or demographic data, particularly when researchers want to observe and track a subset of the study population. Various marking methods are common in herpetofauna such as passive integrative transponder (PIT) tags (Germano and Williams 1993;Keck 1994;Jemison et al. 1995), branding (Clark 1971;Lewke and Stroud 1974), clipping of the toes, tail, or scales (Brown 1997), and use of colored beads (Fisher and Muth 1989;Galdino et al. 2014), non-toxic paints (Simon and Bissinger 1983;Rodda et al. 1988), or visible implant elastomers (Penney et al. 2001), just to name a few. Markings may negatively affect animals if they cause infection, induce abnormal physiological responses (e.g., elevated glucocorticoids), or impede locomotion (Bloch and Irschick 2004;McCarthy and Parris 2004;Langkilde and Shine 2006). ...
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The use of color markings (e.g., non-toxic paint, dye, or pens) is frequently employed by herpetologists to track individuals within a population, but effects of these markings on study animals are generally unknown. Markings could affect survival rates, although this can be difficult to determine through mark-and-recapture methods. With clay models, however, we can quantify interactions with predators and measure predation risk associated with color markings. We used 126 clay models of Western Fence Lizards (Sceloporus occidentalis) to examine how marking individuals with colored paint influences predation risk, and to determine whether conspicuous colors enhance risk more than inconspicuous colors. We compared avian attacks on unmarked models to attacks on two treatments: models marked with white nail polish or purple polish. We modeled how these treatments are viewed under an avian visual system and found that white markings exhibited greater achromatic contrast against the clay while purple markings exhibited greater chromatic contrast. Models marked with purple paint received significantly fewer attacks than the control, while the attack rate for the white treatment was similar to that of the control. These results show that purple markings could have positively affected survival rates of marked animals. Conducting experiments on the effects of artificial markings might help researchers minimize negative impacts on their study animals. These studies also suggest that markings may have unintended effects by skewing predation risk, thereby potentially influencing research outcomes.
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A species’ life history is a strong determinant of its risk of extinction; traits such as body size, growth rate, age at maturity and fecundity influence population viability and persistence, as well as capacity for dispersal and colonisation of new habitats. Yet, despite the potential for substantial geographic variation in life history, most conservation programmes rely upon the species average rather than information specific to individual populations. We use the Guthega Skink (Liopholis guthega), a threatened alpine endemic lizard restricted to two geographically isolated locations in south‐eastern Australia, as a case study to demonstrate how geographic variation in life history traits may better inform conservation management. Liopholis guthega has a relatively short life span, with only a few years of reproductive activity, inter‐annual variation in reproductive output, and less‐than‐annual reproduction. We show that the Victorian population has a significantly slower growth rate, attains a smaller maximum size, reaches reproductive maturity later, and produces significantly smaller litters, despite no difference in longevity suggesting that it may be more vulnerable to extinction. We, therefore, suggest evaluating genetic rescue from the New South Wales population to improve recruitment and longevity of Victorian L. guthega, ongoing population monitoring in both locations, and a dedicated pest control programme to reduce pressure on this population. Our study has far reaching impacts; primarily demonstrating how knowledge of geographic variation in life history has the potential to improve conservation management of threatened species.
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Young razorback sucker Xyrauchen texanus (mean total length [TL] = 127 mm) and Colorado squawfish Ptychocheilus lucius (mean TL = 150 mm) were marked by freeze branding and injection of a fluorescent elastomer. The elastomer injection was made at the base of the anal fin and on the operculum (razorback suckers) or lower jaw (Colorado squawfish) and consisted of one of four colors: green, blue, red, or orange. Freeze branding had 99% retention after 15 months for both species. Elastomer recognition was better for Colorado squawfish (mean 74%) than for razorback suckers (mean 60%) after 15 months, and retention at both locations was similar. Red and orange had the best recognition and blue had the poorest. Red and orange elastomer injected in young Colorado squawfish could be detected (95%) for 5 months. One person implanting elastomer at two locations on each fish and one person anesthetizing and handling fish can mark 130-140 fish/h. Approximately three times that number can be freeze-branded per hour. Greater retention times and efficiency in marking makes the use of freeze branding a practical replacement for tagging with passive integrated transponders during the first two growing seasons.
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Three marking methods-tattoo ink injected with a dental inoculator, an elastic polymer injected by syringe, and fin clipping—were tested to determine a suitable technique for estimating population size, survival, and movement of age-0 Colorado squawfish Ptychocheilus lucius. Laboratory tests indicated that all three marks were retained at sufficient rates (>97%) to make population estimates over a 21-d period. However, fish marked with tattoo ink had higher mortality (10%) than fish marked with elastic polymer (< 1%) or with a fin clip (0%). Fish marked with the elastic polymer had higher retention (85%) than those marked with fin clips (34%) or tattoo ink (26%) after 142 d. No differences in vulnerability to predation were observed among fish with the three marks or between marked and unmarked fish. A field test of the elastic polymer showed that it was easy to use, caused low mortality (5% for fish held overnight in live-cages), and produced marks that were readily visible, Mark–recapture methods were used to estimate population size of Colorado squawfish (5,595 in the autumn and 2,523 the following spring) and winter survival (45%). Survival estimates from mark–recapture data were more accurate and precise than those from catch-per-unit-effort data, at least for short-term studies in river reaches less than 50 km long. Simulations showed that doubling the size of the study section and increasing the probability of capture by 33% would reduce possible bias from 14.5% to 1.4% and the coefficient of variation (SE/mean) from 0.25 to 0.06.
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The assumption that marking does not alter the vulnerability of fish to a visual predator was examined. Similar numbers of age-0 steelhead Oncorhynchus mykiss were tagged with binary-coded-wires, tagged with passive integrated transponders, freeze branded, marked with fingerling tags, or left unmarked. All were subjected to age-1 steelhead predators for 24 h in 2.4-m-diameter circular tanks filled with clear well water. Twice as many marked as unmarked age-0 steelhead prey were eaten. There was no significant survival difference among the four marked treatment groups, which suggested that in the laboratory the trauma associated with marking is more important than mark type. We conclude that marking may effect postrelease survival and recommend that mark–recapture experiments be used to empirically determine and correct for differences in survival of marked and unmarked fish.