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Perceived Instructor Argumentativeness and Verbal Aggressiveness in the College Classroom: Effects on Student Perceptions of Climate, Apprehension, and State Motivation
Abstract
Because argumentativeness and verbal aggressiveness are associated with positive and negative relational outcomes, respectively (Infante & Rancer, 1996), we were interested in whether perceived instructor argumentativeness and verbal aggressiveness are related to college student perceptions of classroom climate, classroom apprehension, and state motivation. Participants were 236 undergraduate students enrolled in a variety of communication courses at a mid‐Atlantic university. Results indicate that (a) perceived instructor argumentativeness was not related to perceived classroom climate whereas perceived instructor verbal aggressiveness was negatively related to perceived classroom climate, (b) neither perceived instructor argumentativeness nor verbal aggressiveness was related to perceived student classroom apprehension, and (c) perceived instructor argumentativeness was positively related to perceived student state motivation whereas perceived instructor verbal aggressiveness was negatively related to perceived student state motivation.
... Therefore, it is important to assess potential effects of instructor-student interactions and instructor communication behavior on student outcomes. Previous research has demonstrated clearly that instructor communication behaviors influence classroom learning environments and student learning (e.g., 19,20 ). Accordingly, this project includes measurements of communication behavior and analysis of whether these behaviors are related to outcomes of ethics education. ...
... Argumentativeness will be measured using a revised version of the Argumentativeness Scale 20,21 . Verbal aggressiveness will be measured using a revised version of the Verbal Aggressiveness Scale 20,22 . Out-of-class communication will be measured using the Out of Class Interaction Scale 23 . ...
... Argumentative persons perceive arguments as an exciting intellectual challenge and are seen as more credible, creative and self-assured [4]. Argumentativeness is positively related to affective learning, state motivation, interpersonal attraction and satisfaction [4] [6] [24] [47], socio-communicative style and discipline reasons [48], democratic teaching style, intrinsic motivation [9] and negatively with Machiavellianism [14]. Argumentativeness is positively related to the student's state motivation [47] and to physical, social and scientific interpersonal attraction [13]. ...
... Argumentativeness is positively related to affective learning, state motivation, interpersonal attraction and satisfaction [4] [6] [24] [47], socio-communicative style and discipline reasons [48], democratic teaching style, intrinsic motivation [9] and negatively with Machiavellianism [14]. Argumentativeness is positively related to the student's state motivation [47] and to physical, social and scientific interpersonal attraction [13]. Network analysis has also been conducted in the field of argumentativeness [29] [32]. ...
Goal of this research is to suggest a typology of verbal aggressiveness, argumentativeness and motivational climate influence, pointing out examples of complementary types (namely containing no identical components) and nested types (containing identical components). Complete network analysis was conducted in a student class at the Dept. of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, University of Thessaly (N = 66). Standardized questionnaires were used. Network analysis and Principal Component Analysis were implemented using Visone software and SPSS, respectively. Main results were: in the typology of targeting, parameters of motivation climate, verbal aggressiveness and argumentativeness were combined in several types (“affable ambitious”, “isolated victim”, “isolated ambitious”, “lightly victimized” and “severely victimized”) which were partially complementary and partially nested into each other. These depict student profiles vary from quite socialized and invulnerable to only isolated and victimized. They also reveal the significance of seeking knowledge acquirement vs. performance. The typology of general involvement (in- and out-degree) contains types tending to be rather nested into each other than complementary which varies from quite integrative to purely deconstructive appearance. This typology depicts the connection of motivation climate (and the subsequently induced familiarity) with verbal aggressiveness without diminishing susceptibility to argumentation. The fact that the typology of targeting is composed of several complementary types while in the typology of general involvement mainly of nested ones, can be attributed to the structural clarity of the former ones (a typology focusing only
... Thus, teachers can promote students' state motivation by exhibiting certain behaviours and employing specific strategies in the classroom (Wheeless, Witt, Maresh, Bryand, & Schrodt, 2011). In this sense, several studies highlight that to improve university students' state motivation, teachers must use a competent socio-communicative style, be close, disclose personal information relevant to course content, explain clearly, communicate with the students outside of class to discuss academic issues, and avoid behaviours that reflect burnout or verbal aggression (Christensen & Menzel, 1998;Hussain, Azeem, & Abid, 2021;Khan, Shah, & Ahmad, 2015;Myers & Rocca, 2001;Zardeckaite-Matulaitiene & Paluckaite, 2013;Zhang & Sapp, 2008;Zhang & Zhang, 2005). ...
University students' motivation can be affected by several factors, one being their perceptions of teacher behaviour in the classroom. This study aimed to predict university students' state motivation from their perceptions of teacher credibility. The participants were 344 students from the University of Seville. A structural equation model was used with the partial least squares method (PLS-SEM), a technique based on variance, employed to test, and validate the proposed hypotheses. The results reveal, on the one hand, a positive effect of teacher credibility on state motivation and, on the other hand, that teacher credibility has predictive power and predictive relevance for state motivation. Likewise, there is evidence of predictive validity in that teacher credibility can predict values for new cases of state motivation. Strategies are provided for a university faculty to manage their behaviour in the classroom to increase their students' state motivation, highlighting the use of PLS-SEM as a data analysis tool suitable for application in higher education.
... The way we address these situations is critical to getting back on track. Ignoring problematic statements, trying to simply move on, or shutting down dialogue completely are largely ineffective responses (Myers & Rocca, 2001). However, we must acknowledge our own limitations, even temporary ones, to responding in the moment. ...
In light of a national reckoning with racism in the U.S., many instructors are assessing their own pedagogical practices with regard to handling these topics in their classrooms. In developing my authentic teaching philosophy over the course of 18 years, I have adapted many practices I used in my prior career in dispute resolution. To clarify, I center classroom engagement around what Hart (2007) describes as “a pedagogy of interiority.” Classroom engagement focuses on connection rather than correction as we help students develop their “authentic inner potentials” (p. 2). I regularly challenge myself to invite students to develop their authentic personal selves via contemplation and reflexivity. In doing so, we move from a teacher-centered focus to a student-centered one derived from a relational partnership with them. By focusing on connection rather than correction, we create an environment of curiosity, compassion, and intensive reflection where students come to know themselves and their strengths in ways that extend beyond the classroom. This essay highlights how students co-create conversational commitments coupled with a rapid debrief process that moves my students forward together toward shared mindfulness in thought and behavior.
... De esta manera, los docentes pueden ejercer una influencia positiva en la motivación estado del alumnado al emplear determinadas estrategias y exhibir ciertos comportamientos en el aula (Wheeless, Witt, Maresh, Bryand, & Schrodt, 2011). Así, para mejorar la motivación estado del alumnado universitario, diversos estudios concluyen que los docentes deben mostrarse cercanos; emplear un estilo sociocomunicativo competente; ser claros en sus explicaciones; comunicarse con el alumnado fuera del aula para abordar cuestiones académicas; compartir información personal relevante para el contenido del curso y evitar la agresividad verbal y conductas que reflejen agotamiento (Christenzen & Menzel, 1998;Khan, Shah, & Ahmad, 2015;Myers & Rocca, 2001;Zardeckaite-Matulaitiene & Paluckaite, 2013;Zhang & Sapp, 2008;Zhang & Zhang, 2005). ...
In the college classroom, student state motivation can be influenced by many factors, being one of them
students' perceptions of teachers' behaviors. The purpose of this study was to adapt and validate the Spanish
version of the State Motivation Scale (Christophel, 1990) in a sample of university students. The participants
were 344 students from the University of Seville. The results of the confirmatory factor analysis supported
the unifactorial structure proposed in the original model. Invariance across gender was found and evidence of
concurrent validity with teacher credibility. It is concluded that the State Motivation Scale has appropriate
psychometric properties to measure state motivation in Spanish-speaking university students.
... Numerous studies in the field of education note the link between academic motivation and academic climate (Browman & Destin, 2015;Byrd, 2015;Gao et al., 2019;Joe et al., 2017;Myers & Rocca, 2001;Ryabov, 2015;Scherer & Nilsen, 2016). The academic climate plays a significant role in what actually happens in the learning process and in the way students and teachers think and behave in this context (Joe et al., 2017). ...
In this study we focus on the university students and the factors that influence their academic motivation. The participants were 202 students from different universities and specializations, 167 females and 35 males, aged 18-31 years, M = 21.33, SD = 2.15. We used Perceived Academic Climate Scale (Felner, 1993), Teacher-Student Relationship Scale (Brinkworth et al., 2018), and Academic Motivation Scale (Vallerand et al., 1992). Our objective was to identify the relationship between academic climate, teacher-student relationship (TSR), and academic motivation in the university environment, and to investigate the influence of the career anxiety on the academic motivation of students. The results show that anxiety regarding future career can moderate the relationship between school climate and academic amotivation and also between TSR and academic motivation.
... Numerous studies in the field of education note the link between academic motivation and academic climate (Browman & Destin, 2015;Byrd, 2015;Gao et al., 2019;Joe et al., 2017;Myers & Rocca, 2001;Ryabov, 2015;Scherer & Nilsen, 2016). The academic climate plays a significant role in what actually happens in the learning process and in the way students and teachers think and behave in this context (Joe et al., 2017). ...
In this study we focus on the university students and the factors that influence their academic motivation. The participants were 202 students from different universities and specializations, 167 females and 35 males, aged 18-31 years, M = 21.33, SD = 2.15. We used Perceived Academic Climate Scale (Felner, 1993), Teacher-Student Relationship Scale (Brinkworth et al., 2018), and Academic Motivation Scale (Vallerand et al., 1992). Our objective was to identify the relationship between academic climate, teacher-student relationship (TSR), and academic motivation in the university environment, and to investigate the influence of the career anxiety on the academic motivation of students. The results show that anxiety regarding future career can moderate the relationship between school climate and academic amotivation and also between TSR and academic motivation.
... There are several operationalizations of climate in the literature, but generally classroom climates are considered positive when the classroom is inclusive and equitable to students from di erent backgrounds, accessible to students with di erent needs, intellectually challenging, and instructors and classmates are supportive and focused on the mastery of learning goals (Hamre & Pianta, 2005;Morin, Marsh, Nagengast, & Scalas, 2014). Negative climates are typi ed by exclusion, disrespect, verbal aggression, and anonymity (Myers & Rocca, 2009). Instructors can promote a positive classroom climate by fostering warm and supportive relationships with students, listening to students' perspectives, using inclusive language and practices, encouraging student questions and cooperation, and attending to students' needs for accessibility. ...
... In such courses, students report that they participated in class activities, were willing to engage and talk in class, established rapport with instructors and classmates, and were less likely to disrupt the classroom or challenge the instructor. Further, not surprisingly, a positive relationship is reported between feeling "connected" in the classroom and student learning [6]. ...
... In general, instructors' use of verbal and nonverbal cues in the classroom remain a popular topic of investigation in communication education. Variables such as instructors' use of humor [28][29][30], verbal aggressiveness [31,32], nonverbal immediacy [15,16], self-disclosure [16,33], and social attractiveness [28,34], to name but a few, are tested in association with students' perception of classroom climate, teacher credibility, cultural diversity atmosphere, students' learning, and others. In essence, students' active engagement in learning is largely influenced by positive instructor-student interaction. ...
(1) This study investigates the norms of speaking in the classroom by examining the speaking practices of Japanese international students (JIS)—a nonnative English speaking group—in classroom conversations with native English speakers (NES). (2) Semi-structured interviews in Japanese were conducted with 12 JIS in undergraduate programs at a predominantly White university in the United States. (3) The use of speech codes theory and Hymes’s SPEAKING framework, coupled with the grounded theory, reveal that all the interviewees dealt with conflicting feelings of eagerness and dread when deciding whether or not to participate in classroom conversations. The JIS revealed threatening classroom dynamics that made them feel inadequate, isolated, and intimidated. The norms for speaking in the classroom subjugate the JIS into silent observers and subalterns who lack colloquial English skills or local cultural knowledge. Unforgiving sanctions, including discrimination, exclusion, ignorance, and silent treatment, are used by the NES to illegitimize JIS membership in the classroom community. (4) These micro-level nuances of classroom culture are discussed in relation to the macro-level institutionalized structures of U.S. higher education that are, in turn, embedded in the socio-historical dynamics of the nation.
... There are several operationalizations of climate in the literature, but generally classroom climates are considered positive when the classroom is inclusive and equitable to students from di erent backgrounds, accessible to students with di erent needs, intellectually challenging, and instructors and classmates are supportive and focused on the mastery of learning goals (Hamre & Pianta, 2005;Morin, Marsh, Nagengast, & Scalas, 2014). Negative climates are typi ed by exclusion, disrespect, verbal aggression, and anonymity (Myers & Rocca, 2009). Instructors can promote a positive classroom climate by fostering warm and supportive relationships with students, listening to students' perspectives, using inclusive language and practices, encouraging student questions and cooperation, and attending to students' needs for accessibility. ...
There is often a disconnect between the unit of analysis in rigorous education research, and the types of recommendations that instructors find the most useful to improve their teaching. Research often focuses on narrow slices of the student experience, and university instructors often require broad recommendations. We present the Fearless Teaching Framework to address this gap between research and practice. In this framework, we define four pieces of effective teaching: classroom climate, course content, teaching practices, and assessment strategies. We argue that these are appropriate areas of focus for instructor growth, based on their relations to student engagement.
... Seating arrangement is considered to be a factor, and a Ushaped/circular/semicircular arrangement are more conducive to student participation in which students can see each other and communicate with each other. Counting participation as part of a student's grade, earning extra credit and allowing students to be a part of the participation grading process are helpful in increasing students participation (Fassinger (2) Student traits -which include student gender and student age (Fritschner, 2000), students' confidence, self-esteem, communication ability, responsiveness and classroom apprehension ( Myers & Rocca, 2001) [14] . ...
... The results of this study appear to be compatible with previous research findings which suggest that argumentativeness helps trainees express themselves and improve their self-confidence and learning (Bekiari, 2012;2014;Hamilton & Hample, 2011;Hassandra, Bekiari, & Sakellariou, 2007;Myers, 2002;Myers & Rocca, 2001;. Further research results suggested that instructors' personality is of importance for their relationship with their trainees and has an effect on their behavior, tactics, emotions or attitudes (Rancer & Avtgis, 2014). ...
... Deliligka, A. Bekiari Psychology mentativeness is positively related to mastery climate and negatively to performance climate. It is showed that verbally aggressive instructors may not have the ability to use arguments and they adopt a motivational climate focused on performance but not individual growth, whilst argumentative instructors promote thinking, effort, self-confidence and learning (Bekiari, 2016;Bekiari, 2012;2014;Bekiari, Perkos, & Gerodimos, 2015;Hamilton & Hample, 2011;Hassandra, Bekiari, & Sakellariou, 2007;Manoli & Bekiari, 2015;Myers, 2002;Myers & Rocca, 2001;. ...
... Effective teaching and learning conditions are achievedthrough teachers' positive communication behaviors (Mazer, Murphy, & Simonds, 2007;Scott & Wheeless, 1977). Particularly, teachers can promote affective learning (McCroskey, 1994;Rodriguez, Plax, & Kearney, 1996;Titsworth, 2001), positive classroom climate (Mazer & Hunt, 2008;Myers, 1995;Myers & Rocca, 2001), interpersonal relationships (Frymier & Houser, 2000) and students' motivation (Christophel, 1990;Frymier, 1994;Goodboy & Myers, 2008). On the other hand, people's negative communication reflects aggressive characteristics and as numerous studies have shown, such behaviors can undermine students' learning (Bekiari, Deliligka & Hasanagas, 2017;Bekiari, Pachi, & Hasanagas, 2017;Bekiari & Petanidis, 2016;Bekiari & Spyropoulou, 2016;Bekiari & Tsagopoulou, 2016;Bekiari & Tsiana, 2016;Hasanagas, Bekiari & Vasilos, 2017;Hassandra, Bekiari, & Sakellariou, 2007;Manoli & Bekiari, 2015). ...
This study is aiming at examining 1) physical education teachers' self-perceived verbal aggressiveness and argumentativeness, 2) students' perceptions about verbal aggressiveness and argumentativeness developed by their teachers, in order to assess the communicational accordance between students' and teachers' perceptions in elementary, junior and high schools. A combination of qualitative (study 1) and quantitative methods (study 2) has been implemented for this purpose. Fifteen PE teachers (6 females and 9 males), participated in the qualitative study; and 894 students (442 males, 452 females), participated in the quantitative study. According to the study 1, argumentative-ness and verbal aggressiveness are features that co-exist to a person's behavior.
... Verbal aggressiveness has extensively been investigated in multifarious environments (family, business, education system etc.) [1]- [8]. Impacts of verbal aggressiveness in the education system have also been discussed regarding motivation [9]- [18], attraction [19] [20], affective learning [21] [22], discipline [23], satisfaction and learning [24] [25] [26] [27], fair play behaviours [28], Machiavellianism [29] [30], even in correctional facilities [31] [32]. However, it has not been explored in relation to animal friendliness. ...
... Also, verbal aggressiveness affects on the discipline in class Bekiari & Tsiana, 2016) causing behaviours (Claus, Booth-Butterfield, & Chory, 2012;Kennedy-Lightsey & Myers, 2009), reducing teacher's reliability (Infante, 1985;Infante et al., 1992) and interpersonal attraction (Syrmpas & Bekiari, 2015). Students declare lower levels of satisfaction and learning (Bekiari, 2014;Bekiari, Perkos, et al., 2015;Manoli & Bekiari, 2015;Mazer & Stowe, 2015;Myers, 2002;Myers et al., 2007;Myers & Knox, 1999Myers & Rocca, 2001;Schrodt, 2003) and present lower academic achievement scores (Uludag, 2013;Yaratan & Uludag, 2012). Also, verbal aggressiveness is negatively associated with interest (Weiss & Houser, 2007), self-esteem (Buford, 2010;Infante & Wigley, 1986;Schrodt, 2003), behaviour, thinking and motivation (Bekiari, Perkos, et al., 2015;Mazer & Stowe, 2015). ...
The purpose of this study is to detect structures of verbal aggressiveness and leadership using social networks analysis. Standardized questionnaires including network and non-network variables have been distributed to 128 students and 43 teachers at secondary schools. We performed complete analysis of social networks and further processing by applying principal component analysis. According to the results, a complex structure of verbal aggressiveness occurred in the classes (networks) and the structure was necessary to be explored with several network indicators (Katz, pagerank etc.). Structures of verbal aggressiveness and leadership appeared to converge. The following types of verbal aggressors were proposed: a) the “mocker”, b) the “scorner”, c) the “insulter”, d) the “teaser” and e) the “ridiculer”. As for the leadership, two types of leaders have been revealed: a) the “ideologist leader”, b) the “realist” leader. It is noticeable that both leader types appear in the occasional (indegree) as well as in the accumulative (Katz) structure. This means a rigid character of these leadership profiles.
... Verbally aggressive instructors may createmore harsh conditions in their class, leading to less appealing and intimate communication relationships both with students and colleagues (Avtgis & Rancer, 2008;Rancer & Avtgis, 2006). A defensive climate is developed in the classroom, where the exchange of ideas and opinions is discouraged (Myers & Rocca, 2001). ...
Aim of this research is to analyze motivation and verbal aggressiveness as structure of relations and to detect their determinants. A university class of 62 students and 4 instructors has been analyzed as a network. In- and out-degree, degree, pagerank, katz and authority have been calculated. They were correlated (Spearman test) with several non-network variables such as economic status, age, gender, etc. Visone and SPSS have been used. Main results are the following: Mastery influence is a more common situation than influence aiming at performance and verbal aggressiveness which necessitate fanaticism or familiarity. Students with high grade are quite central in influencing and being influenced for learning pedagogic-psychological issues. In the case of learning biology (mastery), the teaching staff is the main stimulator in contrast to case of pedagogic-psychological field. The age and the experience of travelling abroad are also conducive to learning biology. Male students seem to be more influential than the female ones, as the sport is still perceived as a male-dominated field. Students interested in medicinal subjects are rather unable to stimulate others in sport issues, as there is a contextual deficit between medicinal and sport subjects. Female students seem to stimulate for improvement. Students interested in the medicinal subjects tend to be stimulated and to stimulate others to surpass performance limits. The desire for professional eminence also seems to discourage offenders indicating the existence of organization culture at the department. Travelling abroad for sport reasons increases offensiveness. Students originating from rural areas tend more to become target of offenses, indicating thus spatial-regional discrimination. Students of higher economic state are more deriding. The proposed typologies of motivation influence and verbal aggressiveness include the “invulnerable motivator” and the “vulnerable motivator” as well as the “strong motivator” and the “brawler” type.
... Engaging in these disconfirming behaviors may lead to more negative student outcomes. For example, if an instructor engages in offensive behaviors, such as verbal aggression, they are evaluated less positively and are viewed as less trustworthy by students, because these behaviors are negatively associated with students' perception of the classroom climate (Myers & Rocca, 2001). Students who perceive the classroom climate as less personalized, satisfying, task oriented, involving, cohesive, and individualized are more likely to cheat and to justify cheating behaviors (Pulvers & Diekhoff, 1999). ...
Classroom climate is a broad construct, made up of students’ feelings about their instructor and peers. Although there is a plethora of research on the effects of classroom climate on student outcomes at the secondary level, there is a relative dearth of such research on the postsecondary level. However, much of the research that does exist shows that students’ perceptions of classroom climate at the postsecondary level have a great impact on learning, motivation, satisfaction, and achievement. This paper will thus provide strategies to help instructors promote positive interpersonal relationships in the classroom, which increases student connectedness, thereby improving classroom climate. Instructors should always consider how their behaviors may be interpreted by their students and keep the classroom climate in mind when developing courses and lesson plans. Doing so is likely to
increase positive outcomes for students as well as levels of satisfaction for the instructor.
... Studies conducted in the academic domain showed that verbal aggressiveness is negatively related to perceptions of immediacy and interpersonal attraction [3] [17]- [20], students' affective learning [1] [21] [22], students' attendance and participation [23], student perceptions of the teacher and state learning [24] [25], students' motivation and satisfaction [2] [6] [9] [26]- [29]. ...
... In this study, the verbal aggressiveness of instructors proved to be positively related to the autocratic teaching style the Machiavellianism of the students. These findings seems to be indirectly in accordance with the tenor of previous research indicating that instructors' verbal aggressiveness was negatively related to students' intrinsic motivation, democratic teaching style, pro-social fair play behaviors, interpersonal attraction and satisfaction (Bekiari, 2012;Bekiari & Syrmpas, 2015;Hamilton & Hample, 2011;Hasanagas & Bekiari, 2015;Hassandra, Bekiari & Sakellariou, 2007;Myers, 2002;Myers & Rocca, 2001;Syrmpas & Bekiari, 2015;Theoharis & Bekiari, 2016). Furthermore, it has been suggested that the personality of instructors strongly determines their relationship with the students and influences the latter's behavior, emotions, tactics and attitudes (Infante & Rancer, 1996;Rancer & Avtgis, 2014). ...
The aim of the present study was threefold: a) to explore the relationship between perceived instructor verbal aggressiveness, leadership style, motivational climate and student Machiavellianism, b) to investigate the influence of instructor verbal aggressiveness on their leadership style, motivational climate and student Machiavellianism in physical education context and c) to propose students’ and instructors’ typology. The sample consisted of 247 Greek students (128 males, 119 females) aged 14-17 years old (M=15.4, SD=.49) from secondary schools who completed four types of questionnaires during physical education classes. The results supported the internal consistency of the instruments. Statistically significant differences were observed in instructors’ verbal aggressiveness, autocratic leadership teaching style, democratic leadership style and students’ Machiavellianism between the two genders of the students. Perceived instructors’ verbal aggressiveness was negatively related to their democratic teaching style and mastery climate. Also, there was a positive significant relationship between instructors’ verbal aggressiveness and autocratic teaching style, performance climate and students’ Machiavellianism. The results of regression analysis revealed that perceived instructors’ verbal aggressiveness could significantly predict the variables of leadership teaching style, motivational climate and students’ Machiavellianism. Distinct types of relations between students and instructors may be distinguished: the “insurrection”, the “acceptance of authoritarianism” and the “effective democracy”. The findings and the effects of the instructors’ verbal aggressiveness on leadership style, motivational climate and students’ Machiavellianism are further discussed and future research issues are suggested.
... Responses are solicited using 7-point bipolar adjectives. Previous reliability coefficients ranging from 0.92 to 0.95 have been discovered for the scale (Christophel, 1990;Goodboy & Myers, 2008;Myers & Rocca, 2001). ...
Over the last several decades, instructional communication scholars have studied and measured student motivation as an important learning outcome. Unfortunately, this research has lacked theoretical guidance and has treated student motivation as a construct that varies only in quantity, ignoring existing theory that suggests student motivation is best understood as a construct that differs in quality (i.e., intrinsic motivation). To create two new measures that incorporate theoretical explanations of student motivation, three studies (N = 1,067) were undertaken using self-determination theory (SDT) to operationalize students’ intrinsic motivation as a product of basic psychological need satisfaction. In the first two studies, the Student Psychological Needs Scale and the Intrinsic Motivation to Learn Scale were developed and validated. In the third study, parallel mediation analyses supported SDT’s prediction that the fulfillment of students’ psychological needs (i.e., autonomy, competence, relatedness) would mediate the relationship between personalized education practices and intrinsic motivation to learn.
... In all types of relationships, research consistently shows that verbal aggressiveness leads to negative outcomes (Anderson & Martin, 1995;Bekiari, 2012Bekiari, , 2014Bekiari & Manoli, 2016;Bekiari & Sakellariou, 2002;Infante, Myers, & Buerkel, 1994;Infante & Rancer, 1996;Manoli & Bekiari, 2015). Concerning education system, it has been supported that verbal aggressiveness is a demotivating force in the classroom (Gorham & Christophel, 1992) that is negatively related to social, task and physicalattraction (Syrmpas & Bekiari, 2015), perceptions of immediacy (Martin, Weber, & Burant, 1997;Rocca & McCroskey, 1999), student affect toward the course content, the teacher and the recommended course behaviors (Bekiari, 2012;Myers & Knox, 1999;Wrench & Richmond, 2004), motivation climate and satisfaction (Bekiari, 2014;Bekiari, Perkos, & Gerodimos, 2015;Bekiari & Syrmpas, 2015;Claus, Chory, & Malachowski, 2011;Manoli & Bekiari, 2015;Myers, Edwards, Wahl, & Martin, 2007;Myers & Rocca, 2001;Schrodt, 2003), student prosocial fair play (Hassandra, Bekiari & Sakellariou, 2007) and behavior, thinking, motivation Mazer & Stowe, 2016;Richmond & Gorham, 1992). Additionally, students consider teachers verbally aggressive as less reliable than teachers avoid unconstructive communication in the classroom (Bekiari, Koustelios, & Sakellariou, 2000;Mazer & Stowe, 2016;Schrodt, 2003). ...
... Within the dynamic of a class where students receive the verbal aggression of their teachers, they indicate lower levels of motivation, satisfaction, and a more hostile learning environment [12]- [15]. Additionally, students consider teachers verbally aggressive as less reliable than teachers avoid deconstructive communication in the classroom [9] [12] [16]. ...
Aim of this research is to suggest indicators, based on social network analysis, that distinguish superficial, idiosyncratic and strategic verbal aggressiveness. Two classes of an adult education school (at secondary level) in a prison have been selected as network samples (A class = 23 and B class = 12 prisoners). Complete network analysis has been applied, using standardized questionnaires. The network variables have further processed through Pearson correlation. Indicators of superficial and pure roles, particularly incremental and proportional behavior, have been applied in two forms of verbal aggressiveness (criticism and threatening). The superficial behavior (SB: outdegree of verbal aggressiveness) seems to be a quite sensitive indicator, as it presents correlations with various other relational forms of familiarity, aggressiveness and appreciation/socialization. The incremental behavior (IB: difference of received from outgoing actions) is also a sensitive indicator, revealing, however, different results. Pure aggressiveness (in terms of difference) seems to be related with quite different causes and/or occasions than the superficial aggressiveness. Incremental behavior is likely to be at first place driven by the idiosyncrasy rather than by exogenous factors and seems to constitute a completely different notion than the SB. The proportional behavior (PB: ration of outgoing to the received actions) of aggression is a quite insensitive indicator, as it depends only on a few behavioral variables. It seems to reveal a rational strategy of adaptability. Thus, it characteristically differs from the indicators of superficiality (expressing reciprocity patterns) and of the incremental aggressiveness (expressing individualism).
... Students' state motivation negatively related to seven forms of aggressive messages which are perceived to be used by the sender-person (these may include: (i) attacking comments on competence, (ii) on character, (iii) on background, (iv) expression of malediction, (v) of ridicule, (vi) of threats, as well as (vii) non-verbal symbols) (Myers & Rocca, 2000). Moreover, it has been supported that verbal aggressiveness is negatively correlated with the classroom climate as well as the motivation state, as these are perceived by students (Myers & Rocca, 2001). The verbal aggressiveness of instructors also appears to be negatively correlated with students' affect toward the instructors, the content of the course, as well as toward the recommended behavioural patterns within the classroom (Bekiari, 2012;Myers & Knox, 1999;Wrench & Richmond, 2004). ...
... 182). Not surprisingly, these behaviors have been linked to a number of negative outcomes, such as less in and out of class participation by students (Myers, Edwards, Wahl, & Martin, 2007) and lower motivation (Myers & Rocca, 2001). Results from studies linking instructor verbal aggressiveness and class absenteeism have been inconsistent. ...
The authors utilized a quasiexperimental design across five sections of a managerial communication course (N = 150) to test the role of course policies and student perceptions of the instructor in influencing student absenteeism and three indicators of student learning: grades, affective learning, and cognitive learning. The experimental group received a class attendance policy containing a grade-related contingency. Results suggest that the three indicators of student learning are associated with different predictors. Moreover, the appropriate attendance policy sets the stage for learning.
... Discomfort examined students' feelings of being ignored and left out, but only comprised a fraction of the overall model. This finding suggests that fostering a positive classroom climate may be more powerful in regard to the student experience than actively trying to avoid a negative climate (29). ...
Understanding course climate is important for improving students' experiences and increasing the likelihood of their persistence in STEM fields. This study presents climate survey results from 523 students taking introductory biology at the University of Michigan. Principal component analysis revealed that a student's climate experience is comprised of five main elements: comfort, school avoidance, relationship to course, academic stress, and discomfort. Of these climate factors, comfort, school avoidance, and relationship to course were significant predictors of course satisfaction, and academic stress was a significant predictor of persistence. The results indicated the importance of a positive climate that is facilitated by the instructor in order to promote a positive student experience. Climate may be an important metric for institutions to track across time and course.
... Thus, further investigation of mediated classrooms, and the effect of climate in mediated classrooms, is warranted. Much is known about the important role classroom climate plays in traditional face-to-face settings (e.g., Kerssen-Griep et al., 2008;Mazer et al., 2007;Myers & Rocca, 2001). Although online classrooms differ from traditional face-to-face ones in many ways, constructs such as classroom climate may still play an important role in achieving student learning outcomes in them. ...
With the increasing popularity of online learning in higher education comes a need to examine students’ perceptions about classroom climate in these environments. This two-part study proposes the online learning climate scale (OLCS) for doing so. Informed by both instructional communication and education, the scale consists of several variables related to teacher role(s) and behaviors, student characteristics, and course-specific structural issues to explain how students perceive climate within a computer-mediated classroom. Ultimately, this two-part study (a) constructed the OLCS and (b) established its factor structure and convergent validity.
... State motivation to learn refers to student attempts to obtain academic knowledge or skills from classroom activities by finding these activities meaningful (Brophy, 1987). State motivation to learn, then, is not a general predisposition but instead can be influenced by instructor behaviors in the classroom (Myers, 2002;Myers & Rocca, 2001). Student satisfaction refers to the degree to which students experience fulfillment when communicating with an instructor (Frymier, 2005). ...
A live lecture experiment was conducted where teacher confirmation was manipulated (i.e., not confirming, somewhat confirming, confirming) across three college courses. After the lecture, students completed a post test assessing positive (i.e., student communication motives, student participation) and negative (i.e., challenge behaviors) communication behaviors they might engage in while taking a course with this instructor. Additionally, students reported on traditional learning outcomes (i.e., cognitive learning, affective learning, state motivation, student satisfaction) resulting from the lecture manipulation. Collectively, results indicated that teacher confirmation resulted in (a) more student communication for the relational, functional, and participatory motives and less communication for the excuse-making motive, (b) more student participation, (c) less challenge behavior, and (d) greater cognitive learning, affective learning, state motivation, and satisfaction.
The dramatic expansion of online learning programs for adult degree-seeking professionals has opened significant access and opportunity for institutions of higher education, as well as for the adult learners they serve. However, this recent dramatic increase in online graduate degree offerings has posed challenges to educators and students. One of the most significant challenges is building and maintaining strong connections, and a sense of community, among the participants within the online setting. Social climate theory provides a useful lens for a reconsideration of the social climate of an online learning environment (synchronous and asynchronous) as embodying a “personality” that iteratively shapes the learning community and the experience of participants, and is shaped in return. This chapter presents an in-depth analysis of how educators can strategically enhance online classroom communities for adult degree-seeking professionals through the application of social climate theory principles and a proposed conceptual framework.
Education scholars interested in the communication that transpires within the classroom have often mentioned the importance of studying the teacher as a pivotal source of that communication (→ Classroom Student–Teacher Interaction). After searching the literature, Norton ( ) wrote that very few studies had specifically investigated teacher communication style as it relates to teacher effectiveness, though many of the exciting investigations did allude to the various components or sub‐constructs that entail stylistic aspects. To fill this void within the literature, Norton ( ) utilized his conceptualization of → communicator style to investigate teacher effectiveness as a function of the way a teacher communicates within the classroom (Norton ).
Purpose
Assessing anthropomorphic tendency in relation to real estate purchase decisions and analysing the elements of friendliness, aggressiveness, pleasure and arousal as a link to the spatial memory of the consumer. This study aims to help brands and advertisers in the real estate industry to create meaningful consumer relationships by using elements that are associated with positive spatial experience. By formulating a detailed questionnaire with adapted variables from proven research and a multilayered approach of theoretic and practical analysis, this paper situates the identified variables in the plane of space and customer experience.
Design/methodology/approach
By using structural equation modeling, this study analyses a sample data of 411 consumers and their response to elements of housing.
Findings
The findings of this study showed that variables of friendliness, aggressiveness, pleasure and arousal significantly impact consumer’s real estate purchase decision; however, anthropomorphic tendency does not have a significant impact. Through theoretical analysis, it was found that spatial memory may have a role in the visual and display of the variables.
Originality/value
The merit of this paper lies in the discussion it has raised with regard to the intersection between theoretics of space and the chosen variables. In the field of business and management, often philosophical implications of spatiality may not be actively associated with numerical computation. This paper not only looks at brand anthropomorphism’s impact on real estate purchase decisions but also looks at friendliness and other mentioned variables as significantly impacting purchase decisions and linked to memory, space and affiliation.
Employing benign violation theory as a lens, this study (N = 148) explored full-time employees’ perceptions of supervisors’ likelihood to use sarcasm and engagement in self-disparaging and vulgar language based humor and verbal aggression (VA) in the workplace. In part, findings revealed that employees’ perceptions of supervisors’ VA positively related to perceptions of supervisors’ likelihood to use sarcasm and inappropriate humor engagement.
The current study investigated the effect of communication style in the child vaccination debate. Based on expectancy violation theory, this study tested the effects of aggressive, neutral, and polite communication styles in the contexts of child vaccination, controlling for parents’ attitudes toward the issue. The online experiment showed that expectancy violation significantly mediates the relationship between message style and outcomes. The results provided a novel way to understand the effect of communication style on child vaccination message and practical implications for health communicators to operate communication style during interactions in health contexts.
Three studies were conducted to generate a valid and reliable instrument to measure student-to-student confirmation. Study One (N = 396) sought to establish a factor structure based on previous research. Study Two (N = 396) sought to confirm this factor structure and assess criterion-related validity. Study Three (N = 283) sought to assess construct (i.e., convergent and discriminant) validity, as well as to provide further confirmation of the factor structure. Consistent with previous research on the construct, the Student-to-Student Confirmation Scale developed in this study consists of three factors: acknowledgement, assistance, and individual attention. In support of the scale’s validity, these factors are positively related to classroom connectedness, affect for course content and instructor, perceived cognitive learning, state motivation, and academic self-efficacy. Further, student-to-student confirmation is related to, and distinct from, student academic support.
Two experiments (N = 229 and N = 268) assessed the effect of aggressive risk communication about GMOs by a scientist on respondents’ perceptions of message quality and writer (the scientist communicator) likability. We also considered two factors from the communicator that may influence how individuals process aggressive messages – facial expression (study 1) and the gender (study 2). Both studies showed that aggressive communication has a negative effect on both perceived message quality and writer likability, which is explained by the level of negative expectancy violation individuals perceived. Moreover, study 1 showed that smiling appeared to be a negative influence on the outcomes and study 2 showed that gender did not influence how people perceive aggressive messages. The findings provided both scholarly and practical implications for science and risk communication.
In this study were examined associations among physical education instructors’ argumentativeness and socio-communicative styles perceived by students and students’ reasons for discipline. The sample consisted of 252 students (111 males, 141 females) aged 10 - 12 years old (M = 11.4, SD = 0.79) from primary schools of public primary schools who completed three types of questionnaires during physical education classes. The results supported the internal consistency of the instruments. According to the results of the study, statistically significant differences were observed in perceived instructors’ argumentativeness and assertiveness between the two classes of the students. Correlational analysis indicated that perceived instructors’ argumentativeness was positively related to responsiveness, intrinsic reasons, self-responsibility reasons and caring reasons for discipline. Significant negative correlations were noted for instructors’ argumentativeness with assertiveness, external reasons, introjected reasons and no reasons for discipline. The results of regression analysis revealed that perceived instructors’ argumentativeness could significantly predict the variables of responsiveness, assertiveness, external reasons, introjected reasons, intrinsic reasons and self-responsibility reasons for discipline.
Aim of this research is the detection of aggressive communication parameters and typology. A network sample of 62 students (male = 32, female = 30) and 4 instructors (male = 2, female = 2) at the physical education and sport sciences dept. at the University of Thessaly has been collected in 2016. A standardized questionnaire consisting of network and non-network part was used. Social network analysis (algebraic analysis) combined with conventional statistics has been used. Basic results are the following ones: Persons dedicated to sport appear to target others and be targeted. Dedication to study content is proved to play a role of a refuge against criticism. High grade and ambition seem to protect against negative comments. Physical qualification (tallness) seems also to discourage rudeness. Spatial-regional discrimination is also revealed. Mockery seems to be even a cause of absence from the courses. A superiority-induced aggressiveness (on economic basis) has been detected. Threat may be regarded as a behavioral extension of mockery (or inversely). In the course of study time, more aggressive persons emerge who even threat others. High grade students are unattractive for arguing. Internet seems to develop communication stimuli. The tendency for professional distinction is connected with arguing. Younger students show an integration deficit in terms of argumentation. Communicational types (three profiles of targets: “depreciated assaulted”, “attractive”, “repellent”, and two profiles of general involvement: “lively”, “controversial”) have emerged. A typology of targets is depicting a sharper fragmentation than a typology of general involvement (targeted and acting).
Aim of this research is to explore the relation of hunting with aggressiveness. For this purpose, two samples of prison inmates (who were students of the prison secondary school) were collected (class A = 23, class B = 12). The network indicators for superficial, idiosyncratic and strategic behavior (particularly, aggressiveness), applied in Bekiari and Hasanagas (2016), which were based on the primary network variables (outdegree, indegree, Katz status, pagerank, authority) were used. Non-network variables were also used for the criminal profile of the inmates. The data were sampled with questionnaire. Spearman test was conducted for detecting correlation between aggressiveness and hunting and Principal Component Analysis was used for formulating a typology. The following results were produced: The criminal profile seems hardly to be related with hunting experience or attitude. The relation of hunting experience and attitude with the superficial, idiosyncratic and strategic aggressiveness was examined. These three occasions of aggressiveness are expected to describe the incidental reaction, impulsive and adaptive reaction, respectively. The hunting is quite irrelevant to the incidental reaction. The impulsiveness seems to be more strongly correlated with hunting. In case of adaptiveness, there are many similarities with impulsiveness. The typology which is based on the existence (or not) of hunting experience seems to be more insightful, as it reveals a gradual involvement of aggressiveness dimensions, from incidentality to impulsiveness and further to adaptiveness. The following behavioral patterns of gradually enhanced aggressiveness appear: incidentally just provoking, impulsively being aggressive but without harming, and adaptively being aggressive and harming.
The purpose of this study was to compare student growth in public speaking and hybrid introductory communication skills courses on four outcomes: public speaking anxiety, self-perceived communication competence, intercultural effectiveness, and connected classroom climate. This study also sought to find out whether there were differences in the achievement of outcomes and growth in each outcome by sex and ethnicity. Data from 908 participants utilized a within-subjects and between-subjects repeat measures design. Results showed that public speaking and hybrid communication courses reduced public speaking anxiety and increased self-perceived communication competence and connected classroom climate a similar amount, but did not significantly increase intercultural effectiveness for students overall. Small effects were found for sex on all outcomes and for ethnicity on two outcomes.
In this study, relations among physical education instructors’ verbal aggressiveness were examined as perceived by students and students’ affective learning. The sample consisted of 297 students (approx. 50% males and 50% females) aged 9 - 12 years old (M = 11.2, SD = 0.68) from primary schools who completed two types of questionnaires during physical education classes. Statistically significant differences were observed in affect towards recommended course behavior between the two genders of the students. ANOVA’s findings supported that there was a significant dependence between classes on the factors of affect towards course content and affect towards recommended course behavior. Correlational analysis indicated that perceived instructors’ verbal aggressiveness was negatively related to affect towards course content, affect towards recommended course behavior and affect towards the instructor. The results of regression analysis revealed that perceived instructors’ verbal aggressiveness could significantly predict the variables of affect towards the instructor. Distinct types of students are also proposed: 1) the “full affected” and 2) the “behaviorally affected” student.
This study examined how student perceptions of math/statistics instructors’ argumentativeness and verbal aggressiveness are related to student perceptions of classroom communication climate, student state motivation, and student math anxiety. A total of 216 completed questionnaires were returned by the student participants (96 males and 120 females). Results supported four of the seven research hypotheses and partially support another research hypothesis, indicating that perceived instructor argumentativeness and verbal aggressiveness directly affect perceptions of classroom communication climate; these three perceptions directly influence student state motivation; and student state motivation has a direct impact on math anxiety. Implications based on the findings suggest that math/statistics instructors can adapt different communication behaviors to influence the reduction of student math anxiety.
Understanding aggressive risk communication is important because many scientists use this approach and we know little about its effects. Two studies were conducted to assess the effect of exposure to aggressive risk communication by a scientist on respondents’ perceptions of risk communication quality, supportive behavior (i.e. forwarding the communication), risk communicator likability, and overall views about scientists. Perceived aggressiveness (studies 1–2) and expectation violation (study 2) were considered as mediators. Analyses suggest both direct and indirect negative effects of aggressive risk communication in the case of likability but potentially positive effects in terms of evaluating the message quality. Moreover, expectation violation provided one possible explanation for the effect of aggression.
As people increasingly seek medical information and advice online, studying factors that affect health information processing and health-protective behaviors becomes especially important. The present research explored the effects of argument quality, media multitasking, and polychronicity on health-protective behavioral intentions. Participants (N=121) read an online article about influenza that included suggestions to engage in flu-preventive behaviors in the form of strong and weak arguments. In one condition, participants read the article and checked Facebook, while in another condition they were only exposed to the article. Polychronicity, or preference for multitasking, was included in the study as a moderator. Strong arguments were found to elicit more positive behavioral intentions than weak arguments. Participants also expressed greater health-protective behavioral intentions in the media multitasking condition compared with the control condition. Compared with low polychronics, moderate and high polychronics showed greater behavioral intentions when they read the article in the multitasking condition. The difference in intentions to follow suggestions presented as strong and weak arguments decreased for moderate and high polychronics. The results are discussed with the application of Elaboration Likelihood Model of Persuasion.
A study examined students' perceptions of an instructor's use of slang and verbal aggression in giving a presentation. The study used an experiment to investigate the relationship between these two variables and students' perceptions of credibility, affect, and immediacy. Participants,167 undergraduate communication students at a large midwestern university,attended a research session outside of class and listened to one of four audiotapes of a presentation. The instructor's use of slang and verbal aggression were manipulated in 4 conditions: with verbal aggression only:(39participants); with slang only (39); with both (45); and, a control condition, with neither (44). After listening to the lecture, participants completed a questionnaire. Results indicated that the instructor's competence was higher in the control condition than in the verbally aggressive and the combination conditions. Participants also reported greater lecture affect for the slang condition over the verbally aggressive and combination conditions. The verbally aggressive condition was rated significantly lower than all three of the other conditions. Findings suggest that, overall, the conditions with verbal aggressiveness were perceived much more negatively than the conditions without verbal aggression. An area for further exploration is the effect of a teacher's use of verbal aggression and slang on cognitive learning.
The relationships of satisfaction with argumentativeness and verbal aggressiveness were explored in dating relationships. Participants were undergraduate students currently in volved in dating relationships. They completed a questionnaire that included measures of their own and their partners' use of argumentativeness and verbal aggressiveness in their dating relationships. Participants also completed measures of communication satisfaction and relationship satisfaction. Self- and partner verbal aggressiveness were negatively related to both types of satisfaction. Self- and partner argumentativeness were not significantly related to either type of satisfaction.
This study investigated the communication traits of argumentativeness and verbal aggressiveness. Richmond and McCroskey (1992) stated that the individual who possesses assertive and responsive skills should be described as competent. Likewise, the person high in assertiveness and low in responsiveness is aggressive; the person low in assertiveness but high in responsiveness is submissive; and the person low in assertiveness and responsiveness is noncompetent. Participants (N = 665) completed measures of assertiveness, responsiveness, argumentativeness, and verbal aggressiveness. The results support the operationalization of a socio-communicative orientation construct. Assertive communicators are more argumentative while responsive communicators are less verbally aggressive.
An examination of the relationship between Teacher Management Communication Style (TMCS) and affective learning revealed that TMCS and affective learning were significantly positively correlated. TMCS and nonverbal immediacy were also positively correlated, as were nonverbal immediacy and affective learning. A multiple linear regression analysis performed on these data showed a substantial multiple correlation (R = .45, F (2, 94) = 11.63, p < .05) between affective learning and both TMCS and nonverbal immediacy. While nonverbal immediacy had a substantial impact on affective learning when controlling for the effect of TMCS, TMCS did not impact affective learning when controlling for the effect of nonverbal immediacy. Finally, higher frequencies of a student's class attendance was associated with increased affective learning, while the number of students enrolled in the class, teacher type, and student age did not impact affective learning.
Felson's Impression Management Theory of violence was used to conceptualize a source credibility approach to studying verbal aggression. Research participants listened to a recorded discussion of two speakers arguing a controversial topic. One speaker initiated either a high or low level of verbal aggression and the other speaker either reciprocated or did not reciprocate the verbal aggression. Participants in the control group listened to a discussion containing no verbal aggression. The initiators of verbal aggression were seen as less credible, and had fewer valid arguments credited to them by observers. In comparison, the target of verbal aggression was seen as more credible, and was credited with more valid arguments, when s/he reciprocated a level of verbal aggression. An unexpected finding was that participants overestimated the amount of verbal aggression in the discussion.
An analysis of three trait measures related to argumentation behavior—argumentativeness, verbal aggressiveness, and need for cognition—confirmed that all three measures represented separate constructs. Need for cognition was found to correlate positively with argumentativeness and negatively with verbal aggressiveness. These three measures, also, were investigated across three ethnic groups of Asian Americans, Hispanic Americans, and European Americans. Analyses revealed significant ethnic differences for verbal aggressiveness and need for cognition. The results are discussed with regard to teaching argumentation and critical thinking, and as a means for improving the understanding of ethnic and/or cultural differences which may influence argumentation behavior.
Instructors consistently search for methods to enhance students’ motivation and learning. Immediacy and relevance have been linked to increased motivation in the classroom. The purpose of this study was to extend research by Frymier and Shulman (1995) that found immediacy and relevance to be associated with one another. A 2 (high and low immediacy) x 2 (high and low relevance) experimental design was used to investigate the interaction between immediacy and relevance and their impact on motivation and learning. Results indicated that immediacy had a significant impact on motivation and learning, while relevance did not. The manipulation of relevance was problematic and is discussed extensively.
To learn more about people's feelings about verbal aggressiveness, this study investigated (a) whether receiving verbally aggressive messages was more hurtful depending on the source of that message, (b) if trait verbal aggressiveness is related to believing verbal aggression is justified, and (c) if the perceived hurt of verbally aggressive messages is related to a tendency to be verbally aggressive. The results showed that messages from friends cause more hurt than messages from acquaintances, that verbal aggressiveness is related to believing verbal aggression is justified, and that hurt from receiving verbally aggressive messages is unrelated to being verbally aggressive. Suggestions for future research are discussed.
The use of humor in the classroom has been investigated using a variety of humor operationalizations and methodologies with mixed results. In the present study we examine the role of teacher humor orientation rather than specific humorous behaviors. The relationship between perceived teacher humor orientation and learning was the focus of this study. Results indicated that a high humor orientation (HO) was associated with increased student perceptions of learning. Perceived teacher humor orientation was also examined in relation to nonverbal immediacy and socio‐communicative style. Additionally, we examined the interaction between teacher humor orientation and student humor orientation on learning. It was found that high HO students reported learning more with a high HO teacher.
Communication skills, as defined by Burleson and Samter (1990), were examined in the teacher‐student relationship. Three questions guided this investigation: (a) with regard to effective teaching, what are students’ perceptions of the importance of communication skills and immediacy behaviors? (b) what is the relationship between students’ perceptions of teachers’ use of communication skills, immediacy behaviors, motivation and learning? and (c) do male and female students differ in their perceptions of communication skill and immediacy behaviors in regard to importance, motivation, and learning? Two studies were conducted. Study one found that students reported referential skill, ego support, and conflict management as being most important to effective teaching. Study two found referential skill, ego support, and immediacy to have a strong relationship with student learning and motivation. Some sex differences also were found and explored in both study one and two.
This study investigated the relationship between teachers' use of Bell and Daly's affinity‐seeking strategies and students' perceptions of teacher credibility (competence and character) in the classroom. The associations among students' motivation to study, teachers' perceived credibility, and teachers’ perceived use of affinity‐seeking strategies also were investigated. Results indicated that several affinity‐seeking strategies were positively and significantly associated with competence and character, indicating that use of affinity‐seeking in the classroom may assist in the development of teacher credibility. Perceptions of teacher credibility and teachers' use of affinity‐seeking strategies also were found to be positively and significantly associated with students' motivation to study.
Frequently, students are skeptical of the significance of the material taught to them in the classroom. A question they often pose to teachers is “What's in it for me?” Making content relevant to students' personal and career goals addresses these concerns. A scale to measure content relevance in the classroom was developed, factor analyzed, and determined to be a valid and reliable unidimensional instrument. Making content relevant to students' personal and career goals was hypothesized to be a factor, in addition to immediacy, that increases students' state motivation. Relevance was found to be associated with state motivation to study. In addition, relevance accounted for a significant amount of variance in state motivation after taking verbal and nonverbal immediacy into consideration.
The concept of empowerment has been used extensively in business, politics, and education in myriad ways and with multiple meanings. In this study, empowerment is conceptualized as a form of motivation (Conger & Kanungo, 1988; Thomas & Velthouse, 1990) which can exist as either a state or a trait. We believe that communication has a major influence on students' empowerment just as communication frequently impacts such conditions as state motivation (Frymier, 1994). The long range goal, for which this research is a first step, is to understand the role of communication in the process of empowerment. The immediate goals of this research are to provide a more specific conceptualization of empowerment as applied to the classroom and to develop an instrument to measure learner empowerment. Drawing heavily on the work of Thomas and Velthouse (1990), two studies were conducted to develop and refine the learner empowerment measure and to establish the construct validity of the instrument.
A theoretical framework involving argumentativeness, verbal aggressiveness, and affirming style is employed to predict the degrees of negative affect subordinates report their superiors are willing to stimulate by the use of compliance-gaining message strategies. A model of compliance-gaining message selection by Hunter and Boster was used to derive predictions. A study of subordinates' perceptions of their superiors was conducted to test a model that posits that high verbally aggressive traits of superiors, along with low argumentative and low affirming traits, increases superiors' willingness to stimulate negative affect by the use of compliance-gaining messages, which also reduces subordinates' satisfaction with their superiors. The results of the study produced considerable support for the speculations. The perceived communication traits of superiors predicted reports of the superiors' use of compliance-gaining strategies. These strategies attributed to superiors also predicted subordinates' satisfaction with their supervisors.
The communication traits of argumentativeness and verbal aggressiveness were investigated for their relationships with small group members’ perceptions of communication satisfaction, cohesion, and consensus. Participants (N = 208) in on‐going task groups were surveyed. The results suggest that group members who are argumentative and not verbally aggressive are satisfied with their group's communication, and they perceive that the groups are more likely to reach consensus and experience a sense of cohesion. The results discuss the importance of communication traits in investigating small group communication.
Teacher immediacy has been examined quite extensively in recent years with the encouraging results that it is a useful teaching strategy. Two things lacking in extant research on immediacy are evidence of a causal relationship between immediacy and learning, and an explanation of why immediacy may lead to learning. Two models of the immediacy‐learning relationship, based on extant research, were tested using path analysis with panel data collected over the period of a semester. An effort was made to explain the results using Keller's (1983, 1987) model of motivation, and to extend this explanation to other classroom communication variables.
A good deal of research on argumentativeness and verbal aggressiveness has been conducted in the communication discipline in this and the previous decade. The research has been based on a personality trait model that was used to conceptualize a very basic idea—that some aggressive behaviors are constructive and others are destructive. The present chapter reviews this research. The conceptualization and measurement of argumentativeness and verbal aggressiveness are reviewed first. Then, conclusions from the research are stated and the research relevant to the conclusions is cited. Major results are presented, along with implications. The chapter emphasizes the importance of argumentative communication. A central contention is that argumentativeness has been an approach to conceptualizing concerns of the communication discipline since antiquity, and study should continue along these lines because results suggest the impact of the communication curriculum.
This investigation is the sixth in a series of projects designed to programmatically examine teacher power in the classroom. Recognizing that nonverbal behaviors typically provide the framework for interpreting verbal messages, this project proposed and sequentially tested a heuristic model of student affective learning as a function of behavior alteration techniques and teacher nonverbal immediacy. Employing a two‐study correlational design, the model was tested in five stages across secondary and college students. Results supported the proposed positive relationships among teachers’ use of. behavior alteration techniques, immediacy and student affect for both studies. Teachers’ selective use of verbal control strategies in the classroom was shown to be indirectly related to affective learning as a function of students’ perceptions of teacher immediacy. Interpretations focus on the model, previous power in the classroom studies, and the design of future studies in this program.
This investigation represents a substantial change in the way we examine classroom discipline and student resistance. Rather than focusing on student non‐compliance and other types of student misbehaviors, we examined teachers themselves as potential sources of instructional and/or motivational problems in the college classroom. Study 1 was designed to elicit inductively, college student reports of teacher misbehaviors. Results indicated 28 different categories of teacher misbehaviors. Study 2 was structured to (1) validate the obtained categories of teacher misbehavior types and (2) to determine whether or not a conceptually meaningful factor structure underlies the categories. Even though most students reported that the teachers referenced in study 2 infrequently engaged in each misbehavior type, a representative number of other teachers did. Importantly, the full range of frequencies was obtained across all 28 categories. Results were further corroborated with qualitative data. Factor analyses and factor matching procedures revealed that the teacher misbehavior categories could be both meaningfully and reliably reduced to 3 factors: Teacher Incompetence, Offensiveness and Indolence. Implications for managing student resistance in the classroom are discussed.
Recent experimental research (Comstock, Rowell, & Bowers, 1995) has suggested a curvilinear relationship between teacher immediacy behaviors and student learning. To help specify the scope and range of this finding, we examined these variables as they occur in actual relationships between college professors and students. In natural settings, we predicted and found positive, linear relationships between teacher nonverbal and verbal immediacy and perceived cognitive, affective, and behavioral learning. We also found a positive, linear relationship between both kinds of teacher immediacy and state motivation.
Because classrooms are work settings in which students are engaged in compulsory activities and because the work involved is largely intellectual rather than physical, concepts and measures developed for studying motivation in free choice play situations have limited application to the study of student motivation for engaging in academic activities. More attention is needed to the cognitive aspects of motivation (not just its affective aspects) and to the value that students place on academic activity (not just their performance expectations and attributions). This article discusses these issues and offers suggestions about how teachers might become more successful than they are now in socializing their students to become motivated to learn. Motivation to learn in school means seeking to acquire the knowledge or skill that an academic activity is designed to develop, not merely getting the activity finished or doing the minimum necessary to meet requirements.
Same‐sex dyads were created which consisted of a high or low argumentative paired with a moderate. The subjects argued a controversial topic and communication behavior was assessed by a same‐sex observer. Analysis revealed seven dimensions of communication behavior discriminated between high and low argumentatives: flexibility, interest, verbosity, expertise, dynamism, willingness to argue, and argumentative skill.
Conversational sensitivity (Daly, Vangelisti, & Daughton, 1987) refers to one's tendency to interpret and attend to the the various cues of verbal, paraverbal, and nonverbal communication. The present study hypothesized a negative relationship between conversational sensitivity and verbal aggressiveness, and a positive relationship with the predisposition to verbally praise others. Additionally, a negative relationship was expected between the predisposition to verbally praise and verbal aggressiveness. With the exception of the hypothesized relationship between conversational sensitivity and verbal aggressiveness, the hypotheses were confirmed. The importance of studying conversational sensitivity is discussed.
This study explored how teacher use of affinity‐seeking strategies is related to student perceptions of classroom climate. Participants were 147 undergraduate students enrolled at a large midwestern university. Results indicate that a significant relationship exists between teachers' use of affinity‐seeking strategies and student perceptions of classroom climate. Nineteen of the 25 strategies were correlated with classroom climate. Furthermore, communication teachers regularly used 19 of the 25 strategies. Student gender failed to account for any differences in perception of teacher use of affinity‐seeking strategies or classroom climate.
This study explored the relationship between TA argumentativeness and self reports of power use in the classroom. Results indicated that TA argumentativeness was positively correlated with overall TA power use. Specifically, use of referent and expert power were positively correlated with TA argumentativeness. Significant differences existed between high and low argumentatives for overall power use. Significant differences between argumentativeness levels were also found for referent and expert power.
This study explored the relationship among instructor socio‐communicative style, argumentativeness, and verbal aggressiveness in the college classroom. Participants were 139 undergraduate students enrolled at a small southern university who completed the Assertiveness‐Responsiveness Measure (Richmond & McCroskey, 1990) as well as modified versions of the Argumentativeness Scale (Infante & Rancer, 1982) and the Verbal Aggressiveness Scale (Infante & Wigley, 1986). Results indicated that (a) competent and aggressive instructors are rated significantly higher in argumentativeness than submissive instructors and (b) noncompetent and aggressive instructors are rated significantly higher in verbal aggressiveness than either competent or submissive instructors.
This study explored patterns and effects of communication apprehension and classroom apprehension in Nigerian classrooms. Significant correlation was found between student communication apprehension and student classroom apprehension. Analysis of variance revealed significant differences in classroom apprehension by class type, but no significant differences in communication apprehension by choice of occupation. Perceptions of academic performance were negatively associated with classroom apprehension scores.
This study examined whether motivation to argue would be influenced by the trait argumentativeness of an individual, and the similarity of a potential adversary in the trait predisposition. One hundred thirty‐six participants identified as either high or low in trait argumentativeness anticipated they would engage in an argument with a similar or dissimilar adversary. Motivation to argue was assessed by a set of five dependent measures. Results indicated that the adversary's level of argumentativeness produced a difference on high, but not low, argumentative individuals’ motivation to argue. In general, high argumentatives were more motivated to argue than lows, and high argumentatives were more motivated to argue with an adversary similar to themselves in the trait predisposition.
The purpose of this investigation was threefold: (1) to examine the extent to which instructors were perceived to use verbally aggressive messages; (2) to explore whether perceived instructor use of verbally aggressive messages was negatively correlated with student affect toward the instructor, student affect toward course content, and student affect toward recommended course behaviors; and (3) to determine whether male and female instructors differed in their perceived use of verbally aggressive messages. Results indicated that (a) instructors are perceived to use verbally aggressive messages infrequently; (b) perceived instructor use of verbally aggressive messages is negatively correlated with student affect toward the instructor, student affect toward course content, and student affect toward recommended course behaviors; and (c) male instructors are perceived to use only the “swearing,”; “teasing,”; and “ridicule”; verbally aggressive messages at a higher rate than female instructors. Future research should consider exploring the content and composition of instructor verbally aggressive messages.
This study coded and categorized 2404 motivators and demotivators freely listed by 308 college students prior to and following their being prompted to consider teacher behaviors as contributing to motivation level. Twenty categories of motivators and 20 categories of demotivators emerged; four of each reflected context factors, six of each structure/format factors, and ten of each teacher behavior factors. While teacher behaviors accounted for approximately 44% of both motivators and demotivators, negative teacher behaviors were perceived as more central to students' demotivation (i.e., were listed without prompting) than positive teacher behaviors were perceived as central to motivation. Structure/format factors were more frequently mentioned as demotivators and context factors, such as desire to know the material, grade or credit motivation, and personal desire for accomplishment, as motivators. It was concluded that motivation is perceived by students as a student‐owned state, while lack of motivation is perceived as a teacher‐owned problem.
This study explored the relationships of immediacy and verbal aggression with homophily and interpersonal attraction in the instructional context. Immediacy was negatively related to verbal aggression and positively related to all dimensions of homophily and interpersonal attraction. Verbal aggression was also found to be negatively related to both dimensions of homophily and all three dimensions of interpersonal attraction. It is recommended that the relationship between verbal aggression and immediacy be examined in greater detail, including possible’ interactions between these variables and various instructional outcomes.
Students’ perceptions of “teacher misbehaviors”; may be related to teacher's socio‐communicative style (i.e., assertiveness and responsiveness), type of instructor (graduate assistant versus professor), and affect for teacher and course material. Four hypotheses were confirmed, indicating an inverse relationship between perceptions of teacher misbehaviors and 1) teacher assertiveness, 2) teacher responsiveness, 3) positive affect for the teacher, and 4) positive affect for the course material. Perceptions of teacher misbehaviors did not covary with type of instructor. Teachers’ socio‐communicative styles may dramatically affect student perceptions of teachers and course material. Specific misbehaviors are ranked according to apparent influence on student affect.
Previous research suggests that altering predispositions toward communication may be an effective prerequisite in training efforts that emphasize communication skill development. Utilizing a theoretical framework that maintains that a predisposition is controlled by a set of beliefs, this study sought to (a) identify beliefs about arguing that could explain variance in argumentativeness, and (b) determine beliefs that discriminate individuals who vary in the trait. Five composite beliefs about arguing (enjoyment, self‐concept, pragmatic outcomes, dysfunctional outcomes, and ego‐involvement) were found to explain significant variance in underlying motivation to argue and to discriminate between individuals who vary in the predisposition. Implications of the identification and use of these beliefs for communication pedagogy and curriculum design in argumentation and conflict management courses are discussed.
This article presents a unit for teaching students to understand and control verbal aggression in their interpersonal relationships. The basic contention here is that the communication discipline should devote considerable attention to verbal aggression because it is a highly destructive form of communication. It is suggested that while there are several courses of action the discipline may take, one which is presently feasible is to include the topic in some of our courses. Theory and research are reviewed, and material for teaching the understanding of verbal aggression is suggested. The second part of the unit deals with methods of controlling verbal aggression and also suggests appropriate classroom activities.
Two studies investigated the relationship between teacher immediacy and student state motivation and the combined impact of these factors on learning. Study One participants completed all instruments based on a preceding class. The scales were randomly split between students in Study Two who completed them based on an intact class. Correlations revealed significant relationships between learning and both immediacy and motivation. Regression analyses indicated both unique and colinear predictability of learning by nonverbal immediacy and state motivation. Immediacy appears to modify motivation which leads to increased learning. Important implications of Study Two data indicate relationships observed in earlier research were not a simple function of confounding when scores were reported by the same subjects completing multiple instruments.
The purpose of this investigation was to examine the effects of three variables on students’ descriptions of classroom climate: positive and negative affect for a college class, professor anatomical sex, and student perceptions of professor sexism. Results of several analyses indicated that affect had important consequences for perceptions of climate when the professor was female or male; however, perceptions of sexism were related to descriptions of climate only for male professors.
The goal of the present study was to determine which power bases and Behavior Alteration Techniques have positive, negative, and no association with student motivation toward studying course content. In addition, teacher immediacy and teacher use of affinity‐seeking techniques were examined for their potential to off‐set possible negative effects on student motivation resulting from teachers’ use of power and BATs to control mundane student behaviors in the classroom. To replicate previous work and place this study within the context of that work, both cognitive and affective learning also were examined. Results are summarized in the context of this and the previous studies in this series.
Characteristics of the argumentative student in the speech communication classroom are explored in this article. A recent conceptualization of argumentativeness is first explained. Potentially discriminating variables are then specified. A study is reported which observed that high argumentatives received more high school training in argumentation, reported a higher college grade point average, were born earlier in the family birth order, preferred smaller college classes, and were more liberal. Satisfaction with interpersonal relations and ability to relate to peers did not discriminate among high, moderate, and low argumentatives. This conclusion supports the assumption that argumentativeness is a desirable communication trait. Implications of the results are discussed.
Verbal agressiveness is conceptualized as a personality trait that predisposes persons to attack the self‐concepts of other people instead of, or in addition to, their positions on topics of communication. This conception is positioned with respect to the trait structure of personality and also in relation to other aggressive personality traits: hostility, assertiveness, and argumentativeness. An interpersonal model is developed that specifies the types of verbally aggressive messages in interpersonal relations, their effects, and their causes. A rationale is developed for studying verbal aggression apart from other types of aggression, and several studies developing a Verbal Aggressiveness Scale are reported. Results indicate that the Scale is valid and reliable. Implications are discussed, especially in terms of understanding and controlling physical aggression.
A model of interpersonal physical violence is derived from the aggression literature and then is utilized to investigate interspousal violence. The model posits that verbal aggression is a catalyst to violence when societal, personal, and situational factors are strong enough to produce a hostile predisposition. Unless aroused by verbal aggression, a hostile disposition remains latent in the form of unexpressed anger. The framework suggests that persons in violent, marriages are more verbally aggressive than other people, and also produces the counterintuitive prediction that violent spouses are less argumentative than people in nonviolent marriages. A study is reported which compared clinical cases of abused wives and abusive husbands to a nonclinical population of husbands and wives. Strong support for the hypothesis was observed. Implications of the results are discussed in terms of understanding communication in violent marriages.
This study investigates the relationship between verbal aggression, argumentativeness, and marital quality in a sample of non‐distressed couples. The traits of verbal aggression and argumentativeness are predicted to have different effects on marital quality; specifically, verbal aggression is hypothesized to have an inverse relation to marital quality while argumentativeness is posited to have a positive relationship. Results show support for the first hypothesis and partial support for the second hypothesis. Implications of these results for conflict resolution in marriage are discussed.
This study examined the relationship between teacher argumentativeness and various teacher demographic characteristics. Significant correlations were found between teacher argumentativeness and factors such as teacher gender, teacher age, and teacher grade level. Analysis of variance revealed significant differences in levels of teacher argumentativeness for gender and teacher grade level.
The interactionist perspective to argumentativeness posits that situational factors interact with traits to influence communication behavior. This study extended this line of research by exploring how topics of argument relate to argumentativeness. Specifically, the study tested whether argument activity (advocacy and refutation) on different types of issues interacts with a person's level of trait argumentativeness. A secondary purpose of the study was to examine whether argumentativeness and verbal aggressiveness interact in terms of reports of using types of verbally aggressive messages. Results indicated that, in general, individuals reported greater frequency of advocacy than refutative behavior during arguments. High argumentatives engaged in more advocacy and refutation than moderates or lows. Across levels of argumentativeness, political issues were argued most often. High argumentatives reported arguing more than moderates and lows about social, political, personal behavior, moral‐ethical, and others’ behavior issues. Individuals high in verbal aggression reported engaging in more verbally aggressive messages. Implications of these findings to the interactionist approach to the study of communication and to communication education were suggested.
The nature of verbal aggression is discussed with an emphasis on its destructiveness. A need to learn more about people who are verbally aggressive is argued because past research has tended to emphasize the situation rather than the person. A study of 181 college students is reported which explored the types of verbally aggressive messages used, the types of messages received, perceptions of the hurt produced by the messages, and the reasons for using verbal aggression which differentiate high from low verbal aggressives. The results identified types of messages used, beliefs about hurt and reasons for use which distinguish high from low verbal aggressives. The results are discussed in terms of understanding the nature of trait verbal aggressiveness. Speculations are advanced as to why high verbal aggressives are prone to using self‐concept attacking messages.
While previous research has focused on the communication characteristics of superiors which predict their subordinates’ satisfaction, this study investigated subordinates’ communication and satisfaction with the subordinate from the perspective of the superior. Superiors from a variety of organizations rated the communicator style and argumentativeness and verbal aggressiveness of a subordinate with whom they were either satisfied, dissatisfied, or undecided regarding the subordinate's job performance. The results supported a hypothesis about affirming communicator style and satisfactory subordinate job performance, and also a counterintuitive prediction about how argumentativeness relates to appraisal of subordinates.
This investigation extends the work of Infante & Rancer (1982) and Infante & Wigley (1986) by assessing the existence and measurability of argumentativeness and verbal aggressiveness in adolescents. Results indicate that these two constructs, and the instruments used to measure them, are adaptable to adolescent populations. Specifically, the internal consistency and temporal stability of the Adolescent Argumentativeness Scale and the Adolescent Verbal Aggressiveness Scale suggest these instruments are reliable when used to assess these predispositions in adolescent populations. The instruments also demonstrated satisfactory face, concurrent, convergent, and discriminant validity. However, it appears that unlike their adult counterparts, children do not perceive argumentativeness and verbal aggressiveness as independent constructs.
This study investigated relationships among, and changes in, student state motivation, teacher immediacy, and student‐perceived sources of motivation and demotivation across the course of a semester in college classes. Findings supported a causal relationship between teacher immediacy and state motivation and also replicated a pattern in which students perceive motivation as a personally‐owned state and demotivation as a teacher‐owned problem. Test‐retest changes in state motivation and teacher use of nonverbal immediacy behaviors were observed, with absence of negatives more influential than presence of positives in immediacy‐motivation relationships.
This study examined effects of teaching assistant argumentativeness on student affective learning and perceptions of teacher power use. Significant differences were found in student affective learning for classes taught by low, moderate and high argumentative TAs. Lower TA argumentativeness is positively associated with student affective learning and vice versa. Significant differences were also found for student perceptions of instructor power use for classes taught by low, moderate, and high argumentative TAs. Lower TA argumentativeness is associated with higher levels of power use and vice versa. Multiple correlations revealed that TA and student argumentativeness accounted for 14% of the variance in student affective learning and for 15% of the variance in TA referent power use. Findings suggest that although high argumentative TAs may be “social specialists” in power use (and thus be perceived by students to use less power), their high levels of argumentativeness seem to have negative effects on student affective learning.