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CPA Gold Medal Award for Distinguished Lifetime Contributions to Canadian Psychology – 2014 / Prix 2014 de la
médaille d’or pour contributions remarquables a
`la psychologie canadienne au cours de l’ensemble de la carrière
Myths About Early Childhood Bilingualism
FRED GENESEE
McGill University
Abstract
There has been growing interest in children
who learn language in diverse contexts and
under diverse circumstances. In particular,
dual language acquisition has become the focus of much re-
search attention, arguably as a reflection of the growing aware-
ness that dual language learning is common in children. A
deeper understanding of dual language learning under different
circumstances is important to ensure the formulation of theories
of language learning that encompass all language learners and to
provide critical information for clinical and other practical deci-
sions that touch the lives of all language learners. This article
reviews research findings on dual language learning in both
school and nonschool settings, among simultaneous and sequen-
tial bilinguals, and in typically developing learners and those
with an impaired capacity for language learning. Key findings
with respect to 4 common myths about dual language acquisi-
tion in young learners are discussed: (1) the myth of the mono-
lingual brain; (2) the myth that younger is better; (3) the myth
of time-on-task; and (4) the myth that bilingualism is not advis-
able for children with developmental disorders or academic
challenges.
Keywords: bilingualism, bilingual acquisition, child bilingualism
Competence in two, or more, languages has taken on increased
value in recent years in many communities and countries around
the world. There are local, national, and global reasons for this.
Locally, there are communities where knowing more than one
language is an advantage because knowing more than one lan-
guage facilitates interpersonal communication, enhances job pros-
pects, and enriches one’s day-to-day life; this is true in cities such
as Montreal, Geneva, New Delhi, among others. Similarly, there
are advantages to bilingualism in communities where an indige-
nous language is spoken, and members of the community want to
maintain and revitalise competence in the indigenous language
while also learning an important majority language. For example,
the Mohawk community near Montreal has developed immersion
programs that promote the acquisition of Mohawk among young
Mohawk children while ensuring that they also know English
and/or French (Jacobs & Cross, 2001). Bi- and even multilingual-
ism are often advantageous for national reasons as well. In coun-
tries with policies of official bi- or multilingualism, such as
Canada, Switzerland, and South Africa, there are personal, educa-
tional, and economic benefits to knowing both or all official
languages. The European Union’s “1 ⫹2” policy encourages
member states to promote acquisition of the national language
along with another European language and a third language so that
European citizens can travel and work freely anywhere in the
European Union and, also, be competitive globally.
There are yet other advantages to learning more than one lan-
guage. Research has shown that bilingual individuals enjoy certain
neurocognitive advantages in comparison with monolinguals. A
bilingual advantage has been demonstrated in the performance of
tasks that call for selective attention (e.g., Bialystok, 2001), in-
cluding tasks that require focusing, inhibiting, and switching at-
tention during problem solving, for example. It has been argued
that learning and using two languages calls for selective attention
to minimise interference between languages and ensure their ap-
propriate use; this, in turn, enhances the development of executive
control processes in general, not only in linguistic domains. These
advantages have been found in both childhood and adulthood
(Bialystok, Craik, Klein, & Viswanathan, 2004) and are most
evident in bilinguals with relatively advanced levels of proficiency
in two languages and who use their two languages actively on a
regular basis (Bialystok, Peets, & Moreno, 2014).
Notwithstanding the evident professional, personal, social, and
cognitive advantages of bi- and multilingualism, parents, educa-
tors, policymakers, and health care professionals often express
serious concerns about raising or educating children bilingually.
These fears are often founded on four myths: (1) the myth of the
monolingual brain; (2) the myth that younger is better; (3) the
myth of time-on-task; and (4) the myth of bilingualism and chil-
dren with developmental disorders and academic challenges.
These myths have serious theoretical significance as well as prac-
tical implications for raising and educating children bilingually.
Thus, it is important that their validity be examined scientifically.
The author would like to thank Johanne Paradis, University of Alberta,
for very helpful comments in an early draft of this article. Also, the author
would like to thank the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council
of Canada for their continued support of his research, much of which is
referred to in this article.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Fred
Genesee, Department of Psychology, McGill University, 1205 Docteur
Penfield Avenue, Montreal QC, Canada H3A 1B1. E-mail: fred.genesee@
mcgill.ca
Canadian Psychology / Psychologie canadienne © 2015 Canadian Psychological Association
2015, Vol. 56, No. 1, 6–15 0708-5591/15/$12.00 http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0038599
6
Each of these myths is explicated, and research findings relevant to
each are reviewed in this article. Evidence is drawn from research
on three populations of young learners: preschool children who
acquire two languages simultaneously (simultaneous bilinguals);
majority language students attending second language immersion/
bilingual programs; and children who acquire a minority language
at home but are educated in a majority language in school, such as
Spanish-speaking children attending English language schools in
the United States. Collectively, these diverse learners are referred
to as “dual language learners.”
The Myth of the Monolingual Brain
There are often concerns that learning two languages simulta-
neously from birth stretches the limits of infants’ ability to acquire
language and that they, therefore, will be confused and unable to
differentiate between languages if their parents use both in the
home; Paradis, Genesee, and Crago (2011) refer to this as the
“limited capacity theory” of bilingual acquisition. It is feared that
this, in turn, could result in delays in language development,
deviant patterns of development, and possibly even incomplete
competence. Viewed from a neurocognitive point of view, these
fears can be interpreted to reflect a belief that infants’ brains are
essentially monolingual and that they treat input in two languages
as if it were a single language—what Genesee (1989) dubbed the
“unitary language system” hypothesis. Parents in many bilingual
families adhere to the one-parent/one-language rule on the as-
sumption that their children need explicit markers of each lan-
guage so that they do not become confused. Bilingual codemixing
by children is often taken as evidence that they are unable to
separate their two languages (Genesee, 2002). Evidence from three
sources refutes this myth: research on milestones and patterns of
language development in children raised bilingually, grammatical
constraints on child bilingual codemixing, and bilingual children’s
use of two languages in conversations.
Much of the research reviewed here was conducted in Montreal
with children learning French and English. Montreal is a particular
appropriate context for studying this issue because both French
and English are prevalent in the community, and both have high
status; thus, both are very useful and highly valued and, as a result,
motivation to learn both is high. In other words, Montreal is an
ideal context for examining children’s capacity for dual language
learning when learning conditions are propitious. Having said that,
there is wide variation in the conditions under which children
acquire two languages, and their learning environments can change
significantly over time. Amount, quality, and consistency of lan-
guage exposure can influence all aspects of bilingual acquisition
(see Grüter & Paradis, 2014, for detailed discussions of the role of
input). In question in the present article is children’s capacity for
dual language learning in supportive learning environments and
not on variation among bilingual children and the extent to which
children exposed to two languages actually become fully bilingual.
Language Development
If simultaneous acquisition of two languages is beyond the
capacity of typically developing children, then one would expect
that, in comparison with monolingual children, bilingual children
would be delayed in their language development and, as well,
demonstrate different patterns of development. In particular, one
would expect that their grammatical development would deviate
from what is typical for monolingual children acquiring the same
languages because they are unable to acquire differentiated gram-
mars. The notion that the neurocognitive systems that underlie
language development are essentially monolingual is evident in
early theories of bilingual first language acquisition. A particularly
influential theory by Volterra and Taeschner (1978) argued that
children who learn two languages from birth initially have fused
lexical and morphosyntactic systems; followed by separation of
the lexicons of each language, but fused morphosyntactic systems;
this is subsequently followed by differentiation of morphosyntactic
systems. It was only by 3 years of age that children learning two
languages were thought to be truly bilingual (also, see early work
by Leopold, 1949).
There are a number of sources of evidence that dispute these
concerns and theoretical claims. To begin, children who acquire
two languages from birth achieve the same fundamental mile-
stones in language development with respect to babbling, first
words, and emergence of word combinations as monolingual chil-
dren within the same time frame despite the fact that they have less
exposure, on average, to each language than monolinguals. For
example, in a study of a French-English infant, Maneva and
Genesee (2002) found that he engaged in variegated babbling with
each parent, one of whom spoke English and the other French,
between 10 and 12 months of age, the same age as monolingual
children. Similarly, in a much larger study of 73 infants learning
Spanish and English in Miami, Kimbrough Oller, Eilers, Urbano,
and Cobo-Lewis (1997) found that the onset of canonical babbling
did not differ significantly for the bilingual and monolingual
infants. Bilingual children, including children learning both a
signed and a spoken language and children learning two spoken
languages, have also been reported to produce their first words at
about the same age as monolingual infants (e.g., Genesee, 2003;
Patterson & Pearson, 2004;Petitto et al., 2001). Simultaneous
bilingual children are often found to have smaller vocabularies
than monolingual children when each language is considered sep-
arately, but equivalent or even larger vocabularies when both
languages are considered together, what is referred to as concep-
tual vocabulary (Bedore, Peña, García, & Cortez, 2005). In a
longitudinal study of children acquiring French and English in
Montreal, Paradis and Genesee (1996) found that they began to
produce word combinations within the same timeframe as that
found for monolinguals—between approximately 1.5 and 2 years
of age (see also Conboy & Thal, 2006; and Marchman, Martínez-
Sussmann, & Dale, 2004).
Contrary to the unitary language system hypothesis, moreover,
children acquiring two languages demonstrate evidence of differ-
entiated systems from the earliest stages of language development.
Maneva and Genesee (2002), for example, found that the babbling
of the French-English infant in their study differed depending on
whether he was interacting with his English-speaking mother or
his French-speaking father and, furthermore, his babbling in each
case was similar to that of monolingual infants with respect to the
mean length of babbled utterances, syllable load, and syllable type.
Detailed examination of the developing grammatical systems of
French-English bilingual children in Montreal revealed that, for
the most part, they were the same as those of monolingual children
7
CHILDHOOD BILINGUALISM
(Paradis & Genesee, 1996). Zwanziger, Allen, and Genesee (2005)
report evidence of differentiated grammatical development in chil-
dren acquiring English and Inuktitut which, in contrast to French
and English, have radically different morphosyntactic properties.
Even under conditions of specific language impairment, bilingual
children exhibit similar patterns of grammatical development as
monolingual children with impairment (Paradis, Crago, Genesee,
& Rice, 2003;Paradis et al., 2011). Taken together, these findings
offer convincing evidence that learning two languages simultane-
ously is no more challenging for the human neurocognitive system
than learning one.
Grammatical Constraints on Bilingual Codemixing
When individuals use words from two languages in the same
sentence, or what is referred to as “intrautterance codemixing,”
they run the risk of violating the grammatical constraints of one or
both languages. For example, the utterance “I le like” (I like it) is
ungrammatical since the object pronoun “le” (it) should follow the
verb in English. Extensive research on adult bilinguals has shown
that they rarely produce incorrect mixed sentences (e.g., Myers-
Scotton, 1997). If young children who are learning two languages
simultaneously go through a stage when they treat both languages
as part of one system, then one would expect them to codemix
extensively under the hypothesis that they initially have single
lexical system. As well, they should produce many ungrammatical
mixed utterances because their grammatical systems are undiffer-
entiated. In an early study on this issue, Genesee, Nicoladis, and
Paradis (1995) found that French-English bilingual children (1;10
to 2;02 years of age) in Montreal mixed within utterances less than
3% of the time, on average, far less often than one would expect
if they were unable to differentiate between French and English. In
an independent sample of young French-English children in Mon-
treal, Sauve and Genesee (2000) similarly found that codemixing
within utterances occurred less than 4% of the time, and moreover,
there were virtually no grammatical errors when codemixing did
occur. The same findings have been reported in studies of children
learning other language pairs, for example, French and German
(Meisel, 1994), English and Estonian (Vihman, 1998), and Inuk-
titut and English (Allen, Genesee, Fish, & Crago, 2002). Research-
ers have also reported that the constraints that operate on chil-
dren’s bilingual codemixing are essentially the same as those that
have been reported in adults (Paradis, Nicoladis, & Genesee,
2000). Moreover, there does not appear to be a stage in bilingual
first language acquisition when grammatical constraints do not
operate, albeit the nature of the constraints may change as chil-
dren’s grammars change. These findings are interesting for two
reasons. First, they indicate that these bilingual children had ac-
quired the grammatical constraints of each language; otherwise,
how could one explain that they complied with the constraints of
each most of the time. Thus, these findings reinforce results
reviewed earlier indicating that bilingual children acquire differ-
entiated languages early in development. Second, and even more
interesting, they indicate that these children were able to activate
and access both language systems at the same time in order to
ensure that their mixed utterances followed the constraints of both
languages.
Differentiated Use of Two Languages
If simultaneous bilingual children go through an initial unitary
language stage, then one would expect them to have difficulty
using their languages appropriately. In other words, you would
expect them to use each language indiscriminately with conversa-
tional partners regardless of their partner’s language competence
or preferences. However, systematic studies on this issue have
revealed that even very young bilingual children are communica-
tively very competent. For example, in an early study on this issue,
Genesee et al. (1995) studied 2-year-old children who were ac-
quiring French and English simultaneously from their parents who
used the one parent/one language pattern with their children. They
found that these children were able to use their two languages
appropriately—they used more of the mother’s language with the
mother than with the father and, conversely, more of the father’s
language with the father than with the mother. In a follow-up
study, Genesee, Boivin, and Nicoladis (1996) similarly found
bilingual children can use their languages appropriately with
strangers with whom they have had no prior experience. In a
related vein, it has also been found that young bilingual children
can adjust their rates of codemixing to match those of unfamiliar
interlocutors who changed their rates of mixing from one obser-
vation session to the next (Comeau, Genesee, & Lapaquette,
2003). Finally, 2- and 3-year-old bilingual children who used the
“wrong language” with a monolingual interlocutor whom they had
never met before switched languages when their interlocutors
indicated that they did not understand what the child had said
(Comeau, Genesee, & Mendelson, 2010). The children switched
languages even when their interlocutors used a very general
prompt, such as “What?,” which did not indicate the source of the
breakdown, indicating that managing their two languages was not
a challenge. Taken together, this evidence is difficult to reconcile
with the myth of the monolingual brain that would predict that
bilingual children should not be able to use their two languages
differentially and appropriately with others.
The Myth That Younger Is Better
It is also widely believed that young children are effective and
efficient language learners. As a result, it is generally expected that
they will acquire a second language quickly and effortlessly and
attain native-like proficiency largely through untutored, natural
exposure to the target language. This thinking is based, in part, on
the critical period hypothesis of language learning according to
which the human neurocognitive abilities that underpin language
learning are particularly “plastic” during early development, usu-
ally thought to be between birth and 12 to 13 years of age (Long,
1990). Accordingly, it is during this period when language learn-
ing is relatively effortless and results in complete mastery of
language.
However, the link between age and second language outcomes
is not linear and is much more complex than generally thought. To
begin, learners who begin to acquire a second language earlier
generally also have more exposure to that language than those who
begin later. Thus, it is often impossible to separate the effects of
age from amount of exposure. To facilitate discussion of research
on age effects, age is considered in this section setting aside issues
related to amount and quality of exposure; the role of exposure is
discussed in the next section. With respect to age and second
8GENESEE
language acquisition in general, there is evidence that, other things
being equal, young second language learners are more likely to
attain levels of oral proficiency like those of monolinguals or, at
least, greater proficiency than learners who begin to learn a second
language when older (Birdsong & Vanhove, in press). However,
there is no consensus on how early is early enough to achieve
native-like competence that is comparable with that of monolin-
guals and, in fact, whether monolingual native-like competence is
possible even if second language learning begins very early. In this
regard, research conducted in Sweden by Abrahamsson and
Hyltenstam (2009) examined the language abilities of long-term
residents of Sweden who had migrated to Sweden at different ages,
including the preschool years. In comparison with native Swedish
speakers, most preschool-age immigrants in their study did not
demonstrate native-like competence in Swedish as a second lan-
guage even after more than 20 years of exposure when tested using
a battery of diverse and demanding language tests.
In a similar vein, our own research on internationally adopted
children from China has shown that they score significantly lower
than matched nonadopted children on a variety of standardised
measures of language ability, including expressive and receptive
vocabulary and grammar (Delcenserie & Genesee, 2014). The
adoptees had begun learning the adopted language between 12 and
24 months of age; they had exclusive exposure to the adopted
language postadoption; and they were raised in families with
higher than average socioeconomic status—all factors that should
favour language learning. The adoptees studied by Delcenserie and
Genesee did not show similar delays in general cognitive, socio-
emotional, or nonverbal memory development suggesting that
their language development was uniquely affected by their delayed
exposure. That these effects are probably due to delayed exposure
to the second language and not attrition of the birth language
comes from neuroimaging research by Pierce, Klein, Chen,
Delcenserie, and Genesee (2014) on 9- to 17-year-old adoptees
from China who were also acquiring French. The adoptees’ neu-
rocognitive responses to pseudowords that varied in tone, a pho-
nemic feature of Chinese but not French, were compared with
those of French monolingual children and children who had ac-
quired Chinese as a first language and continued to use it. The
responses of the adoptees did not differ significantly from those of
the Chinese-speaking children; in other words, the adoptees evi-
denced traces of the birth language even after many years of
disuse. Taken together, the Abrahamsson and Hyltenstam and
Delcenserie and Genesee findings suggest that monolingual
native-like competence may not be achievable even when second
language acquisition begins very early, a point discussed further in
the conclusions.
Commonly held beliefs about how easily and effectively young
learners can acquire a second language usually do not take into
account the complexities of language in the context of schooling.
In this regard, education researchers argue that there are significant
differences in the language skills used for social communication
and those used for academic purposes, although obviously there is
extensive overlap (see Genesee, in press, for an expanded discus-
sion). Academic language refers to the specialised vocabulary,
grammar, discourse/textual, and functional skills associated with
academic instruction and mastery of academic material and skills;
it includes both oral and written forms of language (see Genesee,
in press, for an expanded discussion). A growing body of evidence
indicates that achieving competence in a second language for
academic purposes is a more complex process that takes consid-
erably longer than previously thought. For example, in a review of
research on the oral language development of second language
students in the United States (often referred to as English language
learners or ELLs), Saunders and O’Brien (2006) concluded that
ELLs, including those in all-English programs, are seldom
awarded ratings of “generally proficient” (but not native-like) in
English even by Grade 3. None of the studies they reviewed
reported average ratings of “native-like” in English until Grade 5.
In a longitudinal study of ELLs in Edmonton, Canada, Paradis
(2006) found that after 21 months of exposure to English, only
40% performed within the normal range for native-speakers on a
test of grammatical morpheme production (e.g., the use of “s” to
pluralise nouns or “-ed” to express past tense in verbs), 65% on
receptive vocabulary, and 90% on story grammar in narratives. Bol-
stering these results, findings from a number of reviews and individ-
ual studies on proficiency levels in English among ELLs indicate that
it can take ELLs between 5 to 7 years to achieve proficiency in
English for academic purposes that is comparable to that of mono-
linguals (Lindholm-Leary & Borsato, 2006;Thomas & Collier,
2002). These findings belie the myth that second language learning is
easy even for relatively young learners.
Evidence that younger is not necessarily better and, to the
contrary, older may be advantageous comes from evaluations of
alternative forms of bilingual (or immersion) education for major-
ity and minority language students in Canada and the United
States. In a series of comparative evaluations of alternative forms
of French immersion programs in Canada, Genesee (1981) found
that, on the one hand, majority language English-speaking students
in early immersion (beginning in kindergarten) generally achieved
significantly higher levels of second language proficiency than
students in programs with a delayed (middle elementary grades) or
late (secondary school) starting grade, suggesting that an early start
is often better. On the other hand, Genesee also found that students
in 2-year late immersion comprised of 80% of instruction in
French in Grades 7 and 8 sometimes achieved the same or almost
the same levels of second language proficiency as students in early
immersion. Harley and Hart (1997) similarly found few significant
differences between early partial (50% instruction in each lan-
guage) and late partial immersion students on a battery of French
language tests. Genesee’s results are particularly striking since the
late immersion students in his studies had had considerably less
exposure to the second language than students in early immersion
at the time of testing. These findings attest to the ability of older
learners to acquire a second language relatively quickly and,
arguably, more quickly than younger learners in school contexts
(see also Muñoz, 2014).
There are a number of possible explanations of why late im-
mersion students can make such rapid progress in acquiring a
second language despite reduced exposure compared with younger
students. To mention just two—older students have the benefit of
well-developed first language skills and, in particular, they may
have well-developed literacy skills in the first language. Literacy
skills acquired in one language can facilitate literacy development
in a second language through transfer or the use of common
underlying cognitive abilities linked to reading and writing
(Genesee & Geva, 2006;Riches & Genesee, 2006); this is espe-
cially true for languages that are typologically similar and/or have
9
CHILDHOOD BILINGUALISM
similar orthographies (e.g., French, Spanish, and English). Second,
older students may also be faster second language learners than
younger students because language teaching and learning in the
higher grades is generally more abstract and context-reduced than
in the earlier grades. As result, second language learners in higher
grades may be able to call on acquisitional strategies that are more
analytic and less experiential than is required in the lower grades
and that are better developed in older learners.
Further evidence that a late start to second language learning in
school can be advantageous comes from research that has exam-
ined the relative effectiveness of bilingual versus English-only
forms of education for minority language students in the United
States who come to school with no or limited in English—that is
ELLs. Minority language students in the United States, on average,
attain significantly lower levels of achievement in school than their
majority language peers; more of them drop out of school; and
fewer go on to pursue postsecondary education (Genesee &
Lindholm-Leary, 2012). There has been ongoing debate about the
best ways to educate such students in order to close the achieve-
ment gap with majority language students. It has been proposed
that bilingual forms of education in which ELLs receive initial
academic instruction, including literacy, in the home language
might be one way of enhancing their academic success since it
would allow them to acquire literacy skills and keep up with
academic instruction in a language they already know while they
are learning English. A variety of forms of bilingual education
exist that differ with respect to how much instruction is provided
in the minority language, ranging from 50% to 90% (see Genesee,
1999, for more details); for example, in the 90:10 model, the home
language is used for 90% of instruction in kindergarten to Grade 2,
and English is used as a primary medium of instruction beginning
in Grade 3. Systematic reviews of evaluations of these programs
have concluded that ELLs in bilingual programs score as well
as or often better than ELLs in English-only programs on tests
of oral proficiency, literacy and other school subjects (e.g.,
mathematics) in English (see Genesee & Lindholm-Leary,
2012, and Goldenberg, 2008, for reviews); at the same time,
bilingual program participants acquire significantly higher lev-
els of competence in the home language, Spanish in most cases.
Contrary to the myth that younger is better, these findings indicate
delayed instruction in English resulted in better outcomes than
early instruction for these students.
The Myth of Time-On-Task
A related belief that is commonly held about language learning
in general and second language learning in particular is that the
more time spent learning the language, the greater one’s compe-
tence. This belief is common in educational contexts where the
amount of time devoted to specific activities, like teaching specific
school subjects, is a reflection of how important we think these
activities are. Beginning instruction early in certain subjects, like
reading and mathematics, is another manifestation of the impor-
tance we attach to time-on-task. An examination of research find-
ings with respect to first and second language learning reveals, as
was found for the age factor, that there is not a simple correlation
between how much exposure children have to a second language in
school or in the home and language proficiency. We have already
seen some evidence of this in the monolingual brain section from
research showing that despite the fact that simultaneous bilinguals
have less exposure to each language as monolinguals, they achieve
the same milestones in language development at approximately the
same ages as monolingual children, and they demonstrate the same
patterns of development in general. However, this is not to say that
amount of exposure is not important.
Bilingually raised children seldom have equal exposure to both
languages. Understandably, below some minimum level of expo-
sure, bilingual children are likely to demonstrate poor competence
in a language. However, simultaneous bilingual children do not
need as much exposure in each language as monolinguals in order
to achieve comparable levels of competence. How much exposure
is needed to perform within monolingual norms depends on what
is assessed. In a study of children learning French as a second
language in Montreal, Thordardottir (2011) found that 40% to 50%
exposure is necessary to perform within monolingual norms on
tests of receptive vocabulary, but between 40% and 60% exposure
on tests of expressive vocabulary. Moreover, beyond a certain
threshold level of exposure, the performance of the bilinguals was
not enhanced.
Research on English-speaking students in French immersion
programs in Canada similarly illustrates that the influence of
time-on-task, like the influence of age, is complex and sometimes
unexpected. As noted earlier, alternative forms of French immer-
sion exist and vary with respect to the grade when instruction in
French and how much instruction through French is provided.
Comparative evaluations of these alternatives reveal that the rela-
tionship between exposure and language outcomes depends on
whether the language under evaluation is the majority language,
English, or a minority language, like French. Thus, on the one
hand, students who participate in programs that devote more time
to French, the second language, outperform students in immersion
programs that devote less time to French (Genesee, 2004). On the
other hand, and in contrast, these studies fail to demonstrate a
relationship between amount of exposure to English and achieve-
ment in English in the long run. More specifically, students in
early total immersion who did not receive instruction in or through
English until Grade 3 demonstrate the same levels of competence
on a variety of measures of English as students in delayed and late
immersion even though students in the latter programs have had
some instruction in English from kindergarten. The immersion and
comparison students participating in these evaluations were com-
parable with respect to overall academic ability and socioeconomic
status, and they often attended the same schools, with immersion
being a strand within a larger school. Thus, major factors that
might have favoured the immersion students were largely elimi-
nated and, thus, cannot account for these findings.
The question arises how can students who get less instruction in
their first language in school score as well as students who get all
their instruction in the native language? Two possible explanations
are considered here. First, the reduced exposure to English that
Canadian students experience in French immersion is offset by
their total immersion in English outside school. The exposure to
English that immersion students get outside school includes expo-
sure to written forms of the language which, in turn, supports
students’ acquisition of literacy skills in English even though they
are being taught formally to read and write in French. A second
explanation for why immersion students do not fall behind in first
language development is related to transfer. A great deal of re-
10 GENESEE
search on second language reading has shown that students with
relatively well-developed decoding and reading comprehension
skills in one language demonstrate relatively advanced reading
skills in their other language (e.g., Erdos, Genesee, Savage, &
Haigh, 2011;Riches & Genesee, 2006; see August & Shanahan,
2006, for a review). Thus, as immersion students acquire word
decoding and reading comprehension skills in French, their second
language, they are also acquiring skills that can be applied to
reading English. As a result, immersion students require reduced
instruction in English to achieve grade-appropriate levels of com-
petence in reading English.
Similar findings with respect to the importance of exposure to a
majority language, like English, in school and acquisition of that
language have been found by Lindholm-Leary in her research in
the United States (Lindholm-Leary & Borsato, 2006). The students
who participated in this research included ELLs who were native
speakers of Spanish and had no or limited proficiency in English
when they started school. Some ELLs were attending bilingual
programs, as described earlier, in which as much as 90% of
instruction was provided in Spanish, beginning in kindergarten,
while others attended conventional all-English schools. Lindholm-
Leary and Borsato (2006) found that, despite their reduced expo-
sure to English, ELLs in the bilingual programs scored as well as,
or better than, similar ELLs in all-English programs on standard-
ised tests in English. Lindholm-Leary argued, as have Canadian
researchers, that the high status of English along with students’
extensive exposure to English outside school minimises the poten-
tial negative consequences of reduced exposure to English in these
bilingual programs. At the same time, there was a significant
positive relationship between amount of exposure to Spanish and
students’ proficiency in Spanish.
The Myth of Bilingualism and Children With
Developmental Disorders and Academic Challenges
Dual language learning during the preschool years or in school
is thought to be unsuitable for children with a variety of learning
challenges because it is thought that learning two languages or
through two languages will exacerbate learning difficulties. This
thinking is often applied to children with developmental disorders
that implicate language learning difficulties (such as specific lan-
guage impairment (SLI), Down Syndrome, or Autism Spectrum
Disorder), and children with academic challenges that may be due
to the child’s sociocultural background (such as low socioeco-
nomic and minority ethnic group status) or poor academic ability.
As a result, education professionals and speech-language special-
ists often counsel parents of children with these kinds of chal-
lenges to use only one language in the home and/or to enrol them
in a monolingual school program. Children with SLI provide a
particularly rigorous test of this assumption because SLI is a
developmental disorder with a genetic origin (Leonard, 1998) that
is specific to language acquisition and is often associated with poor
academic outcomes. Thus, it is discussed in some detail here.
Children with SLI exhibit significant delays in early language
development and their language competence is noticeably below
that of same-age peers. However, they are typical in other aspects
of development—they have no known central processing, neuro-
logical, cognitive, or socioemotional problems that could account
for their language learning difficulties. They can exhibit difficul-
ties with lexical, morphosyntactic, and pragmatic aspects of lan-
guage, with difficulty learning specific morphosyntactic features
of language being an especially robust indicator of SLI. In fact,
morphosyntactic problems are often taken as a marker of SLI and,
thus, have received the lion’s share of research attention (see
Paradis et al., 2011, Chapter 9, for a detailed discussion of bilin-
gual and second language learners with SLI).
In one of the earliest studies to examine this issue, Paradis et al.
(2003) found that simultaneous bilingual children (7 to 7.6-year-
old) with SLI exhibited equivalents levels of morphosyntactic
competence and the same profiles of morphosyntactic strengths
and weakness as monolingual children with SLI. In other words,
bilingual children with SLI were not at greater risk than the
monolingual children with SLI. At the same time, the bilingual
children were becoming bilingual within the limits of their ability.
These results have since been confirmed by many studies exam-
ining other language pairs under different sociocultural circum-
stances (e.g., see Gutiérrez-Clellen, Simón-Cereijido, & Wagner,
2008, for the case of Spanish-English minority language students
in the United States). Paradis and Sorenson (2009) have similarly
shown that children with SLI who were acquiring French as a
second language were not extraordinarily delayed in their language
development in comparison with monolingual learners of French
as a second language who also had SLI, again indicating that dual
language learning does not exacerbate the language difficulties of
children with SLI. In a related vein, Down Syndrome and ASD are
also developmental disorders with genetic bases that put children
at risk for poor language outcomes, along with other difficulties.
Investigations of these kinds of children indicate that they do not
differ significantly from children with the same disorders who are
learning only one language (e.g., Bird et al., 2005;Hambly &
Fombonne, 2012;Marinova-Todd & Mirenda, in press), although
they do demonstrate more language-related difficulties than chil-
dren without these disorders. It is difficult to reconcile these
diverse findings with the belief that dual language learning puts
children with developmental disorders at greater risk for language
difficulties than learning only one language.
Students who have poorly developed first language skills or SLI
are often considered unsuitable for immersion/bilingual programs
because it is feared that their language learning difficulties will be
increased, and this, in turn, will jeopardise their overall academic
success. This is an important ethical issue since excluding such
children from bilingual programs can have significant long-
term consequences especially for children living in bilingual
families or communities where acquisition of two languages is
important. It can also reduce the opportunities children have for
employment in jobs that require competence in more than one
language when they leave school, a possibility that is growing as
globalisation increases. Despite the significance of this issue, there
is relatively little empirical investigation of such learners, one
exception being work by Bruck in Montreal (Bruck, 1978,1982).
Bruck compared the language and academic performance of Grade
3 immersion students with “impaired” first language skills to
comparable students in nonimmersion programs using a battery of
language, literacy, and academic achievement tests. She found no
significant differences between the two groups, except the im-
paired immersion students had acquired significantly superior
French language proficiency in comparison to the impaired stu-
11
CHILDHOOD BILINGUALISM
dents receiving conventional French-as-a-second language instruc-
tion in the monolingual program.
Concerns about the suitability of bilingual forms of education
for students who might struggle in school extend beyond students
with language learning difficulties per se and include students with
low academic ability and students from economically disadvan-
taged families. Students with these kinds of backgrounds often,
although not always, underperform in school in comparison with
students without these background characteristics. Research by
Genesee on immersion students in Montreal who were at-risk for
academic difficulty because of below average levels of academic
ability indicates that such students are not differentially handi-
capped in their first language and academic achievement in com-
parison to similar students in English-only programs (Genesee,
1976). To the contrary, he found that below average students in
early immersion sometimes performed as well as average immer-
sion students on tests of listening comprehension and speaking in
their second language, although significantly lower on tests of
reading. Genesee also found that the students with academic dif-
ficulties benefited from immersion in the form of increased levels
of functional proficiency in French. Immersion students from
relatively low socioeconomic backgrounds have also been shown
to keep pace academically and in English with similar students in
all-English programs while, at the same time, acquiring more
advanced French language skills (e.g., Bruck, Tucker, & Jakimik,
1975;Holobow, Genesee, & Lambert, 1991).
Conclusions
The findings reviewed in the preceding sections have significant
theoretical significance as well as practical implications for par-
ents, educators, and other professionals who work with young dual
language learners. Before proceeding, however, it is important to
repeat a caveat made earlier. The evidence reviewed here attests to
children’s capacity to develop dual language competence in early
childhood and school settings under favourable conditions. Not all
children thrive in dual language families or dual language schools
to the same extent. Undoubtedly, the quality of the learning envi-
ronment in which young children grow up and are educated affects
whether or not individual children become fully bilingual and
succeed fully in school. Understanding the conditions that favour
or disfavour full dual language competence during the preschool
years and academic success in dual language programs goes be-
yond the limitations of this article (see Grüter & Paradis, 2014, and
Paradis et al., 2011, for extended discussions of these issues).
With these caveats in mind, taken together, the evidence re-
viewed here indicates that learning two languages simultaneously
is as natural as learning one and that children can acquire full
competence in two languages that is comparable with that of
monolingual children, given the right learning environment. Evi-
dence indicates that even children with genetic predispositions for
language learning difficulties, including SLI, can acquire compe-
tence in two languages at the same time during the preschool years
(or successively in bilingual school programs) within the limits of
their impairment. In other words, their learning difficulties do not
impair their language abilities beyond that seen in monolingual
children with the same learning challenges. Detailed studies of
simultaneous bilinguals indicate that they acquire differentiated
language systems from the earliest stages of development that are,
moreover, the same as those of monolingual children in most
important respects. That the neurocognitive mechanisms that un-
derlie language acquisition have the capacity for dual language
learning comes from a number of different sources of evidence,
including evidence that they are able to access both languages
online during codemixing and, as a result, avoid violating the
grammatical constraints of both languages most of the time. Thus,
contrary to early conceptualisations of child bilingual codemixing
as indicating confusion and incompetence, it is a sign of linguistic
and communicative competence. Studies of the communicative
competence of simultaneous bilinguals indicates that they are able
to use their two language differentially and appropriate with others
and are able to adapt use of their two languages in accordance with
their interlocutors’ language abilities and preferences—even with
unfamiliar interlocutors. There are, of course, differences among
bilingual children and between bilingual and monolingual chil-
dren; but to date most differences appear to be related primarily to
characteristics of the learning environment, including the quantity,
nature, and consistency of the input that bilingual children receive
rather than to the fact of learning two languages per se (Grüter &
Paradis, 2014).
Practically speaking, there is no empirical evidence at present to
justify restricting children with developmental disorders from
learning two languages. At the same time, parents and others who
care for children who are being raised bilingually should take
active responsibility to ensure that they get adequate exposure to
both languages so that they acquire both languages fully. It also
seems likely, although evidence on this is anecdotal, that bilingual
children need continuous and regular exposure to both languages
to ensure full acquisition. Abrupt changes in exposure and/or
irregular exposure should probably be avoided, as much as possi-
ble.
While the competence of bilingual children is often evaluated by
comparing them to monolingual children, this is not the only basis
of evaluation, nor even the right one. The language proficiency
profiles of bilingual children will always be somewhat different
from those of monolinguals, even as they grow into adulthood.
This is necessarily so because their acquisition of each language as
well as their use of each is distributed across different contexts—
simply put, they learn and use each language with different people,
in different social and professional contexts, and for different
purposes. As a result, whether one examines their vocabulary,
grammar, or functional language skills, they are likely to differ
from monolinguals who use the same language with everyone, in
all contexts, and for all purposes. Thus, differences between bilin-
guals and monolinguals are to be expected, and they should be
analysed and understood with reference to the different environ-
ments in which they learn and use each language. The same is true
for children who are educated in dual language school programs.
When it comes to educating children bilingually, the evidence
consistently indicates that children who speak a majority first
language and who participate in second language immersion-type
bilingual programs attain the same, or higher, levels of native
language proficiency and academic achievement in the long run as
children in monolingual programs. In fact, there is some evidence
that students in enriched immersion programs outperform students
in monolingual programs when tested in the first language even
when the two groups are equated for intellectual and socioeco-
nomic factors (Holobow, Genesee, Lambert, Gastright, & Met,
12 GENESEE
1987). At the same time, students in immersion programs acquire
advanced levels of functional competence in a second language.
Research on immersion programs in Canada (Genesee, 2007) and
the United States (Genesee & Lindholm-Leary, 2013) indicates
further that immersion is suitable and effective for a wide variety
of learners, including English-speaking students who often strug-
gle in school. Thus, at present, there is no evidence to preclude
most students from participating in immersion/bilingual programs,
including students who might otherwise be at-risk for academic
difficulties. At the same time, second language learning in school
settings and the benefits of learning two languages take time. Thus,
parents must make a long-term commitment to immersion educa-
tion and avoid switching students out of these programs unless
there is strong evidence that individual children will perform better
in a monolingual program.
Finally, research on children who speak a minority language at
home and are schooled in a majority language, such as English in
Canada or the United States, indicates that they are not at a
disadvantage if they maintain and continue to learn the minority
language—in the home or in school, despite the myth that younger
is better. To the contrary, there is growing evidence that high
levels of competence in the home language, especially in domains
related to literacy and schooling, can give minority language
children an advantage in school in comparison to other minority
language students who have not developed their home languages
in these ways (Genesee & Geva, 2006). Minority parents who do
not speak the majority language should be encouraged to continue
to use the home language with their children, if this is their
dominant language (Paradis, in press).
There is still much to learn about early childhood bilingualism.
However, there is sufficient research evidence to dispel many com-
mon myths held by parents, educators, and professionals about raising
and educating children bilingually. Moreover, findings from dual
language acquisition by young children are providing a rich data
source for extending current theories of language learning and teach-
ing and extending our understanding of individual differences and
contextual factors that influence dual language learning in home and
school environments.
Résumé
On constate un intérêt grandissant a
`l’égard des enfants qui
apprennent une langue dans divers contextes et différentes
circonstances. En particulier, l’apprentissage de deux langues
fait désormais l’objet de beaucoup de recherches, peut-être en
raison de la sensibilisation au fait qu’il est courant parmi les
enfants. Il important d’avoir une compréhension approfondie de
l’apprentissage de deux langues dans des circonstances
différentes afin que la formulation des théories de
l’apprentissage d’une langue englobe tous les apprenants et afin
de fournir de l’information essentielle pour la prise de décisions
cliniques et autres décisions pratiques qui influeront sur tous les
apprenants de langues. Cet article présente les résultats de
recherches sur l’apprentissage de deux langues dans un contexte
scolaire et hors de l’école, parmi les personnes bilingues ayant
appris une langue a
`la fois ou deux concurremment, ainsi que
parmi les apprenants sans et avec difficultés sur le plan de
l’apprentissage des langues. Les principaux résultats concernant
4 mythes courants au sujet de l’apprentissage de deux langues
chez les jeunes sont présentés. Ces mythes sont les suivants : 1)
le cerveau unilingue; 2) l’apprentissage en bas âge est
préférable; 3) l’importance du temps nécessaire a
`
l’apprentissage; 4) l’apprentissage d’une deuxième langue n’est
pas recommandé pour les enfants ayant des déficiences
développementales ou des difficultés a
`l’école.
Mots-clés : bilinguismeé, apprentissage d’une langue seconde.
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Received September 16, 2014
Accepted December 1, 2014 䡲
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