Radicalization into Violent Extremism I: A Review of Social Science Theories

Abstract

In discourse about countering terrorism, the term "radicalization" is widely used, but remains poorly defined. To focus narrowly on ideological radicalization risks implying that radical beliefs are a proxy—or at least a necessary precursor—for terrorism, though we know this not to be true.Different pathways and mechanisms of terrorism involvement operate in different ways for different people at different points in time and perhaps in different contexts. This article explores the problems in defining radicalization and radicalism, and suggests that radicalization—and more specifically, involvement in terrorism—might best be viewed as a set of diverse processes. It goes on to review several potentially promising theories that might support further study of those processes, including social movement theory, social psychology, and conversion theory. Finally, it describes some possible frameworks for understanding how the processes might facilitate terrorism-related behavior.

Full text

Journal of Strategic Security
Volume 4
Number 4 Volume 4, No. 4, Winter 2011:
Perspectives on Radicalization and Involvement
in Terrorism
Article 2
Radicalization into Violent Extremism I: A
Review of Social Science Theories
Randy Borum
University of South Florida, wborum@usf.edu
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Recommended Citation
Borum, Randy. "Radicalization into Violent Extremism I: A Review of Social Science Theories." Journal of Strategic
Security 4, no. 4 (2011): 7-36.
DOI:
http://dx.doi.org/10.5038/1944-0472.4.4.1
Available at: http://scholarcommons.usf.edu/jss/vol4/iss4/2

Radicalization into Violent Extremism I: A Review of Social Science
eories
Author Biography
Dr. Randy Borum is a Professor in the College of Behavioral and Community Sciences at the
University of South Florida. He conducts strategic analyses and research focused on armed
groups, countering extremist violence, and complex operations/irregular warfare.
Abstract
In discourse about countering terrorism, the term "radicalization" is widely used, but remains
poorly defined. To focus narrowly on ideological radicalization risks implying that radical
beliefs are a proxy—or at least a necessary precursor—for terrorism, though we know this not to
be true.Different pathways and mechanisms of terrorism involvement operate in different ways
for different people at different points in time and perhaps in different contexts. This article
explores the problems in defining radicalization and radicalism, and suggests that
radicalization—and more specifically, involvement in terrorism—might best be viewed as a set
of diverse processes. It goes on to review several potentially promising theories that might
support further study of those processes, including social movement theory, social psychology,
and conversion theory. Finally, it describes some possible frameworks for understanding how
the processes might facilitate terrorism-related behavior.
This article is available in Journal of Strategic Security: http://scholarcommons.usf.edu/jss/vol4/iss4/2

Journal of Strategic Security
Volume 4 Issue 4 2011, pp. 7-36
DOI: 10.5038/1944-0472.4.4.1
Journal of Strategic Security
(c) 2011 ISSN: 1944-0464 eISSN: 1944-0472 7
Radicalization into Violent
Extremism I: A Review of Social
Science Theories
Randy Borum
University of South Florida
wborum@usf.edu
Abstract
In discourse about countering terrorism, the term "radicalization" is
w
idely used, but remains poorly defined. To focus narrowly on ideological
radicalization risks implying that radical beliefs are a proxy—or at least a
necessary precursor—for terrorism, though we know this not to be true.
Different pathways and mechanisms of terrorism involvement operate in
different ways for different people at different points in time and perhaps
in different contexts. This article explores the problems in defining radi-
calization and radicalism, and suggests that radicalization—and more
specifically, involvement in terrorism—might best be viewed as a set of
diverse processes. It goes on to review several potentially promising theo-
ries that might support further study of those processes, including social
movement theory, social psychology, and conversion theory. Finally, it
describes some possible frameworks for understanding how the processes
might facilitate terrorism-related behavior.
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8
Radicalization into Violent Extremism I: A
Review of Definitions and Applications of Social
Science Theories
Nearly a decade after declaring war on terrorism, it is apparent now—if it
was not before—that while removing terrorists from the battlefield and
disrupting terrorist plots are, and should be, high priority objectives, they
are insufficient to neutralize the global threat of violent extremism. A suc-
cessful effort to counter violent extremism (CVE) must attempt to stem
the tide of new extremists. Assuming that a specific ideology drives that
violence (which is, of course, open to some debate), has led some to focus
on interrupting the "radicalization" process, referred to here as radicaliza-
tion into violent extremism (RVE). Using the RVE terminology may be ill-
advised, but is intended here to refer to the processes by which people
come to adopt beliefs that not only justify violence but compel it, and how
they progress—or not—from thinking to action. Doing this successfully
requires some understanding of the purveyors and the targets of violent
extremism.1
This effort must seek to understand not only what people think, but how
they come to think what they think, and, ultimately, how they progress—
or not—from thinking to action. It is not a task for a single theory or disci-
pline. Any useful framework must be able to integrate mechanisms at
micro (individual) and macro (societal/cultural) levels.2 It must account
for the fact that "one size does not fit all" when it comes to creating a vio-
lent extremist.
A focus on radicalization, however, risks implying that radical beliefs are a
proxy—or at least a necessary precursor—for terrorism. We know this not
to be true. Most people who hold radical ideas do not engage in terrorism,
and many terrorists—even those who lay claim to a "cause"—are not
deeply ideological and may not "radicalize" in any traditional sense. Dif-
ferent pathways and mechanisms operate in different ways for different
people at different points in time and perhaps in different contexts.3
Radicalizing by developing or adopting extremist beliefs that justify vio-
lence is one possible pathway into terrorism involvement, but it is cer-
tainly not the only one. Informed policies and practices to mitigate and
prevent the spread of violent extremism require an understanding of
these kinds of variations, not just general trends. The broader question is
how people become involved, stay involved, and sometimes disengage
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from terrorism. Studying the processes of terrorism involvement is not
purely an "academic" exercise; it provides a foundation for the "next
wave" of global CVE efforts—those focused on prevention.
Defining the Problem of Radicalism
First, there is little discussion and even less consensus about what
"radicalism" and "extremism" even mean.4 Given that researchers and
governments cannot reach consensus in defining terrorism, perhaps it
should not be surprising that such a diversity of views exists in defining
even more nuanced concepts related to radicalization. Although the motto
of many CVE efforts has shifted away from a "War on Terrorism" to a
"Battle of Ideas," the questions of which ideas, among whom, and at what
level of extremism continue to be debated… or sometimes just ignored.5
Though conventionally, the term "extreme" refers to deviations from the
norm, that element alone is not a sufficient basis for defining a security
threat. Yet, how we define the threat has profound implications for how
we understand and address it. Again, this is not simply a topic for
abstract, post-modern epistemological discourse (not that there is
anything wrong with that), but a very practical problem of identifying and
describing what many believe to be the most serious contemporary threat
to global security.6
Sometimes the concepts of radicalism and terrorism become conflated. In
this paper, the term radicalization is used to refer to the process of
developing extremist ideologies and beliefs. The term action pathways
(or action scripts) will refer to the process of engaging in terrorism or
violent extremist actions. Some people with radical ideas and violent
justifications—perhaps even most of them—do not engage in terrorism.
The best available global polling from organizations like Pew and Gallup
suggest that there are tens of millions of Muslims worldwide who are
sympathetic to "jihadi aspirations," though most of them do not engage in
violence.7 Conversely, some terrorists—perhaps even many of them—are
not ideologues or deep believers in a nuanced, extremist doctrine. Some
have only a cursory knowledge of, or commitment to, the radical ideology.
They are drawn to the group and to the activity for other reasons. Ideology
and action are sometimes connected, but not always. We need to
understand the distinctions between them.
Little attention has been given in the scholarly or policy literature to
defining criteria for which extremist ideologies pose a threat to national
or global security, or whether extremist ideologies matter in the absence
of violent actions. A 2009 U.S. Presidential Task Force on Confronting the
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Ideology of Radical Extremism even suggests the administration expand
its focus from violent to nonviolent extremism.8 Perhaps it is important to
bring out into the open the distinctions among radical extremist ideolo-
gies so they can be examined in light of what is known, and guide what
needs to be known, about the evolution from radicalization to violent
extremism.
Even ignoring the myriad violent ideologies of the world and limiting the
focus only to ideologies of militant Islamism, there is no clear line to be
drawn.9 Jordan and Boix suggest several defining elements for Islamist
ideologies that might pose a security concern, specifically those that are
segregationist or anti-democracy, blame the West for all of Islam's prob-
lems, and may support (directly or indirectly) or condone acts of terror-
ism.10 That seems to be a reasonable starting point—at least for Western
democratic countries. Neuman (2010), drawing in part from The Pal-
grave Macmillan Dictionary of Political Thought, goes on to say:
"Extremism can be used to refer to political ideologies that
oppose a society's core values and principles. In the context of
liberal democracies this could be applied to any ideology that
advocates racial or religious supremacy and/or opposes the core
principles of democracy and universal human rights. The term
can also be used to describe the methods through which political
actors attempt to realise their aims, that is, by using means that
'show disregard for the life, liberty, and human rights of
others.'"11
An even more fundamental issue embedded, but often not discussed, in
debate over "where to draw the line," is whether—and the extent to
which—a distinction exists between the core doctrine of Islam and the
interpretations and distortions of Islamic teachings by militant violent
extremists. Despite reassurances from U.S. Presidents and others to the
contrary, many persons in Islamic and other countries continue to believe
the West is at war with Islam, not just with the violent extremists or their
ideologies. When countries cannot delineate which specific ideas they
oppose, their reassurances lack credibility.
Some have attempted to articulate a distinction between Islam and Islam-
ism, explaining that Islam is a religion that conventionally—at least in
modern practice—does not overtly encourage hatred of non-Muslims and
neither mandates nor justifies killing of civilian non-combatants, but that
Islamism (or some other variant on this ideological term), refers not to a
religion, but to a totalitarian political ideology driven by a strong anti-
Western and anti-democratic sentiment whose goal is "conquest of the
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world by all means."12 The argument is that militant leaders—particularly
since the late 1980s—have been able to use Islam (the religion) very effec-
tively as a platform or vehicle to transport and deliver this extremist ide-
ology. As evidence of this distinction, they point to the fact that most
adherents of the religion do not subscribe to the violent ideology (and cer-
tainly do not behave violently), and that many proponents of the militant
ideology are not particularly "religious" or pious.
A contrasting view—articulated recently, for example, in Robert Spencer's
2008 book Stealth Jihad—is that core Islamic texts and teachings man-
date subjugation of and warfare against non-Muslims (unbelievers), and
advocate for Sharia law to be globally imposed as the only legitimate
source of social and political authority.13 Accordingly, he argues, there is
no such thing as "moderate Islam." In a 2008 interview, Spencer made
that assertion in the following way:
"Ibn Warraq's observation that there are moderate Muslims, but
no moderate Islam, is absolutely true in light of the fact that there
is no orthodox sect of Islam and no school of Islamic jurispru-
dence that does not teach the necessity to work toward the politi-
cal dominance of Islamic law and the subjugation of unbelievers
under that law."14
Proponents of this position acknowledge that many Muslims—particu-
larly American Muslims—do not adhere to those tenets in practice, but
maintain that these anti-democratic principles are precisely what the doc-
trine commands. They see no distinction between the separatist, anti-
democratic, violence-inciting doctrine of those labeled as "violent extrem-
ists" and the core doctrine of Islam. They believe that their arguments
cannot be openly discussed without their being accused of bigotry and
labeled as Islamophobes, and that their position is easily dismissed by
most of the American public because others are uninformed about Islamic
doctrine.
There are profoundly different strategic and tactical implications, how-
ever, for whether we identify the religion, its holy text, or a narrower ide-
ology as the core threat to global security.15 These divergent views need to
be discussed openly, not with the aim of determining a winner and loser,
but to clarify security-related policy objectives. There may be many rea-
sons to debate interpretations of religious doctrines, but governments and
organizations responsible for national security should make a concerted
effort to define and circumscribe "radicalism" or "extremism" primarily as
it relates to strategic outcomes. It is important to identify what we are try-
ing to counter before launching a plan to defeat it.
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Defining the Problem of Radicalization
Second, just as we struggle with the boundaries of radicalism, we face a
similarly complex challenge in operationalizing the concept of "radicaliza-
tion." As we noted at the outset, the term "radicalization" has many mean-
ings, and while it may not necessarily be the most useful term, it remains
popular.16 Veldhuis and Staun from the Netherlands Institute of Interna-
tional Relations, Clingendael, discuss the absence of clear and universally
accepted definitions:
"Although radicalisation has increasingly been subjected to scien-
tific studies, a universally accepted definition of the concept is
still to be developed. Nevertheless, faced with pressure to tackle
radicalisation, policy makers have developed a few definitions.
Definitions of radicalisation most often centre around two differ-
ent foci: (1) on violent radicalisation, where emphasis is put on
the active pursuit or acceptance of the use of violence to attain the
stated goal, and (2) on a broader sense of radicalisation, where
emphasis is placed on the active pursuit or acceptance of far-
reaching changes in society, which may or may not constitute a
danger to democracy and may or may not involve the threat of or
use of violence to attain the stated goals."17
Several state intelligence and security services have "working definitions"
for radicalization and its related constructs. For example, the Dutch Secu-
rity Service (AIVD) defines radicalization as:
"Growing readiness to pursue and/or support—if necessary by
undemocratic means—far-reaching changes in society that con-
flict with, or pose a threat to, the democratic order."18
The Danish Intelligence Service (PET) focuses on "violent radicalization,"
defining it as:
"A process by which a person to an increasing extent accepts the
use of undemocratic or violent means, including terrorism, in an
attempt to reach a specific political/ideological objective."19
The U.K.'s Home Office, in its CONTEST counterterrorism strategy, refers
to radicalization simply as:
"The process by which people come to support terrorism and vio-
lent extremism and, in some cases, then to join terrorist
groups."20
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McCauley and Moskalenko focus more on its mechanisms and on group
dynamics in defining radicalization as:
"Increasing extremity of beliefs, feelings, and behaviors in direc-
tions that increasingly justify intergroup violence and demand
sacrifice in defense of the ingroup."21
Wilner and Dubouloz, in a discussion of how homegrown extremism often
follows a process of "transformative learning" suggest that:
"Radicalization is a personal process in which individuals adopt
extreme political, social, and/or religious ideals and aspirations,
and where the attainment of particular goals justifies the use of
indiscriminate violence. It is both a mental and emotional pro-
cess that prepares and motivates an individual to pursue violent
behaviour."22
Stevens and Neuman in their report on "online radicalization," say the fol-
lowing about the definition:
"Most of the definitions currently in circulation describe radicali-
sation as the process (or processes) whereby individuals or
groups come to approve of and (ultimately) participate in the use
of violence for political aims. Some authors refer to 'violent radi-
calisation' in order to emphasise the violent outcome and distin-
guish the process from non-violent forms of 'radical' thinking."23
Most recently, Crossett and Spitaletta attempted a broadly reaching
review of psychological and sociological concepts in radicalization. They
define radicalization as:
"The process by which an individual, group, or mass of people
undergo a transformation from participating in the political pro-
cess via legal means to the use or support of violence for political
purposes (radicalism)."24
A Side Note on Recruitment
If radicalization refers to some kind of process of change, there are some
who argue that process is often intentionally and systematically facilitated
or directed by others. Those facilitators are sometimes regarded as
recruiters, and the facilitation itself is known as recruitment. Recruitment
efforts can be a part of the RVE process, though not all who are radical-
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ized are recruited. Some debate exists among contemporary scholars,
however, about the nature and extent of terrorist recruitment, at least as it
relates to militant jihadist-Salafism. Marc Sageman, for example, has
argued that there is no recruitment per se to armed jihad or to al-Qaida.
He believes that "enlistment" (because people want to join) is the mecha-
nism by which new militants emerge. He reports having data to show that
nearly 90% "join the jihad" through friendship and kinship. While it
seems reasonable to assert that traditional recruitment—as the military
does with a dedicated budget and personnel—may not be prominent, it
seems nearly incontrovertible that Islamist militants seek new support-
ers, activists, and members and that they engage in active efforts to influ-
ence others to adopt their point of view. That is arguably just a broader
conceptualization of recruitment. If true, perhaps some of the contested
differences really lie in how they do it rather than whether they do it. The
issues cannot be resolved here, but the notion of recruitment is raised
both to distinguish it from radicalization and to suggest—as a policy mat-
ter—that there may be some value to considering a broader, rather than a
narrower, definition of recruitment as it relates to violent extremism.
Radicalization as a Process
The professional literature on radicalization, though rather limited, has
primarily concerned itself with the question of why (and to a lesser extent,
how) someone comes to adopt beliefs and behaviors that support his or
her engagement in subversive and terrorist activity, particularly violence
toward civilian noncombatants. Since the late 1960s, the academic
research community has attempted to find answers to this question by
analyzing terrorist activity at different levels: Individual, Group, Network,
Organization, Mass Movement, Socio-cultural context, and International/
Interstate contexts.
Early efforts tended predominantly to focus on the individual level,
assuming that the aberrant behavior so prominently associated with the
dramatic consequences of terrorism must reflect some mental or
personality abnormality. This line of thinking prompted some clinical
explanations for terrorism and a multitude of attempts to identify a
unique terrorist profile. Forty years of terrorism research, however, has
firmly debunked the notion that only "crazy" people engage in terrorism
and has yet to reveal a meaningful, stable, terrorist profile.25 Fortunately,
with very few exceptions, most contemporary social scientists studying
terrorism have moved past these early, naïve assumptions. They have
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realized terrorism is most usefully viewed not as a "condition," but as a
dynamic "process." The nature of that process, however, remains poorly
understood.
This review begins with the assumption that many pathways into and
through radicalization exist, and each pathway is itself affected by a vari-
ety of factors. Within this "developmental" or "pathway" approach, radi-
calization is viewed not as "the product of a single decision but the end
result of a dialectical process that gradually pushes an individual toward a
commitment to violence over time."26
Prior research and analysis supports the general proposition that no sin-
gle pathway or explanatory theory exists that would apply to all types of
groups or to all individuals.27 Walter Laqueur has said of terrorism that
the quest for a "general theory" is misguided because: "Many terrorisms
exist, and their character has changed over time and from country to
country."28 This seems to be equally true for the radicalization process
itself. Several efforts have been made, however, to articulate a general
sequence of stages, events, or issues that might apply across and within
group types. A central guiding question in these efforts seems to be: how
do people come to adopt violent extremist ideologies (radicalize), trans-
late them—or not—into justifications or imperatives to use terrorist vio-
lence, and choose (or choose not) to engage in violent and subversive
activity in service of those ideologies?
To be clear, most of what has been written so far about "radicalization"
into violent extremist ideologies (particularly those that support terror-
ism) is conceptual, rather than empirical.29 While the exact mechanisms
and sequences of these changes is a matter of some debate, it is certainly
clear that different pathways and mechanisms operate in different ways
for different people. Operationally, it seems, with a more nuanced under-
standing of how this process operates both between and within groups,
we may be able to develop more informed policies and practices to miti-
gate and prevent the propagation of violent extremism.
In the following sections, we will review briefly (a) the possible utility of
social science theories for understanding the radicalization process and
the social-cognitive mechanisms by which they might facilitate violent
action, (b) recent (post-9/11) conceptual models of the radicalization pro-
cess, and (c) recent (post-9/11) empirical studies of radicalization. This
review is offered with the understanding that each model remains under-
developed: none of them yet has a very firm social-scientific basis as an
established "cause" of terrorism, and few of them have been subjected to
any rigorous scientific or systematic inquiry. The objective is simply to
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aggregate existing knowledge and stimulate new ideas that might lead us
to ask better questions about the RVE process.
Potentially Promising Theories That Might Support
Further Study of the Radicalization Process
Theory can serve as an azimuth for exploring complex questions. There
are many possible theoretical-analytic frameworks that might be applied
to the radicalization process. About such processes, Cable, Walsh, and
Warland incisively note:
"Rather than seeking some single model of activist recruitment
and commitment, consisting of structural and/or social
psychological variables,…analysts should assume that there are
multiple models and then get on with the more useful work of
specifying the conditions under which one or another is more
appropriate."30
There is significant practical utility to this approach. Taking this further,
we can state that theory can—and arguably should—provide a foundation
for systematic inquiry and even for the development of conceptual mod-
els.31 Though the relevance of theory is often neglected or explicitly
rejected in applied social/behavioral research, as social psychologist Kurt
Lewin famously said, "There is nothing so practical as a good theory."32
Crossett and Spitaletta claim: "There are sixteen theories that have been
proposed to explain the underlying cause of radicalization," and proceed
to summarize each in their report.33 This section is much less ambitious.
It will review only three theoretical frameworks—social movement theory,
social psychology (broadly), and conversion theory (roughly correspond-
ing to mass-, group- and individual-level processes)—with the aim of
exploring how each might contribute to asking better questions about
radicalization, and to illuminating variations as well as common patterns
in the process.
Social Movement Theory
One of the most promising theoretical frameworks applied to understand-
ing radicalization processes and violent extremism is Social Movement
Theory (SMT).34 Zald and McCarthy define a social movement as:
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"A set of opinions and beliefs in a population, which represents
preferences for changing some elements of the social structure
and/or reward distribution of a society."35
Social movement theory began in the 1940s with the idea that the move-
ments arose from irrational processes of collective behavior occurring
under strained environmental conditions (what sociologists would call
"Strain Theory"), producing a mass sentiment of discontent. Individuals
would "join" a movement because they passively succumbed to these
overwhelming social forces.
Contemporary SMT theories, though, have revealed that more rational
and strategic processes are operating. SMT researchers in the 1980s and
1990s discerned that the primary task of any organization or movement is
to maintain its own survival. This requires that adherents/members col-
lect and maintain a body of supporters. Human losses through attrition
must be replenished, and new members must be added for the movement
to grow. Growth is necessary to expand the movement's influence and
capacity. Klandermans and Oegema suggest that to survive and sustain
itself, any Social Movement must attend to the following tasks:
• Forming mobilization potential
• Forming and motivating recruitment networks
• Arousing motivation to participate
• Removing barriers to participation36
SMT theorists have also found when members of the movement look to
recruit others, they operate as "rational prospectors."37 They want to be
efficient and effective, so they seek to identify those most likely to agree to
act, if asked, and to act effectively to further the cause. They "conceive of
the recruitment process as having two stages: (1) rational prospectors use
information to find likely targets; and (2) after locating them, recruiters
offer information on participatory opportunities and deploy inducements
to persuade recruits to say 'yes.'"38 The strength of socials bonds and rela-
tionships are central to both tasks, and understanding relationships
among potential prospects is, therefore, critical to understanding recruit-
ment networks.
SMT's focus has changed over the past half-century, but the two most
prominent contemporary influences are New Social Movement (NSM)
Theory, which focuses more on macro/structural processes, and Resource
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Mobilization (RM) Theory, which focuses more on contextual processes
like group dynamics.
Anja Dalgaard-Nielsen of the Danish Institute for International Studies
suggests a third school of SMT thought which may be promising, Fram-
ing Theory.39 Rooted in constructivist assumptions, Framing Theory
focuses on how movements and social collectives construct, produce, and
disseminate meaning. This is a recursive process in which the movement's
idea entrepreneurs attempt to frame messages in ways that will best reso-
nate with the interests, attitudes, and beliefs of its potential constituency.
Then, as people accept the movement's frames of reference, they increas-
ingly come to identify with the collective movement. Dalgaard-Nielsen
concludes that:
"Movements diagnose problems and attribute responsibility,
offer solutions, strategies, and tactics (prognostic framing), and
provide motivational frames to convince potential participants to
become active. Key to mobilization, according to this perspective,
is whether the movement's version of the 'reality' resonates or can
be brought to resonate with the movement's potential constitu-
ency. Some scholars have referred to this process as 'frame align-
ment'—the emergence of congruence between an individual's and
an organization's interests, values, and beliefs."40
Dalgaard-Nielsen believes that SMT generally, and Framing Theory in
particular, might be useful for understanding radicalization because it
focuses on processes, not sociodemographics, and because it emphasizes
a mid-level analysis.
Though SMT has been used in social science for many years, its applica-
tion to understanding terrorism and radicalization is more recent. In fact,
SMT researchers have grappled for a half-century with questions that ter-
rorism researchers are just now re-discovering. Donatella Della Porta is
among the first serious terrorism researchers to connect SMT concepts to
violent extremism in her studies of Italian and German militants.41 More
recently, Quintan Wiktorowicz conducted an in-depth study of how peo-
ple came to join a militant Islamist group (Al-Muhajiroun) based in a
Western democracy (just outside London, England).42 Working within an
SMT framework, Wiktorowicz presented a four-component developmen-
tal model for radicalization. Those who came to be radicalized first
revealed an openness to new worldviews (cognitive opening), then came
to view religion as a path to find meaning (religious seeking), eventually
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found the group's narrative and ethos to "make sense" (frame alignment),
and ultimately, through a process of socialization, became fully indoctri-
nated into the movement.
These insights from SMT create an attractive framework for systemati-
cally studying the processes of radicalization and influence within mili-
tant extremist movements, but they are also not brand-new discoveries.43
In 1965, Lofland and Stark studied a "small millenarian cult" based on the
West Coast seeking to understand how its members came to "convert" to
such an extreme set of views. They characterized their conclusion in the
following way:
"For conversion, a person must experience, within a religious
problem-solving perspective, enduring, acutely-felt tensions that
lead him to define himself as a religious seeker; he must encoun-
ter the cult {deviant perspective} at a turning point in his life;
within the cult an affective bond must be formed (or pre-exist)
and any extra-cult attachments neutralized; and there he must be
exposed to intensive interaction if he is to become a 'deployable
agent.'"44
The parallels with Wiktorowicz's contemporary observations of a Western
Islamist movement are striking.
SMT also brings to the study of radicalization decades of experience and
research on the question of differential involvement or participation. This
line of inquiry essentially focuses on why different adherents within an
extremist movement assume different roles or are willing to take different
kinds of actions. Even in the mid 1980s, SMT researcher Doug MacAdam
was discussing this as a longstanding vexing question in the field of SMT:
"Among the topics that have most concerned researchers in the
field of social movements is that of differential recruitment. What
accounts for individual variation in movement participation?
Why does one individual get involved while another remains
inactive?"45
Just as terrorism researchers now differentiate between a person's moti-
vations for entering, staying in, or leaving a terrorist group, social move-
ment theorists typically differentiate between understanding one's entry
into the movement and the nature and level of participation, which Klan-
dermans calls "action mobilization."46
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Viewing contemporary militant Islamism as a global social movement—as
a number of analysts have suggested it is—permits a different conceptual-
ization of the problem with several potential insights for understanding
the radicalization process.47 First, it provides the framework of "mobiliza-
tion potential" to consider the process by which a movement's human
resources are developed and to better understand the how different peo-
ple with the same set of beliefs come to assume different roles and take
different kinds of actions. Second, it offers the notion of "recruitment net-
works," with some historical guidance for navigating the processes by
which those networks or formed and motivated. Third, it offer the mecha-
nism of "frame alignment" to explain how the networks shape members'
beliefs and sentiments to best serve the interest of the group or move-
ment. Fourth, it points out the importance in understanding radicaliza-
tion of not only analyzing incentives and grievances, but also how groups
effectively identify and remove barriers to participation.
Social Psychology
Theories and empirical research findings from the field of social psychol-
ogy (though not directly about violent extremism) have factored promi-
nently into academic scholarship and formulations about radicalization.
Social psychology is a sub-discipline of psychology concerned primarily
with relationships, influences, and transactions among people, and par-
ticularly group behavior. Gordon Allport, one of its early pioneers,
defined social psychology as "an attempt to understand and explain how
the thought, feeling, and behavior of individuals is influenced by the
actual, imagined, or implied presence of others."48 Social psychology
brings to the study of radicalization a deep and longstanding focus on
intergroup conflict and dynamics.
Because violent extremism is most often a group-related phenomenon,
the sub-discipline's empirical lessons about group dynamics help to illu-
minate the behavior of terrorist collectives. Some of the key lessons
include the following:
• Group contexts cultivate extreme attitudes: Individual opinions and
attitudes tend to become more extreme in a group context. Group
opinions and attitudes also tend to be more extreme than those held by
its individual members, a phenomenon often referred to as "group
polarization."
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• Group decision making is often more biased and less rational, than
individual decision making: The phenomenon—popularly referred to
as "groupthink"—is one in which group members attempt excessively to
reach agreement, to the point where the need for consensus overrides
the goal of making the most appropriate decision.
• Group perceptions are colored by group membership, often called the
"in-group/out-group bias:" People tend to identify and classify in-
group member behaviors more positively, and to make more positive
attributions about them. Others outside the group (including other
groups) are identified as having more negative traits and behaviors.
This group-serving attributional style is often referred to within social
psychology as the "in-group/out-group bias."
• Individuals feel less responsible for "group" actions: Individuals may
feel less personally answerable, by diffusing accountability over the
entire group. If an individual acts violently within the context—or in the
name—of a group, the mere presence of the group may diminish his
perceived agency and therefore lower the acceptable threshold for vio-
lent behavior.49
• People join groups because of perceived incentives and rewards: The
incentives to join a group are dynamic and variable across different
individuals. Some persons are primarily seeking social affiliation or a
personal sense of meaning. Others may be on a quest for excitement
or—more practically—a way to get food, shelter, and meet their basic
needs for survival.50
• Groups have internal norms and rules that control member behavior:
They have implicit and explicit expectations for what individual mem-
bers think and how they behave. They leverage the social pressure of
these expectations to get members to conform. When groups are more
cohesive, more isolated, or invoke high costs for dissent, group confor-
mity is even stronger, and conditions for compliance/obedience are ele-
vated as well.51
For more than two decades, Bryn Mawr professor Clark McCauley has
been one of the most consistent voices of social psychology in the field of
terrorism studies. Most recently, McCauley and Sophia Moskalenko have
posited several key "mechanisms" of political radicalization, based princi-
pally on a social psychological analysis. They propose a number of mecha-
nisms by which groups or collectives may radicalize:
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• Extremity Shift in Likeminded Groups—Group Polarization: A
dynamic based on the social psychological principal of "group polariza-
tion," that the "average" opinions of group members tend to become
more extreme as they attempt to negotiate consensus.
• Social Reality Power of Isolated Groups—The Multiplier: A dynamic
based on numerous social psychological studies showing that when
groups are isolated and experiencing conditions of threat, their levels of
cohesiveness and perceived interdependence increase, which also
enhances member compliance.
• Group Radicalization in Competition for the Same Base of Support—
Outbidding: A dynamic based on inter-group competition, in which
groups who are more radical or more extreme may be perceived as
more committed or devout, which may make them more attractive to
potential members and supporters.
• Activist Radicalization in Competition with State Power—Condensa-
tion: A dynamic by which the pressures and adversity of state opposi-
tion to a radical group cause less-committed members to drop out, with
only the most active remaining. Radicalism and commitment among
those remaining members tends to intensify.
• Group Radicalization from Within-Group Competition—Fissioning: A
dynamic based on the observation that divisive tensions often cause
factions to develop within ideologically-based groups. Sometimes these
factions evolve into "splinter" groups that compete (and sometimes
fight) with one another in an escalating battle of extremity.
Conversion Theory
Another thread of theory development has focused somewhat less on the
collective movement, and more on the individual process of transforming
beliefs and ideologies—often regarded as "conversion." Conversion
research is drawn largely from the disciplines of sociology and psychology
of religion and has decades of research beneath it.52 Wright notes "there
have been literally hundreds of studies on conversion over the last thirty-
five years, constituting a well-researched stock of knowledge that is avail-
able to us."53
Following decades of developmental or stage models in the study of reli-
gious conversion, Lewis Rambo proposed a more integrative and less lin-
ear solution. He developed a seven-component model, which accounts for
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the fact that each phase or facet is cumulative and can recursively affect
the others. The seven "stages" are:
• Context: comprises the field of environmental factors—cultural, histor-
ical, political, social—operating throughout the conversion process that
may accelerate or impede its development.
• Crisis: is a state of personal disequilibrium typically caused by personal
or social disruption.
• Quest: often precipitated by a crisis, is a process of seeking solutions or
activities to restore equilibrium.
• Encounter: marks the initial contact between a seeker (one engaged in
a "quest") and a spiritual option or proponent of that option.
• Interaction: describes the exchange between the seeker and the propo-
nent to develop more information about or introduction to the spiritual
option and to other proponents.
• Commitment: involves two important elements, first a decision or
series of decisions demonstrating investment or faithfulness to the reli-
gion; and second, a promised bond of membership or public statement
of faith that solidifies the person's status (or identity) as a part of the
movement.
• Consequences: are the effects of the actions, commitments, and deci-
sions made in service of the belief. They are constantly monitored and
evaluated.
Rambo suggests that during these processes, "relationships, rituals, rhet-
oric, and roles interact and reinforce one another."54 This seems to be
quite consistent with observations of the post-2001 militant Islamist radi-
calizations as well.
Richardson notes that theoretical perspectives on conversion historically
have polarized into one of two categories: Passive, which views the con-
vert as a passive target who has been damaged by trauma and/or has
unfulfilled psychological needs, and whose will is overpowered by brain-
washing—not unlike Chinese Communists' "thought reform"—for indoc-
trination; and Active, which views the convert as a rational actor and
active seeker, whose decision to join is an act of uncompromised volition.
The passive view is principally considered the "old" or "classic" conver-
sion paradigm, but the preponderance of research evidence and scholarly
opinion favors the active perspective.55
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Particularly relevant to the study of radicalization is the conversion
literature on "New Religious Movements"—sometimes called alternative
religious movements or cults—whose trajectory has been quite similar to
that of the radicalization literature.56 Early explorations focused on
"psychopathological" explanations for religion conversion and
participation, assuming some combination of individual abnormality,
deficiency, or trauma to be the primary causal factors.57, 58 Then,
researchers in the sociological tradition of religion studies focused on
strain and deprivation as possible causes of religious seeking and
conversion.59, 60 Strain-oriented theories focus on failure to achieve,
losses (personal and status), and negative life events.
Similarly, people writing about radicalization have recently begun to use
the term (often quite loosely) "self-radicalizing," as if it is a new discovery,
but conversion researchers were working on this phenomenon long
before the Internet. In describing what they called "conversion motifs,"
they have observed a style of "intellectual or self-" conversion:
"The intellectual mode of conversion commences with an individ-
ual, private investigation of possible new grounds of being, alter-
nate theodicies, personal fulfillment, etc., by reading books,
watching television, attending lectures, and other impersonal or
disembodied ways in which it is increasingly possible sans social
involvement to become acquainted with alternate ideologies and
ways of life. In the course of such reconnaissance, some individu-
als convert themselves in isolation from any interaction with dev-
otees of the respective religion."61
Lofland and Skonovd go on to describe five other conversion motifs to
include the Mystical (a personally transformative epiphany, typically
occurring as an abrupt event); Experimental (where a "seeker" connects
with a group to try out the identity of group membership); Affectional
(where conversion results either from strong emotional sentiment or from
strong emotional bonds and attachments to others); Revivalist (a pro-
found, emotionally-charged transformative experience occurring in the
context of a crowd); and Coercive (akin to "brainwashing," this is a form
of psychological coercion in which people are emotionally depleted,
socially isolated from others, then subjected to intense group pressures
and influences). The Mystical and Revivalist motifs have less resonance
with the radicalization experience, but the Experimental and Affectional
motifs are clearly prominent among persons known to have become radi-
calized into violent extremism, particularly into militant Islamist move-
ments and terrorist cells.
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Lofland and Stark's "World-Saver" model or "value-added scheme"
(described in the earlier section on SMT) blended—perhaps for the first
time—the traditional, deterministic "strain" factors of conversion with the
more dynamic principles of social influence in which the convert acts, and
is not only acted upon. In fact, they divide their elements into the catego-
ries of "Predisposing Conditions" and "Situational Factors." The first
three factors in the model (acutely felt tensions, occurring in a religious
problem-solving perspective, and leading one to self-define as a religious
seeker) are conceived as "Predisposing Conditions." The tensions, in par-
ticular, reflect general strain factors, such as stressors, losses, and
thwarted expectations. The nature of these factors shares some affinity
with Horgan's notion of "vulnerabilities" to radicalization. The remaining
four factors (exposure during a turning point in life, affective bond with
the group, neutralizing attachments outside the group, and exposure to
intensive interaction within the group)—deemed the "situational fac-
tors"—are the ones that predict why a convert connects to one particular
group, instead of another. Though the model was modestly developed
nearly a half century ago to narrowly explain enlistments into a relatively
small West Coast cult, its conceptual utility is already leaps ahead of most
contemporary thinking about radicalization into violent extremism.
The still nascent study of RVE would be well served by learning and
applying a few of the lessons learned from decades of conversion
research. Three of those lessons seem particularly deserving of consider-
ation. First is to regard radicalization, like conversion, as a process rather
than as an event—one that occurs in a "complex, multifaceted environ-
ment that can be better understood only by taking into account the per-
spectives of several disciplines."62 Second, by using an active conversion
paradigm, perhaps a comparable array of motifs might be conceptualized
for RVE to help aggregate the many diverse radicalization pathways.
Third, Lofland and Stark's work integrating "Predisposing Conditions"
and "Situational Factors" might help the study of RVE get beyond a dual-
istic view and begin the much-needed journey to understand how features
of the person and of the situation/context recursively influence one
another throughout the radicalization and engagement process.
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Potentially Promising Theories that Might Support
Further Study of the Mechanisms of Radicalization
into Violent Extremism
Most proposed theories or models of violent radicalization have compo-
nents that account for at least three factors: (1) developing antipathy
toward a target group; (2) creating justifications and mandates for violent
action; (3) eliminating social and psychological barriers that might inhibit
violent action.
The U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation's (FBI's) Counterterrorism Divi-
sion (2006) classifies the mechanisms of radicalization on a motivational
dimension—whether internal or external—resulting in what they refer to
as four "distinct" conversion types:
• Jilted Believers—intrinsically motivated converts for whom "internal
frustration and dissatisfaction with the current religious faith (has led)
the individual to change belief systems."
• Faith Reinterpretation—an intrinsically motivated conversion in which
"the individual alters his religious tradition through introspection and
evaluation. This motivation [according to the document] refers specifi-
cally to those who are Muslim by birth but then choose to follow a more
extremist form of Islam."
• Protest Conversion—an extrinsically motivated conversion in which a
person's sense of perceived deprivation "negatively affects (the) indi-
vidual's attitude and beliefs toward those implicated, leading to a
change of faith as an answer to the deprivation."
• Acceptance Seeking—also a form of extrinsically motivated conversion,
driven by an individual's need to "form and maintain at least a mini-
mum quantity of lasting and significant interpersonal relationships."
Venhaus, based on interviews and personal histories of 2,032 "foreign
fighters" who sought to affiliate with al Qaida-related movements, con-
cluded, "the recurring theme was that they all were looking for something
….they want to understand who they are, why they matter, and what their
role in the world should be. They have an unfulfilled need to define them-
selves, which al-Qaida offers to fill."63 Referring to the potential recruits
as "seekers," he classifies them into four primary types:
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• The Revenge Seeker, whom he sees as diffusely frustrated and angry
and seeking an outlet to discharge that toward some person, group, or
entity whom he may see as being at fault.
• The Status Seeker, whom he sees as seeking recognition and esteem
from others.
• The Identity Seeker, whom he sees primarily as driven by a need to
belong and to be a part of something meaningful. They seek to define
their identities or sense of self through their group affiliations.
• The Thrill Seeker, the least common (less than 5% of his sample) is
attracted to the group because of the prospects for excitement, adven-
ture, and glory.
Drawing more on social psychological principles, McCauley and Mos-
alenko classify individual mechanisms of radicalization in the following
way:
• Individual Radicalization through Personal Grievance: An individual
becomes radicalized as a result of some (perceived) harm or injustice
perpetrated upon him/her or a loved one.
• Individual Radicalization through Political Grievance: An individual
becomes radicalized as a result of some harm or injustice perpetrated
upon, or threatening, a group with which he identifies.
• Individual Radicalization in Action—The Slippery Slope: An individ-
ual engages with a radical group or persons espousing a radical ideol-
ogy and follows a progressive, though sometimes insidious, progression
of subversive behaviors, sometimes culminating in terrorism.
• Individual Radicalization in Action—The Power of Love: An individual
initially engages with a radical group or persons espousing a radical
ideology because of social or emotional bonds to its members; those
bonds become the impetus for action on behalf of the group.
• Individual Radicalization in Status and Thrill Seeking: An individual
is lured to engage with a radical group, expecting either to elevate his
social status and perceived power or to engage in the glamorous and
dangerous life of a terrorist.
• Individual Opening to Radicalization: Unfreezing: An individual
experiences a destabilizing life event—such as the loss of family—that
removes social/lifestyle barriers to radicalized activity.
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The categories represented in Venhaus' seeker typology or in McCauley
and Mosalenko's mechanisms are not mutually exclusive. In fact, it is
quite likely that multiple elements often exist in any given case, and that
the relative importance of these dimensions of the individual change over
time and across situations. They may or may not actually elucidate mech-
anisms of radicalization; instead, they may just describe different precipi-
tants or contributing factors. They are not quite motifs in the Lofland and
Skonovd tradition, but they do begin to parse the problem. The authors
are careful to point out that no empirical evidence suggests that any of
them are sufficient conditions for engaging in terrorist activity. A reason-
able next step might be to tie some of these precipitants into existing
social/behavioral theories to explore how they might lead to or facilitate
engaging in violent extremism. What follows are examples of social sci-
ence theories—beyond the application of basic social psychological princi-
ples—that might address some of these key mechanisms:
Roots of Evil: While using the moniker of "evil" in discussions of extrem-
ist-motivated violence can be inflammatory and unproductive, it is a con-
cept with popular resonance. Roy Baumeister (1996)—a psychology
professor at Florida State University and rigorous social scientist—has
proposed four roots of "evil" as they relate to violent action, at least three
of which harmonize with the RVE process. Sternberg summarizes these
elements in the following way:
"The first is an ideologically based belief that one's own side is
good and that the side of the enemy is evil. One hates the enemy
because it is evil. This kind of hatred can be seen in religious
forms of hatred and in some political ones as well. The second
basis is the desire for revenge over injustices and humiliations
one (or one's group) has experienced, especially when threatened
egotism has been involved. The third basis is greed, lust, ambi-
tion, and other forms of self-interest in instances in which a rival
is standing in the way of what one wants. The fourth root, sadism,
can precipitate brutal violence but typically may be less relevant
to hate."64
Duplex Theory of Hate: Yale psychology professor Robert Sternberg pro-
poses a model of hate, which is comprised of three components:
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• Negation of intimacy (distancing) in hate: Repulsion and disgust. Cre-
ating emotional and cognitive distance between the actor and the tar-
get—as dehumanizing images and beliefs tend to do—can erode
psychological barriers to violence. Propaganda typically depicts the tar-
gets as incapable of receiving, giving, or sustaining feelings of close-
ness, warmth, caring, communication, compassion, and respect.
(According to Sternberg, these beliefs are slow to develop and slow to
fade.)
• Passion in hate: Anger/fear (in response to threat). Propaganda may
depict the targeted individuals as an imminent threat to approved soci-
ety, and one that should be feared because of this threat. (According to
Sternberg, these beliefs are rapid in growth and rapid in demise).
• Decision—commitment in hate: Devaluation—diminution through
contempt. The hater is likely to feel contempt toward the target individ-
ual or group, viewing the target as barely human or even as subhuman,
and therefore not only different or more distant, but also contemptible.
Those who foment hate aim to change the thought processes of the pre-
ferred population (in-group) so that its members will conceive of the tar-
geted group(s) (out-group) in a devalued way.
Moral Disengagement and Neutralization: Psychologist Albert Bandura
has argued for many years that "self-sanctions play a role in the regulation
of inhumane conduct."65 He notes, however, that these self-sanctions can
be selectively "activated and disengaged" to facilitate behavior that would
otherwise violate one's own moral standard. He describes this process of
breaking down barriers as "moral disengagement," which can operate
through a variety of processes, including: moral justification, sanitizing
language, disavowal of a sense of personal agency by diffusing or
displacing responsibility, disregarding or minimizing the injurious effects
of one's actions, attribution of blame to victims, and dehumanization of
victims. The "disengagement" processes Bandura describes are regularly
seen in terrorist rhetoric. Invoking "morality," however, in an explanation
for religiously motivated violent extremism can be a bit vexing. For some
violent actors, it is not clear whether their sense of morality has been
disengaged, or whether perhaps it has been replaced.
In the sociological tradition, criminologists David Matza and Gresham
Sykes put forth a similar idea, which they called neutralization theory,
with regard to general criminal behavior. They suggested that most peo-
ple who commit crimes do recognize and respond to society's proscrip-
tions against unlawful conduct. Offenders use certain cognitive
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techniques, however, to rationalize and justify their behavior, thereby
reducing what social psychologists call "cognitive dissonance." The five
main neutralization techniques that Matza and Sykes describe are: deny-
ing responsibility, denying harm, denying a victim, condemning people in
authority, and appealing to a higher authority. Many of the mechanisms
are quite similar to those in Bandura's theory of moral disengagement. It
is arguably these "disengagement" or "neutralization" processes that best
distinguish hateful extremists who do not engage in violence from those
who do.66
It is potentially quite important to understand the difference, among vio-
lent extremists, between mitigators of and mandates for violence. While
mitigators, like rationalizations and excuses, may justify behavior that a
person knows to be wrong, when violent extremists adhere to a mandate
for violence, the moral calculus may change. Instead of having to justify to
themselves (and others) why they should commit violence, when it is gen-
erally wrong to do so, they may struggle to justify why they should not fol-
low the imperative to commit violence despite their belief in the mandate
or its source of authority. Rationalizations and justifications are often
attached to specific behaviors and may change over time, but moral
imperatives—particularly from a divine source of authority—are more
general and typically reflect deeply held core beliefs and values, which are
more resistant to change.
Conclusion
The preceding review examined the basic concepts of RVE, including the
terms "radicalization" and "radicalism," the framing of RVE as a pathway
rather than as an event, and explored the possible utility of social science
theories for understanding the RVE process and the embedded social-
cognitive mechanisms that might facilitate violent action. Radicaliza-
tion—the process of developing extremist ideologies and beliefs—needs to
be distinguished from action pathways—the process of engaging in ter-
rorism or violent extremist actions. Ideology and action are sometimes
connected, but not always. Most people who harbor radical ideas and vio-
lent justifications do not engage in terrorism, just as many known terror-
ists—even many of those who carry a militant jihadi banner—are not
especially pious and have only a cursory understanding of the radical reli-
gious ideology they claim to represent. Understanding radicalization into
violent extremism requires more than understanding a religion or a doc-
trine. The goal of this paper was to distill the essence of what is currently
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known about radicalization processes, and perhaps more importantly, to
suggest that drawing upon existing social science theories might help
researchers to ask better, more focused questions about RVE.
Social Movement Theory has shown how ideologies may develop a life of
their own that transcends the boundaries of any particular group. It also
has helped to emphasize the importance of process, not just transforma-
tion, including critical distinctions that may exist between the processes
underlying one's entry into a movement and those driving the nature and
level of participation. Social psychology has moved the study of human
behavior beyond a preoccupation with individual traits, to emphasize the
power of situations and social interaction, influence, and conflict at col-
lective levels. Finally, conversion theory links these concepts together,
pointing out the importance of integrating—rather than polarizing—pre-
disposing conditions and situational factors in understanding causes of
extremism.
None of the theories discussed here provides easy answers. No single the-
ory is likely to explain all violent radicalizations. But achieving clarity in
defining our concepts and appropriately using guidance from decades of
social science theory and research may help to curtail the reinvention of a
problem and provide a platform for moving forward. Part II of this review
will review recent (post-9/11) conceptual models of the radicalization pro-
cess and recent (post-9/11) empirical studies of RVE.
About the Author
Dr. Randy Borum is a Professor in the College of Behavioral and Commu-
nity Sciences at the University of South Florida. He conducts strategic
analyses and research focused on armed groups, countering extremist
violence, and complex operations/irregular warfare.
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3 L. Bokhari, T. Hegghammer, B. Lia, P. Nesser, and T. Tonnessen, "Paths to Global
Jihad: Radicalisation and Recruitment to Terror Networks," FFI Seminar hosted by
the Norwegian Defense Research Establishment (Kjeller, Norway), March 15, 2006.
4 N. Hopkins and V. Kahani-Hopkins, "Reconceptualizing 'extremism' and 'modera-
tion': From categories of analysis to categories of practice in the construction of col-
lective identity," British Journal of Social Psychology 48 (2009): 99–113.
5 K. Payne, "Winning the battle of ideas: Propaganda, ideology, and terror," Studies in
Conflict & Terrorism 32 (2009): 109–128.
6 M. Sedgwick, "The concept of radicalization as a source of confusion," Terrorism
and Political Violence 22 (2010): 479–494.
7 S. Atran, "Pathways to and From Violent Extremism: The Case for Science-Based
Field Research," Statement before the Senate Armed Services Subcommittee on
Emerging Threats & Capabilities, March 10, 2010.
8 Task Force on Confronting the Ideology of Radical Extremism, Rewriting the Nar-
rative: An Integrated Strategy for Counterradicalization (Washington, D.C.:
Washington Institute for Near East Policy, March 2009).
9 I appreciate that there are diverging opinions about what terminology most appro-
priately characterizes the brand of militant, radical extremism that invokes justifica-
tions from Islamic doctrine. I have chosen in this article generally to use the term
"militant Islamism" to denote the violent stream of the ideology and to distinguish
this form of extremism from the religion of Islam itself, as it is currently practiced
by most Muslims.
10 J. Jordan and L. Boix, "Al-Qaeda and Western Islam," Terrorism and Political Vio-
lence 16 (2004): 1–17.
11 P. Neuman, "Prisons and Terrorism Radicalisation and De-radicalisation in 15
Countries," A policy report published by the International Centre for the Study of
Radicalisation and Political Violence (ICSR), (2010): 12.
12 M. Mozaffari, "What is Islamism? History and Definition of a Concept," Totalitar-
ian Movements and Political Religions (2007): 21.
13 Robert Spencer, "Stealth Jihad: An Interview with Robert Spencer," Right Wing
News (Interview), December 13, 2008, available at: http://tinyurl.com/5pfxnb
(rightwingnews.com/mt331/2008/12/stealth_jihad_an_interview_wit.php).
14 Ibid.
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15 Habeck, M., Knowing the enemy: Jihadist ideology and the war on terror (New
Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2005).
16 See Lene Kühle and Lasse Lindekilde, "Radicalization among Young Muslims in
Aarhus," Centre for Studies in Islamism and Radicalisation (CIR), Department of
Political Science, Aarhus University, January 2010, p. 24 for a list and analysis of
"radicalization definitions" in European policy documents. Available at:
http://tinyurl.com/brobnu2 (www.ps.au.dk/fileadmin/site_files/
filer_statskundskab/subsites/cir/radicalization_aarhus_FINAL.pdf).
17 T. Veldhuis and J. Staun.
18 Dutch Security Service (AIVD), 2005.
19 PET, "Radikalisering og terror," Center for Terroranalyse (Denmark), October
2009, available at: http://www.pet.dk/upload/radikalisering_og_terror.pdf.
20 U.K. Home Office, "CONTEST: The United Kingdom's Strategy for Countering
Terrorism," July 2011, available at: http://tinyurl.com/5rtjqal
(www.homeoffice.gov.uk/publications/counter-terrorism/counter-terrorism-
strategy/strategy-contest?view=Binary).
21 C. McCauley and S. Moskalenko, "Mechanisms of political radicalization: Pathways
toward terrorism," Terrorism and Political Violence (2008): 416.
22 A. S. Wilner and C. J. Dubouloz, "Homegrown terrorism and transformative learn-
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23 T. Stevens and P. Neuman, "Countering Online Radicalisation: A Strategy for
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24 C. Crossett and J. Spitaletta, Radicalization: Relevant psychological and sociolog-
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25 J. Horgan, "From profiles to pathways and roots to routes: Perspectives from psy-
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of Political and Social Science 618 (2008): 80–94.
26 G. H. McCormick, "Terrorist Decision Making," Annual Review of Political Science
6 (2003): 473–507.
27 R. Borum, Psychology of Terrorism (Tampa, FL: University of South Florida,
2004).
28 Walter Laqueur, End to War: Terrorism in the Twenty-First Century (New York:
Continuum, 2003).
29 J. Githens-Mazer and R. Lambert, "Why Conventional Wisdom on Radicalization
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30 Sherry Cable, Edward J. Walsh, and Rex H. Warland, "Differential Paths to Politi-
cal Activism: Comparisons of Four Mobilization Processes after the Three Mile
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31 A. Dalgaard-Nielsen, "Studying Violent Radicalization in Europe II: The Potential
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32 Lewin, Kurt, Field theory in social science; selected theoretical papers (New York:
Harper & Row, 1951).
33 C. Crossett and J. Spitaletta.
34 J. Gunning, "Social movement theory and the study of terrorism," in R. Jackson,
M. B. Smyth, & J. Gunning (eds.) Critical terrorism studies: A new research
agenda (New York: Routledge, 2009), 156–177.
35 M. Zald and J. McCarthy, Social movements in an organizational society (New
Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books, 1987), 2.
36 Bert Klandermans and Dirk Oegema, "Potentials, Networks, Motivations and Bar-
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37 H. Brady, K. Schlozman, and S. Verba, "Prospecting for participants: Rational
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38 Ibid.
39 Dalgaard-Nielsen, Ania, "Studying Violent Radicalization in Europe I: The Poten-
tial Contribution of Social Movement Theory," Danish Institute for International
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40 Ibid.
41 Della Porta, Donatella, Social Movements, political violence and the state (Cam-
bridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995).
42 Wiktorowicz, Quintan, Radical Islam rising: Muslim extremism in the West (Lan-
ham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 2005).
43 Ibid.
44 J. Lofland and R. Stark, "Becoming a world saver: A theory of conversion to a devi-
ant perspective," American Sociological Review 30 (1965): 862–874.
45 D. McAdam, "Recruitment of high-risk activism: The case of Freedom Summer,"
American Journal of Sociology 82 (1986): 64–90.
46 J. Horgan, (2008).
47 Victor Davis Hanson. "Al Qaedism," National Review Online, November 1, 2002,
available at: http://old.nationalreview.com/hanson/hanson110102.asp.
48 G. W. Allport, "The historical background of social psychology," in G. Lindzey and
E. Aronson (eds.), Handbook of social psychology (New York: Random House,
1954), 5.
49 C. R. McCauley and M. E. Segal, "Social psychology of terrorist groups," in C. Hen-
drick (ed.), Group processes and intergroup relations: Review of personality and
social psychology (Newbury Park: Sage, 1987): 231–256.
50 Ibid.
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51 Ibid.
52 L. R. Rambo, Understanding religious conversions (New Haven, CT: Yale Univer-
sity Press, 1993).
53 S. Wright, "The dynamics of movement membership: Joining and leaving new reli-
gious movements," in D. G. Bromley (ed.), Teaching new religious movements
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), 189.
54 L. R. Rambo.
55 B. Kilbourne and J. Richardson, "Paradigm conflict, types of conversion, and con-
version theories," Sociological Analysis 50 (1989): 1–21.
56 L. L. Dawson, "The Study of New Religious Movements and the Radicalization of
Home-Grown Terrorists: Opening a Dialogue," Terrorism and Political Violence
22:1 (2010): 1–21.
57 R. Stark, "Psychopathology and Religious Commitment," Review of Religious
Research 12 (1965): 165–176.
58 William H. Swatos, Jr. (ed.), Encyclopedia of Religion and Society (Walnut Creek,
CA: Alta Mira Press, 1998), available at:
http://hirr.hartsem.edu/ency/conversion.htm.
59 W. S. Bainbridge, "The sociology of conversion," in H. N. Malony and S. Southard
(eds.), Handbook of religious conversion (Birmingham, AL: Religious Education
Press, 1992), 178–191.
60 Snow, D. A. and R. Machalek, "The sociology of conversion," Annual Review of
Sociology 10 (1984): 167–190.
61 J. Lofland and N. Skonovd, "Conversion motifs," Journal for the Scientific Study of
Religion 20 (1981): 376.
62 R. F. Paloutzian, J. T. Richardson, and L.R. Rambo, "Religious conversion and per-
sonality change," Journal of Personality 67 (1999): 1072.
63 John Venhaus, "Why Youth Join Al-Qaeda," United States Institute of Peace, May
2010, available at: http://www.usip.org/publications/why-youth-join-al-qaeda.
64 R. Sternberg, "A Duplex Theory of Hate: Development and Application to Terror-
ism, Massacres, and Genocide," Review of General Psychology 7 (2003): 303.
65 Albert Bandura, "The origins and consequences of moral disengagement: A social
learning perspective," in F. M. Moghaddam and A. J. Marsella (eds.,), Understand-
ing Terrorism: Psychosocial Roots, consequences, and interventions (Washing-
ton, D.C.: American Psychological Association, 2004), 121.
66 R. Borum, "Understanding the terrorist mindset," FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin
72: 7 (July 2003): 7–10.
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Journal of Strategic Security, Vol. 4 No. 4
http://scholarcommons.usf.edu/jss/vol4/iss4/2
DOI: <p>http://dx.doi.org/10.5038/1944-0472.4.4.1</p>