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The visible implant elastomer marking technique in use for small reptiles

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K M Penney
K M Penney
K M Penney
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Kristie Gianopulos
Kristie Gianopulos
E D McCoy
E D McCoy
E D McCoy
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Henry Mushinsky at University of South Florida
Henry Mushinsky
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The visible implant elastomer marking technique in use for small reptiles
Penney, Kristen M;Gianopulous, Kristie D;McCoy, Earl D;Mushinsky, Henry R
Herpetological Review; Dec 2001; 32, 4; ProQuest Central
pg. 236
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
... The resulting tag is small, flexible, biocompatible, and can be visualized in daylight or enhanced with an ultraviolet (UV) light [5]. Along with fish, the use of VIE tags has been reported in amphibians, reptiles, and invertebrates with little effect on growth and survival but variable retention rates over time [2,[6][7][8]. Within the literature across taxa, tag retention appears to be variably affected by species, individual size, injection location, volume injected, experience of the injector, and observer variability [3,6,7,[9][10][11][12]. ...
... Within the literature across taxa, tag retention appears to be variably affected by species, individual size, injection location, volume injected, experience of the injector, and observer variability [3,6,7,[9][10][11][12]. Tag migration, breakage, granuloma formation, and complete loss have all been reported [2,[7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16]. Microscopic evaluation of VIE tagging sites has only been reported in shrimp (Penaeus vannamei) and stertlet (Acipense ruthenus) in which mild, chronic inflammation and fibrosis were found at the injection sites [14,16]. ...
Migration and Histologic Effects of Visible Implant Elastomer (VIE) and Passive Integrated Transponder (PIT) Tags in the Marine Toad (Rhinella marina)
Article
Full-text available
  • Nov 2021
Passive integrated transponder (PIT) and visible implant elastomer (VIE) tags are commonly used to identify reptiles, amphibians, and fish. Despite reports of good retention rates and little to no negative effect on survival time, migration remains a concern and histologic changes have not been widely evaluated. Fifty-six wild-caught marine toads (Rhinella marina) were marked with a PIT tag in the left caudal thigh and a VIE tag over the right gastrocnemius muscle prior to transport to the North Carolina Zoo. Fourteen toads were then humanely euthanized on day 9, 15, 32, and 62 for postmortem examination and histopathology which were compared to 10 control toads with no tags. All PIT tags were functional and 95% remained at the insertion site with minimal to no histologic changes. Externally, 48% of VIE tags were visible through the skin at the original site of injection under fluorescent or UV light. Upon gross examination of the tissues, VIE tags had an overall retention rate of 62% at the injection site, with similar retention rates across time points. Migrated VIE material was visible grossly and histologically in the kidneys of 98% of toads and along the right leg, proximally and distally, in 25% of toads. VIE material was also found sporadically in mesentery, colon, and free in the coelomic cavity. Histologically, VIE material in the skin was surrounded by minimal to mild granulomatous inflammation while in the kidney it was associated with dilation of the small vessels, edema, and granulomatous nephritis that progressed in severity over time. Based on these findings, the authors recommend the use of PIT tags over VIE tags for identification of adult anurans, when feasible.
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... Given the number of elastomer color combinations possible, coupled with using multiple positions on the body, it is possible to mark hundreds of individuals uniquely. VIE tagging has been used widely in many fishes (Frederick 1997;Olsen and Vollestad 2001;Curtis 2006;Hohn and Petrie-Hanson 2013) and amphibians (MacNeil et al. 2011;Hudgens 2018;Tapley et al. 2019) but is used less commonly in reptiles (Penney et al. 2001;Waudby and Petit 2011). A few studies have tested VIE markers on caenophidian snakes weighing as little as 12 g (Hutchens et al. 2008;Major et al. 2020). ...
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... Visible implant elastomer (VIE; Northwest Marine Technology, Inc, Anacortes, USA) is used to mark individuals by injecting a small bead of inert, colored polymer under the skin or cuticle. VIE has been widely used in both natural and laboratory populations of reptiles, amphibians, and fish (Bainbridge et al., 2015;Bushon et al., 2007;Penney et al., 2001). VIE has also been trialed in blow flies and earthworms, with results suggesting no impact on survival or development (Butt & Lowe, 2007;Moffatt, 2013). ...
Marking through molts: An evaluation of visible implant elastomer to permanently mark individuals in a lower termite species
Article
Full-text available
  • Aug 2021
• Advances in individual marking methods have facilitated detailed studies of animal populations and behavior as they allow tracking of individuals through time and space. Hemimetabolous insects, representing a wide range of commonly used model organisms, present a unique challenge to individual marking as they are not only generally small-bodied, but also molt throughout development, meaning that traditional surface marks are not persistent. • Visible implant elastomer (VIE) offers a potential solution as small amounts of the inert polymer can be implanted under the skin or cuticle of an animal. VIE has proved useful for individually marking fish, crustaceans, and amphibians in both field and laboratory studies and has recently been successfully trialed in laboratory populations of worms and fly larvae. We trialed VIE in the single-piece nesting termite Zootermopsis angusticollis, a small hemimetabolous insect. • We found that there was no effect of VIE on survival and that marks persisted following molting. However, we found some evidence that marked termites performed less allogrooming and trophallaxis than controls, although effect sizes were very small. • Our study suggests that VIE is an effective technique for marking small hemimetabolous insects like termites but we advocate that caution is applied, particularly when behavioral observation is important.
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... Physically marking animals with conspicuous identifi ers can have a similar discouraging effect. Although perhaps not as extreme as the engraved scarifi cation employed to mark stolen ploughshare tortoises (Astrochelys yniphora) that were to be returned to Madagascar (see Smith, 2011), more subtle permanent markings including shell notching and engraving in chelonians (Plummer & Ferner, 2012), ventral scale clipping or marking in snakes (FitzSimons, 1925a;Brown & Parker, 1976), fl uorescent tattoos (Petit et al., 2012) and visible implant elastomers (VIEs) in smaller lizards and amphibians (Nauwelaerts et al., 2000;Penney et al., 2001) could be highly effective. With visibly discernible markings that can be traced back to a specifi c individual in a specifi c zoological collection, it may be diffi cult for thieves to sell or offl oad stolen animals. ...
Heists, hoisters and herpetofauna: Safeguarding zoological collections from thievery
Article
Full-text available
  • Dec 2020
As one of their many core responsibilities, zoological parks are entrusted with safeguarding their animal collections from a broad range of hazards and threats. Many zoos and related facilities have experienced thefts of collection animals over the past century, with reptiles and amphibians ranking among the most targeted animal groups. This article discusses general trends in reptile and amphibian thefts from zoos and related facilities and provides an historical overview of noteworthy thefts from these institutions dating back to the late 19th Century, with a particular focus on some of the more brazen and outlandish incidents primarily in English-speaking countries. Based on this review, I conclude with a discussion of how zoological parks can improve upon how they display and safeguard their herpetological collections from theft.
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... A visible implant elastomer (VIE; Northwest Marine Technology, Shaw Island, Washington, USA) was used as a marking to identify geckos. Several previous studies in which VIE tags were used for reptiles, including a gecko, indicated that they are retained at least for a year (Penney et al., 2001;Hutchens, 2008;Smith et al., 2012;Anderson et al., 2015). Six separate fixed positions (forelimbs, each side of midbody, hindlimbs) on the dorsal side of a gecko were chosen for marking, but the number of marks on an individual was limited to three. ...
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... Creating visible and identifiable marks on individual animals is often crucial for collecting behavioral or demographic data, particularly when researchers want to observe and track a subset of the study population. Various marking methods are common in herpetofauna such as passive integrative transponder (PIT) tags (Germano and Williams 1993;Keck 1994;Jemison et al. 1995), branding (Clark 1971;Lewke and Stroud 1974), clipping of the toes, tail, or scales (Brown 1997), and use of colored beads (Fisher and Muth 1989;Galdino et al. 2014), non-toxic paints (Simon and Bissinger 1983;Rodda et al. 1988), or visible implant elastomers (Penney et al. 2001), just to name a few. Markings may negatively affect animals if they cause infection, induce abnormal physiological responses (e.g., elevated glucocorticoids), or impede locomotion (Bloch and Irschick 2004;McCarthy and Parris 2004;Langkilde and Shine 2006). ...
The effect of paint marking on predation risk in Western Fence Lizards: a test using clay models
Article
Full-text available
  • Apr 2019
The use of color markings (e.g., non-toxic paint, dye, or pens) is frequently employed by herpetologists to track individuals within a population, but effects of these markings on study animals are generally unknown. Markings could affect survival rates, although this can be difficult to determine through mark-and-recapture methods. With clay models, however, we can quantify interactions with predators and measure predation risk associated with color markings. We used 126 clay models of Western Fence Lizards (Sceloporus occidentalis) to examine how marking individuals with colored paint influences predation risk, and to determine whether conspicuous colors enhance risk more than inconspicuous colors. We compared avian attacks on unmarked models to attacks on two treatments: models marked with white nail polish or purple polish. We modeled how these treatments are viewed under an avian visual system and found that white markings exhibited greater achromatic contrast against the clay while purple markings exhibited greater chromatic contrast. Models marked with purple paint received significantly fewer attacks than the control, while the attack rate for the white treatment was similar to that of the control. These results show that purple markings could have positively affected survival rates of marked animals. Conducting experiments on the effects of artificial markings might help researchers minimize negative impacts on their study animals. These studies also suggest that markings may have unintended effects by skewing predation risk, thereby potentially influencing research outcomes.
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... For instance, Winne et al. (2006) and Ekner et al. (2011) proposed a marking technique based on heat-branding with pen-like medical cautery units. Visible implant elastomer tags are another alternative (Penney et al., 2001). However, even though these recent techniques for marking vertebrates seem less aggressive, we also recommend studies to evaluate potential negative effects. ...
Effect of toe-clipping on the survival of several lizard species
Article
Toe-clipping is an extensively used technique for individual identification of amphibians and reptiles. However, this method might result in negative effects including reduced survival. In this study, we used capture-mark-recapture data obtained from ten different lizard species, including more than one population for two species, to examine whether survival rates varied as a function of the number of toes that were clipped. We used likelihood methods and multi-state models to estimate survival probabilities. Specifically, we tested if the number of clipped toes had an effect on annual survival, comparing survival among groups of individuals that shared the same number of toes that were clipped. We found clear reductions in survival associated with the removal of several toes in seven study sites that correspond to five different species. These represent 37% of all the species and populations that we examined. Therefore, we conclude that this marking method potentially causes severe damage and may lead to biased parameter estimates in ecological studies of lizard species. Whenever possible, toe-clipping should be avoided and replaced by less invasive methods for individual identification.
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... For instance, Winne et al. (2006) and Ekner et al. (2011) proposed a marking technique based on heat-branding with pen-like medical cautery units. Visible implant elastomer tags are another alternative (Penney et al., 2001). However, even though these recent techniques for marking vertebrates seem less aggressive, we also recommend studies to evaluate potential negative effects. ...
Effect of toe-clipping on the survival of several lizard species Herpetological Journal
Article
Full-text available
  • Jul 2017
Published by the British Herpetological Society Toe-clipping is an extensively used technique for individual identification of amphibians and reptiles. However, this method might result in negative effects including reduced survival. In this study, we used capture-mark-recapture data obtained from ten different lizard species, including more than one population for two species, to examine whether survival rates varied as a function of the number of toes that were clipped. We used likelihood methods and multi-state models to estimate survival probabilities. Specifically, we tested if the number of clipped toes had an effect on annual survival, comparing survival among groups of individuals that shared the same number of toes that were clipped. We found clear reductions in survival associated with the removal of several toes in seven study sites that correspond to five different species. These represent 37% of all the species and populations that we examined. Therefore, we conclude that this marking method potentially causes severe damage and may lead to biased parameter estimates in ecological studies of lizard species. Whenever possible, toe-clipping should be avoided and replaced by less invasive methods for individual identification.
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... Visible Implant Elastomers (VIE; VIE-Northwest Marine Technology, Shaw Island, WA, USA) are frequently used to mark individuals for visual identification. This marking method has been applied in a wide range of vertebrate and invertebrate taxa, for instance fish (Bailey et al., 1998;Bruyndoncx et al., 2002;Woods & Martin-Smith, 2004), cephalopods (Brewer & Norcross, 2012), decapods , arachnids (Chapin, 2011;Melo et al., 2013), echinoderms (Martinez et al., 2013), amphibians (Bailey, 2004;Sapsford et al., 2015), reptiles (Penney et al., 2001), insects (Moffatt, 2013) and earthworms (Butt & Lowe, 2007). Previous studies have assessed the influence of VIE marking on growth (Olsen & Vøllestad, 2001;Simon & Dörner, 2011;Soula et al., 2012), survival (Olsen & Vøllestad, 2001;Roberts & Angermeier, 2004;Simon & Dörner, 2011), predation (Reeves & Buckmeier, 2009;Bouska & Paukert, 2010) and stress response (Fürtbauer et al., 2015). ...
Artificial Visible Implant Elastomer (VIE) tags of different colour and symmetry do not influence mate choice in a cichlid
Article
Experimental individuals are frequently marked with coloured tags for individual identification. Except for birds, the consequences of such artificial tagging on mate choice have been rarely investigated even though individuals often prefer naturally brightly coloured or symmetrically ornamented mates. We tested whether differently coloured Visible Implant Elastomer (VIE) tags influence female mate choice in rainbow kribs, Pelvicachromis pulcher. Females were allowed to simultaneously choose between a control and a VIE-marked male. The VIE-marked male carried two tags of the same colour (red, blue, green or white) set symmetrically or asymmetrically. Females did not show a preference for or avoidance of males carrying any of the colours compared to control males, no matter if the tags had been set symmetrically or asymmetrically. Although we found no discrimination for or against colour-tags, we highlight the importance of considering potential influences of colour-marks on mate choice in behavioural and evolutionary studies.
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Demographic and life history variation in two sky-island populations of an endangered alpine lizard: Geographic variation in life history
Article
  • Aug 2019
A species’ life history is a strong determinant of its risk of extinction; traits such as body size, growth rate, age at maturity and fecundity influence population viability and persistence, as well as capacity for dispersal and colonisation of new habitats. Yet, despite the potential for substantial geographic variation in life history, most conservation programmes rely upon the species average rather than information specific to individual populations. We use the Guthega Skink (Liopholis guthega), a threatened alpine endemic lizard restricted to two geographically isolated locations in south‐eastern Australia, as a case study to demonstrate how geographic variation in life history traits may better inform conservation management. Liopholis guthega has a relatively short life span, with only a few years of reproductive activity, inter‐annual variation in reproductive output, and less‐than‐annual reproduction. We show that the Victorian population has a significantly slower growth rate, attains a smaller maximum size, reaches reproductive maturity later, and produces significantly smaller litters, despite no difference in longevity suggesting that it may be more vulnerable to extinction. We, therefore, suggest evaluating genetic rescue from the New South Wales population to improve recruitment and longevity of Victorian L. guthega, ongoing population monitoring in both locations, and a dedicated pest control programme to reduce pressure on this population. Our study has far reaching impacts; primarily demonstrating how knowledge of geographic variation in life history has the potential to improve conservation management of threatened species. A species’ life history is a strong determinant of its risk of extinction; traits such as body size, growth rate, age at maturity and fecundity influence population viability and persistence. Here, we show that compared to the New South Wales population, the Victorian population of the Guthega skink has a significantly slower growth rate, attains a smaller maximum size, reaches reproductive maturity later, and produces significantly smaller litters, despite no difference in longevity. This suggests that the Victorian population may be more vulnerable to extinction.
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Evaluation of Razorback Sucker and Colorado Squawfish Batch Marking Techniques
Article
  • Sep 1998
Young razorback sucker Xyrauchen texanus (mean total length [TL] = 127 mm) and Colorado squawfish Ptychocheilus lucius (mean TL = 150 mm) were marked by freeze branding and injection of a fluorescent elastomer. The elastomer injection was made at the base of the anal fin and on the operculum (razorback suckers) or lower jaw (Colorado squawfish) and consisted of one of four colors: green, blue, red, or orange. Freeze branding had 99% retention after 15 months for both species. Elastomer recognition was better for Colorado squawfish (mean 74%) than for razorback suckers (mean 60%) after 15 months, and retention at both locations was similar. Red and orange had the best recognition and blue had the poorest. Red and orange elastomer injected in young Colorado squawfish could be detected (95%) for 5 months. One person implanting elastomer at two locations on each fish and one person anesthetizing and handling fish can mark 130-140 fish/h. Approximately three times that number can be freeze-branded per hour. Greater retention times and efficiency in marking makes the use of freeze branding a practical replacement for tagging with passive integrated transponders during the first two growing seasons.
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Evaluation of Marking Techniques to Estimate Population Size and First-Year Survival of Colorado Squawfish
Article
Three marking methods-tattoo ink injected with a dental inoculator, an elastic polymer injected by syringe, and fin clipping—were tested to determine a suitable technique for estimating population size, survival, and movement of age-0 Colorado squawfish Ptychocheilus lucius. Laboratory tests indicated that all three marks were retained at sufficient rates (>97%) to make population estimates over a 21-d period. However, fish marked with tattoo ink had higher mortality (10%) than fish marked with elastic polymer (< 1%) or with a fin clip (0%). Fish marked with the elastic polymer had higher retention (85%) than those marked with fin clips (34%) or tattoo ink (26%) after 142 d. No differences in vulnerability to predation were observed among fish with the three marks or between marked and unmarked fish. A field test of the elastic polymer showed that it was easy to use, caused low mortality (5% for fish held overnight in live-cages), and produced marks that were readily visible, Mark–recapture methods were used to estimate population size of Colorado squawfish (5,595 in the autumn and 2,523 the following spring) and winter survival (45%). Survival estimates from mark–recapture data were more accurate and precise than those from catch-per-unit-effort data, at least for short-term studies in river reaches less than 50 km long. Simulations showed that doubling the size of the study section and increasing the probability of capture by 33% would reduce possible bias from 14.5% to 1.4% and the coefficient of variation (SE/mean) from 0.25 to 0.06.
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Vulnerability of Marked Age-0 Steelhead to a Visual Predator
Article
The assumption that marking does not alter the vulnerability of fish to a visual predator was examined. Similar numbers of age-0 steelhead Oncorhynchus mykiss were tagged with binary-coded-wires, tagged with passive integrated transponders, freeze branded, marked with fingerling tags, or left unmarked. All were subjected to age-1 steelhead predators for 24 h in 2.4-m-diameter circular tanks filled with clear well water. Twice as many marked as unmarked age-0 steelhead prey were eaten. There was no significant survival difference among the four marked treatment groups, which suggested that in the laboratory the trauma associated with marking is more important than mark type. We conclude that marking may effect postrelease survival and recommend that mark–recapture experiments be used to empirically determine and correct for differences in survival of marked and unmarked fish.
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