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Abstract
In sport, the small group is represented by the team—a network of people who possess a collective identity, have a sense of shared purposes or objectives, use structured patterns of interaction and modes of communication, exhibit personal and task interdependence, and reciprocate interpersonal attraction. This paper discusses research pertaining to the small group in sport within a general systems framework comprised of inputs (personal and environmental factors), throughputs (group interaction and integration processes), and outputs (achievement factors and personal-social factors).
... This is somewhat surprising considering that four decades ago, Stanley Eitzen (1973) demonstrated that the presence of cliques within high school basketball teams appeared to reduce the probability of success. Subsequent to that early study, Carron (1982) emphasized the importance of understanding subdivisions such as cliques and coalitions in small groups (i.e. sport teams). ...
... Although the literature with regard to cliques in sport is limited, research in other areas and the preliminary associations discovered in sport (from the perspective of both coaches and athletes) provide support for the need to further assess this within-group construct. In discussing the importance of team member similarity with regard to team success, Carron (1982) stated that '[t]he critical factor may not be the homogeneity or heterogeneity per se, but whether the team fractionates into cliques or produces social isolates' (p. 249). ...
The purpose of the present article is to provide a summary of recent developments for select constructs that reflect the social environment of groups (Shaw, 1981) and have the potential to add to our knowledge relating to group processes in sport—cohesion, groupness, social identity, roles, conflict, and cliques. For each construct, we provide (1) a general overview of the current state of knowledge, (2) a summary of recent research developments, and (3) suggestions for future endeavors. It is our hope that this review will afford researchers suggestions for future work that will result in the advancement of group-related research in sport.
... Also, those involved in group-oriented sport psychology research have theorized about the effect of norms in sport teams (e.g., Munroe et al., 1999). Carron (1981) proposed two reasons why the development and collective acceptance of group norms contribute to a team's success. First, individuals who accept team norms join together to ensure the continuation of the group. ...
... In particular, would exercise group norms be associated to exercise group cohesion. As noted previously, norms can serve two functions within a group (Carron, 1981). These include providing information or insight into the group as well as integrating members into the group. ...
The present study focused on the examination of four group norms (communication, support, effort, and attendance) in an exercise setting. The purpose of the investigation was twofold: (a) to examine, through the determination of group consensus and strength, whether group norms were present in an exercise setting and (b) to assess the relationship between perceptions of group norms and task cohesion. Participants were sixty exercisers (Mage = 22.33 yrs.) who had been randomly assigned to 13 exercise groups (n = 4 or 5). All exercisers participated in a run/walk program and completed measures of exercise group norms and cohesion. Preliminary supportive evidence for the presence of group norms in the exercise domain was obtained. In addition, normative expectations were found to be related to both task cohesion dimensions (Individual Attractions to the Group‐Task and Group Integration‐Task). Specific findings are discussed and the need for further examination of group norms in different exercise situations is suggested
... Clear and open communication among teammates, coaches, and stakeholders not only enhances performance but also builds trust and camaraderie (Purnomo, Aisyah, et al. 2024;Risma et al. 2024;Warner, Kerwin, and Walker 2013). It is through communication that strategies are conveyed, challenges are addressed, and support is provided (Bruce 2013;Ishak 2023); (c) Connecting with Others: Building meaningful connections with fellow athletes, coaches, and peers in the sports community is integral to personal and collective growth (Carron 1982;Schellenberger 1981). By connecting with others, individuals can share experiences, seek guidance, and create a network of support that enriches their journey in sports (Allen 2003; Till and Baker 2020); (d) Teamwork: Teamwork lies at the heart of success in sports (Kim, Lee, and Connerton 2020). ...
Universal values are one of the greatest aspects that can still be obtained through various sporting activities. Therefore, it is necessary to re-emphasize how this aspect can be assessed. This research aims to develop and test the validity of an instrument measuring universal values in sport, which includes five dimensions. With this instrument, it can later be used by physical education teachers in schools to find out the impact of learning carried out in relation to universal values. This is a descriptive review of inter-rater agreement and inter-rater reliability indices. It outlines the practical application and interpretation of these indices in research. The inter-rater agreement index assesses the extent of the responses of 7 expert raters. The data on agreement between raters and the reliability index were then processed to determine the validity and reliability results of the universal values in sports instrument being developed. The results of the research explain that the average validity value of each dimension was tested and the following results were obtained: Ethics and Morals (0.784), Knowledge and Understanding (0.805), Social (0.825), Psychological (0.855), and Leadership and Organization (0.835). The total reliability value of the five dimensions is 0.990, which shows a very high level of consistency and stability of this instrument. These results indicate that the instrument developed has strong reliability and validity in measuring various aspects of universal values in sports, so that it can be used effectively to support character building and skills development through sports activities. Keywords: Development, validation, interrater, reliability agreement, instruments, universal values.
... Results showed that on large football teams, subgroups emerged as members identified with offensive or defensive units. The authors and other researchers (e.g., Carron, 1982;Eys et al., 2014) noted that subgroups (i.e., those that emerge from a team's structural design) and cliques (i.e., tight-knit emergent subgroups built upon reciprocal relationships; for a review, see Martin, Bruner, Eys, & Spink, 2014) can damage the formation of a cohesive team. Accordingly, it may thus be important for researchers to consider the existence of subgroups and cliques and whether group norms vary between those subgroups and other operationalizations of group size (e.g., dress or team roster). ...
The purpose of this study was to investigate youth athletes' perceptions of group norms for competition, practice, and social setting contexts in relation to personal and social factors. A secondary purpose of this study was to examine the interactions of the personal and situation factors on perceptions of group norms. Participants included 424 athletes from 35 high school sport teams who completed a survey assessing team norms in competition, practice, and social settings. Multilevel analysis results revealed differences in group norms by gender as well as gender by team tenure and gender by sport type interactions. Female teams held higher perceptions of norms for competition, practice, and social settings than male teams. Interactions between gender and team tenure and gender and sport type revealed significant differences in practice norms. No differences were found in norms by group size. The findings suggest that examining the characteristics of the team members (i.e., gender, team tenure) and team (i.e., type of sport) may enhance our understanding of group norms in a youth sport setting.
... In summary, the current study explored cliques in sport by interviewing current intercollegiate athletes. We would like to conclude by expanding on early theorizing of group dynamics by Carron (1982) who suggested, "the critical factor may not be the homogeneity or heterogeneity [of a group] per se, but whether the team fractionates into cliques or produces social isolates" (p. 249). ...
Although cliques are often referenced in sporting circles, they have received little attention in the group dynamics literature. This is surprising given their potential influence on group-related processes that could ultimately influence team functioning (e.g., Carron & Eys, 2012). The present study examined competitive athletes’ perceptions of cliques using semi-structured interviews with 18 (nine female, nine male) intercollegiate athletes (Mage = 20.9, SD = 1.6) from nine sport teams. Athletes described the formation of cliques as an inevitable and variable process that was influenced by a number of antecedents (e.g., age/tenure, proximity, similarity) and ultimately shaped individual and group outcomes such as isolation, performance, and sport adherence. Further, athletes described positive consequences that emerged when existing cliques exhibited more inclusive behaviors and advanced some areas of focus for the management of cliques within sport teams. Results are discussed from both theoretical and practical perspectives.
... Norms are unwritten rules or guidelines (e.g., being on time, not missing practice). Carron (1981) suggested that the development and acceptance of team norms contributes to team success for two reasons, namely (a) athletes who accept team norms come together to ensure the maintenance of the group, and (b) norms provide insight with regard to team processes and offer standards against which individuals can evaluate themselves and others. Discussing what are believed to be important " guidelines " for the team to follow and having the leaders set the standard will create a precedence while providing the whole team with a sense of ownership . ...
This article provides a general overview and presents various effective
methods for developing and implementing team building programs
based on different desired outcomes in sport. Specifically, a
background on team building is provided, followed by the presentation
of different outcomes and benefits found in previous successful
team building programs. A team building conceptual model (Carron
& Spink, 1993) and a four-stage approach (Carron & Spink,
1993) are described. In addition, implementation and effectiveness
of various interventions are discussed based on the recommendations
from a number of researchers (e.g., Eys, Patterson, Loughead,
& Carron, 2006). Finally, implications for practice are discussed.
... While group research has been well documented in the activity domain (cf. Carron, 1981), minimal research has attempted to understand how the power of groups can influence the physical activity behavior of youth. This study provides preliminary evidence for the positive influence of a group-based team building intervention on the physical activity adherence of youth. ...
Results from previous research have revealed a positive relationship between team building (TB) and several measures of adherence in adult exercise settings (Carron & Spink, 1993; Spink & Carron, 1993). However, research has yet to examine the efficacy of using a TB intervention to impact the exercise adherence of youth. The main purpose of this study was to examine the effect of a TB intervention on specific adherence behaviors of youth in an exercise club setting. A second purpose was to investigate the effects of TB on participant's satisfaction with the group's functioning (group task satisfaction). Participants were 122 youth (13–17 years) participating in 10 rural, school-based exercise clubs. Clubs were randomized into five TB (n=65) and five control groups (n=57). Results revealed that following the introduction of the intervention, the two groups differed significantly on the adherence measure of session attendance but not on dropout behavior. Further, significant differences were found between the groups in group task satisfaction. The study findings extend previous TB research to a youth population and support TB as an effective group-based intervention to improve session attendance and group task satisfaction in an exercise setting in this population. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Purpose This study was designed to develop a team building program that helps freshmen student-athletes to adapt to college life and enhance team function and process and to examine the effects of this program. It could provide basic information of a team building program that effectively accelerates team function in the college team sports domain Methods The program was developed through this process. First, an open-ended questionnaire was utilized to discover the needs of the program. Second, the results of needs of the program and important factors of team-building program were taken into consideration. Third, expert meetings were conducted. Consequently, the program consisted of three stages of total 10 sessions which was 90 min long. The questionnaires(Group Cohesion Questionnaire and Coach-Athlete Relationship Questionnaire), experience report, and program evaluation form were used as measures to identify the effects of the developed program. SPSS version 24.0 and inductive analysis were used to analyze the data Results The results of this study are as follows. First, there was no statistically significant influence between developed program and the level of group cohesion. In contrast, the level of coach-athlete interaction was significantly increased. Second, the analysis of experience report revealed that this program reduced interpersonal conflict between team members and formed positive interpersonal relationship by mind of respect and consideration Conclusion In conclusion, the hierarchical culture was strongly formed and team member suffered from the dual role of athlete and student in Korean college team sports. Thus, these should be resolved in order to enhance team function and process. As a results, this process could increase team performance as well as offer psychological stability to college student-athletes.
It has been suggested that the salience and legitimacy of norms for performance excellence are universal in all sport teams. However, the different task structures within sport influence the nature of interactions, which in turn, may influence the development of team norms. Thus, one purpose of this study was to examine the strength of group norms in individual sport teams. A second purpose was to determine the relationship between those norms and self-reported behaviors reflective of the norms. Participants (N = 97) of university-level individual sport teams completed a questionnaire, which assessed performance norms and behaviors for practice, competition, off-season, and team social functions. The results provided support for the conclusion that normative expectations in individual sport teams exert a weak influence. Also, generally, individual perceptions of the strength of team norms were unrelated to self-reported behaviors. The results were discussed in terms of the dynamics of the group task.
Within sport psychology, a vague concept of effective team communication has been broached. Because of a lack of theoretical basis and skewed measurement, this construct is presently misunderstood and underutilized. A total of 681 athletes participated in a series of studies designed to construct a measurement of effective team communication in sports. Independent exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and subsequent confirmatory factor aalysis (CFA) uncovered a 4-factor model. The 4 emergent factors were defined as Distinctiveness, Acceptance, Positive Conflict, and Negative Conflict. Acceptance, distinctiveness, and positive conflict were consistently positively correlated to all aspects of cohesion, while negative conflict was negatively correlated to task cohesion. Post hoc analyses suggested that male athletes exchanged more distinctiveness and negative conflict than did female athletes. The resultant scale is offered as a theory-based, data-driven measurement of effective team communication in sports.
The present study examined the interactive effects of participation motivation (task, self, and interaction) expressed in early season and successful performance (n = 183) experienced throughout the collegiate hockey season upon satisfaction expressed post-season with individual and team performance. The experimental design consisted of a 2 × 2 factorial comprising two levels of motivation (high vs low) and two levels of success (successful vs unsuccessful). The results indicated that success, motivations, and the various interactions had no effect upon satisfaction with individual performance. Both success and high task-motive resulted in heightened levels of satisfaction in regard to team performance.
Studies included cover the period from 1900 to October 1957 and do not include those studies wherein children constitute the sample. The review is concerned with 7 personality characteristics (introversion-extraversion, dominance, interpersonal sensitivity, masculinity-feminity, conservatism, intelligence, and adjustment) and their relationship to such group behavior variables as leadership, popularity, conformity, task activity, total activity, and social-emotional activity. Most of the studies yielded low positive relationships, intelligence being the best predictor of individual behavior in the group. Considering the studies as a whole, the author is encouraged by the many clear trends which emerge. 151 refs. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
MEMBERS OF 3-PERSON GROUPS, COMPRISED OF 48 11TH-GRADE BOYS, PARTICIPATED IN A GROUP TASK FOR A SERIES OF TRIALS AND PRIVATELY STATED THEIR ASPIRATIONS FOR THE GROUP PRIOR TO EACH TRIAL. 1 MEMBER WAS IN A CENTRAL ROLE IN WHICH HE WAS LARGELY RESPONSIBLE FOR THE GROUP'S SCORE AND WAS REQUIRED TO SET THE OFFICIAL TEAM GOAL. THE OTHER 2 MEMBERS WERE IN PERIPHERAL ROLES AND ASSISTED THE CENTRAL S. MEMBERS OCCUPIED EACH POSITION FOR PART OF THE TRIAL; AND WERE EITHER HIGH IN N ACH AND LOW IN TEST ANXIETY (MOTIVES TO APPROACH PERSONAL SUCCESS (MS) > MOTIVES TO AVOID PERSONAL FAILURE (MAF)) OR LOW IN N ACH AND HIGH IN TEST ANXIETY (MAF > MS). A MEMBER IN A CENTRAL POSITION APPARENTLY DEVELOPS A STRONGER DESIRE FOR GROUP SUCCESS THAN WHEN IN A PERIPHERAL POSITION. WHEN OCCUPYING A PERIPHERAL POSITION, A PERSON IN WHOM MS EXCEEDS MAF BECOMES MORE CONCERNED ABOUT THE GROUP'S SUCCESS THAN DOES ONE IN WHOM MAF EXCEEDS MS. WHEN OCCUPYING A CENTRAL POSITION, A PERSON IN WHOM MAF EXCEEDS MS BECOMES AS MUCH CONCERNED ABOUT THE GROUP'S SUCCESS AS DOES ONE IN WHOM MS EXCEEDS MAF. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Organizational entry refers to several processes that occur as new members enter organizations. This review covers only those studies concerned with entry from the individual's perspective, not an organizational viewpoint. Three areas of research are examined: (a) how individuals choose organizations, (b) the accuracy of organizationally relevant information possessed by outsiders, and (c) the effects of realistic job previews on several aspects of entry. (47 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Reviewed 122 studies (listed in an appendix) and compared the relative effectiveness of cooperation, cooperation with intergroup competition, interpersonal competition, and individualistic goal structures in promoting achievement and productivity in North American samples. These studies yielded 286 findings. Three meta-analysis procedures were used: voting method, effect-size method, and z-score method. Results indicate that (a) cooperation is considerably more effective than interpersonal competition and individualistic efforts, (b) cooperation with intergroup competition is also superior to interpersonal competition and individualistic efforts, and (c) there is no significant difference between interpersonal competitive and individualistic efforts. Through multiple regression, a number of potentially mediating variables for these results are identified. (18 ref)
THE GOALS AND CHANGES IN GOALS WERE EXAMINED IN UNITED FUND CAMPAIGNS AS EXAMPLES OF SITUATIONS IN WHICH A SUBGROUP MUST SETTLE THESE MATTERS FOR A LARGER ORGANIZATION. IT WAS ASSUMED THAT THE PRODUCT OF THE EFFORT FOR WHICH THE GOAL WAS SET WAS IN ITSELF VALUABLE TO ALL CONCERNED FOR REASONS BEYOND A DESIRE TO ACHIEVE SUCCESS. IT WAS FOUND THAT A GREATER EMPHASIS ON INCREASING THE INCOME AROSE WHEN THE FUND INTAKE WAS SMALLER; THIS DESIRE LED TO A REPETITION OF THE UNATTAINED GOAL, OR TO SELECTION OF A SLIGHTLY HIGHER GOAL, AND TO MORE FREQUENT FAILURES TO ATTAIN THE GOAL. INCREASES IN LEVEL OF THE GOAL WERE FOLLOWED BY IMPROVEMENTS IN PERFORMANCE IF THE INCREASES IN THE GOAL WERE NOT TOO LARGE.
A model explaining how the motive to achieve and the motive to avoid failure influences behavior assumes strength of motivation as being a multiplicative function of motive, expectancy, and incentive. This accounts for level of aspiration and also performance level when only one task is presented. "It also assumes that the incentive value of success is a positive linear function of difficulty as inferred from the subjective probability of success; and negative incentive value of failure to be a negative linear function of difficulty." 2 theoretical implications are "that performance level should be greatest when there is greatest uncertainty about outcome" and people with strong motive to achieve should prefer immediate risk whereas those with strong motive to avoid failure will prefer easy tasks or extremely difficult and risky tasks. Experimental results are cited with implications for research on gambling and social mobility aspirations. 22 references.
50 articles dealing with stages of group development over time are separated by group setting: therapy-group studies, T-group studies, and natural- and laboratory-group studies. The stages identified in these articles are separated into those descriptive of social or interpersonal group activities and those descriptive of group-task activities. 4 general stages of development are proposed, and the review consists of fitting the stages identified in the literature to those proposed. In the social realm, these stages in the developmental sequence are testing-dependence, conflict, cohesion, and functional roles. In the task realm, they are orientation, emotionality, relevant opinion exchange, and the emergence of solutions. There is a good fit between observed stages and the proposed model. (62 ref.)
A member of a group whose position is more central, because his acts are a prerequisite for locomotion by fellow members, is conceived as having a stronger desire for his group to achieve success. This greater motivation should have consequences for the aspiration he proposes for his group. In a laboratory experiment, central members, more than peripheral ones, had greater involvement in the group's task, perceived themselves as more responsible for the outcome of the group, and selected aspirations for the group indicative of a stronger desire for that group to perform successfully.
Three different samples (total N = 485) participated in the development and refinement of the Leadership Scale for Sports (LSS). A five-factor solution with 40 items describing the most salient dimensions of coaching behavior was selected as the most meaningful. These factors were named Training and Instruction, Democratic Behavior, Autocratic Behavior, Social Support, and Positive Feedback. Internal consistency estimates ranged from .45 to .93 and the test-retest reliability coefficients ranged from .71 to .82. The relative stability of the factor structure across the different samples confirmed the factorial validity of the scale. The interpretation of the factors established the content validity of the scale. Finally, possible uses of the LSS were pointed out.
Previous sport attribution studies have generally asked subjects to make attributions for outcomes to the four elements of ability, effort, luck, and task difficulty. These studies have assumed that these elements are the most important causes of outcomes. The present study tested this assumption. An open-ended questionnaire was given to 349 male and female subjects to determine the causal elements used in sport situations. Results showed that the four traditional elements of ability, effort, luck, and task difficulty were used 45% of the time. However, the theory advocated by Weiner (1974) is based on the dimensions of locus of control and stability, and not on the elements per se. When the responses of subjects were content analyzed for dimensional properties, it was concluded that 100% of the responses could be placed within the four cells of the Weiner model. These results support the applicability of the Weiner achievement behavior model to sport environments, but only when careful analysis of causal attributions is made to determine their dimensional relevance. The evidence suggests that situationally relevant elements be included in addition to the traditional elements of ability, effort, luck, and task difficulty.
This study quantified the interaction channels used by intercollegiate field hockey teams and compared these to Bavelas' centrality index and the emergence of leadership/interpersonal attraction. Interaction frequencies, defined as passes to teammates, were determined for each playing position for three teams (N = 37) using 4-3-2-1-1, 5-3-2-1, and 4-2-3-1-1 structural systems. Members of four teams for each system (N = 177) then rated each teammate on leadership and attraction. Analyses of variance showed leadership and attraction differences among low, moderate, and high interactors (p < .05), but these differences disappeared when goalies were eliminated from the analysis. Thus, high-interaction frequencies were not indicative of high leadership and attraction ratings. Only “leadership,” “years on the varsity,” and “attraction” were found to discriminate between captain and noncaptains. The results suggest that for highly dynamic tasks functional centrality and task independency are perhaps more importa...
The abstract for this document is available on CSA Illumina.To view the Abstract, click the Abstract button above the document title.
The abstract for this document is available on CSA Illumina.To view the Abstract, click the Abstract button above the document title.
The effects of interpersonal cooperation, competition, and individualization were compared on drill-review, problem-solving, specific-knowledge acquisition, and specific-knowledge retention instructional tasks. Sixty-six fifth graders were included in the study. Males and females were assigned randomly to conditions so that within each condition there were 22 Ss and an equal number of males and females. The results indicate that cooperation generally produced more positive attitudes than did either individualization or competition. Cooperation resulted in higher achievement than did competition and individualization on both the problem-solving and retention tasks, higher achievement than competition and just as high achievement as individualization on the drill-review task, and higher achievement than individualization and just as high achievement as competition on the specific-knowledge-acquisition task.
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It has been consistently found that members of cooperative groups claim greater personal responsibility for their group's performance after a group success rather than failure. However, when high group cohesiveness is present, norms and interpersonal bonds may exist that mitigate against taking high personal credit for success and low blame for failure. Hence, it was hypothesized that in high cohesive groups, there would be little or no relationship between the assignment of personal responsibility and the quality of the group product, while in low cohesive groups, responsibility would be directly related to the quality of the group product. To test this hypothesis, 96 subjects interacted in four-person, problem-solving groups. Supposedly on the basis of prior individual test scores, subjects were informed that they were either highly compatible (high cohesiveness) or incompatible (low cohesiveness) with the other group members. After the group tasks, subjects were told that their group had been either very successful, very unsuccessful, or average on the problems. The predicted interaction between cohesiveness and performance feedback was obtained on ratings of personal responsibility, average member responsibility, and best group member responsibility. In high cohesive groups, the assignment of responsibility was unrelated to group performance, while in low cohesive groups, the assignment of responsibility was directly related to group performance. A comparable interaction was obtained on ratings of relative leadership within the group. In low cohesive groups, feelings of relative leadership were greater under success rather than failure conditions, while in high cohesive groups, relative leadership was unrelated to group performance.
To determine the extent to which group performance could be predicted from knowledge of the performance of the group's members, 60 pairs of university women were first given six individual trials on a modified Purdue Pegboard task, and then six trials in which the members of the pair worked together. For each pair, the 'high' and 'low' scorer (on the individual trials) was identified, and correlations were calculated between the 'high' score, the 'low' score, the difference score, and the score for the pair on the second set of trials. These results are compared with previous results from men students. "The most important fact which emerges… is that a surprisingly small proportion of the total variance on the group-performance task can be predicted… [from the individual-performance scores]… " (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Attempted to identify the factors correlated with the athlete's perception of cohesiveness in individual and team sports. The 5 measures of cohesion used were factor analyzed, and 2 factors were identified: Individual-to-Group-Cohesion (composed of sense of belonging, value of membership, and enjoyment) and Group-as-a-Unit-Cohesion (composed of teamwork and closeness). These represented the dependent variables in the multiple regression design. Because cohesion is a group construct, the independent variables were chosen to reflect this aspect. They included measures of compatibility between the coach and athlete and between the team and athlete as well as measures of the discrepancy in participation orientation between the coach and athlete and the team and athlete. Results support the conclusion that cohesiveness in sport is a multidimensional construct. The perception of cohesiveness is moderated by the nature of the sport task. The most important factors contributing to the perception of cohesiveness in sport teams are the discrepancies between the athlete and coach and between the athlete and team in task motivation. (32 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
65 pairs of male university students were given 6 individual trials on the Purdue Pegboard Assembly Task, and 6 trials on the same task working as a cooperating pair. Results indicated that less than half of the group performance variance could be predicted from a knowledge of the individual performances. The implications of this result for industrial situations are briefly discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Cohesiveness has 2 meanings: (1) refers to characteristics of the group such as morale, efficiency or esprit, and (2) the attractiveness of the group for its members. Productivity may be expected to differ by the degree of cohesiveness under the first definition, and by the direction of group induction under the second. The relations of cohesiveness and induction were studied in a number of small student groups where the activities were designed to control the nature of the induction. Negative induction appeared to result in slow-down of productivity but not speeding up from positive induction. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
47 pairs of male college students were given six individual trials on the Purdue Pegboard, Assembly Task, and six trials in which both members of the pair worked together alternating in the assembly operation. On the basis of the last four trials, the members of each pair were divided into a 'high' and 'low' group. Means, variances, and intercorrelations for the 'high', 'low' and 'group' performance trials were computed. Even though in the replication the individual task was made to resemble more closely the group task, group performance could be predicted only imperfectly from individual performance (multiple R
2=.48). The hypothesis that task comparability contributes to prediction of group performance from individual performance is rejected. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Midseason and postseason measures (Group Atmosphere Scale) taken from 149 female collegiate basketball players provided information about their perception of team cohesion, personal and team success, and attributions for their own and their team's performance. First, it was hypothesized that Ss from highly cohesive teams would show more consistency between self and team attributions than Ss from teams with low cohesion. This prediction received partial support in that, at the end of their season, Ss on cohesive teams demonstrated greater convergence between attributions for self and team than did Ss from less cohesive teams. Ss associated with less cohesive teams made greater luck attributions and lesser task attributions for their performance than for the performance of their team. No significant differences were found for either effort or ability attributions. The 2nd hypothesis predicted that cohesion would influence Ss' team attributions over and above any influence of team outcome. Only for unsuccessful teams did cohesion affect attributions independently of team outcome. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Administered the 16 PF to 1,596 male college students and then categorized them by (a) involvement in athletics, (b) type of sport, and (c) level of success. An unbalanced hierarchical multivariate ANOVA using R. B. Cattell's (1970) 8 2nd-stratum factors was then performed. Results support the contention that moderator variables involving sport type are of primary importance in the development of theory involving sports-personality relationships. (45 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
What are the principles according to which a pattern of communication should be chosen in order to insure effective performance? Will such an optimum pattern depend mainly on the specifications of the task or on the structure of the working group? Do certain patterns have structural properties that limit group performance? Results from a series of exploratory studies with small groups are presented. The performances obtained from various geometric patterns are compared with respect to such variables as: time consumed in the solution of a problem, number of messages sent by the members of the group, number of errors, morale of the participants, etc. The possibility of obtaining "detour" solutions in groups having different geometrical structures is also considered. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
In recent years increasing need has been felt for a body of systematic theoretical constructs which will discuss the general relationships of the empirical world. This is the quest of General Systems Theory. It does not seek, of course, to establish a single, self-contained "general theory of practically everything" which will replace all the special theories of particular disciplines. Such a theory would be almost without content, for we always pay for generality by sacrificing content, and all we can say about practically everything is almost nothing. Somewhere however between the specific that has no meaning and the general that has no content there must be, for each purpose and at each level of abstraction, an optimum degree of generality. It is the contention of the General Systems Theorists that this optimum degree of generality in theory is not always reached by the particular sciences.
Ringelmann's classic finding—that the addition of co-workers in a rope-pulling task leads to a linear decrement in the individual group member's average performance—was reexamined experimentally. Study I attempted to replicate the effect, using groups of subjects ranging in size from 1 to 6. Performance dropped significantly as group size was increased from one individual to two or to three, but the addition of a fourth, fifth, or sixth member produced insignificant additional decrements; thus, the effect was not linear but curvilinear. Study II was designed to examine possible sources of performance loss, separating the factors of “coordination” and “motivation” loss (Steiner, 1972). The possibility of intermember incoordination was eliminated, while motivation loss remained free to vary: Each experimental subject pulled alone, and in “groups” where he believed there were from one to five other members. Once again, individual performance declined significantly with the addition of the first and second perceived co-worker, but then leveled off for perceived group sizes three to six. Some implications are discussed.
Group effectiveness was studied as a function of individual or subgroup effectiveness in four highly competitive sports: tennis, football, baseball, and basketball. Consistently strong relations, ranging from .60 to well in excess of .90, were found in all four cases. All four regression systems were linear, moderated regression improving the fits by trivial and wholly non-significant amounts. In three of the four sports studied, tennis, football, and baseball, individual effectiveness was positively associated among members or subgroups, that is, good players tended to be found on the same teams. In basketball, however, the teams were strongly balanced, with significantly negative associations among players; two highly effective players tended not to be found on the same team. These results are discussed in relation to the previous literature and the problem of forming teams or work groups so as to maximize their summed effectiveness.
This paper proposes a model to explain the generally low and inconsistent correlations between leader intelligence and task performance. It postulates a series of screens of variable permeability which the leader's intellectual output must traverse before task performance can be affected. A field study of infantry squad leaders provides empirical support for this model.
The views of United Fund board members toward goal setting and goal achievement in their organization are examined. Half of the respondents are from Funds with repeated failures during four years, the other half from Funds with successful records during that time. Within each of the Funds approximately half of the respondents are central members of their boards and half are peripheral members. The data are from mailed questionnaires. Contrasting responses by members in successful and unsuccessful Funds suggest that success prepares the ground for future success, and failure for future failure. Central board members, compared to peripheral members, are more deeply involved in the processes of goal setting and in the consequences of their organizations' performance.
What situational elements can account for the enhanced risk taking typical of group relative to individual decision making? The three elements investigated were provision of information about the risk-taking levels favored by peers, with the implication of judgmental comparison; group discussion, with the affective involvement it can generate; and achievement of consensus, with its possible centering of commitment upon the group. The Ss were 360 undergraduates, 180 of each sex, randomly assigned within sex to one of three experimental conditions, all involving five-person groups. The group members in the respective conditions reached decisions concerning matters of risk through discussion to a consensus, through achievement of consensus without discussion, or through discussion without the requirement of consensus. For both male and female groups, discussion with or without consensus produced substantial shifts toward greater risk taking, while consensus without discussion yielded an averaging effect. Hence, the occurrence of group discussion is both necessary and sufficient for generating the risky shift effect.
The purpose of the study was to examine the factors contributing to effective interpersonal interaction between coaches and athletes. A sample of 54 coach-athlete dyads (36 compatible and 18 incompatible) were tested. A questionnaire (Fundamental Interpersonal Relations Orientation-Behavior) was administered to each coach and athlete to assess their self-perceived, wanted, and expressed typical social behaviors in the need areas of inclusion, control, and affection. These basic measures were then used to calculate a series of derivative values reflecting various characteristic interpersonal behaviors: the reciprocal and originator compatibility of the dyad as a unit; the tendency of either of the members of the dyad to originate inclusion, control, and/or affection behavior; and the tendency for either of the members of the dyad to interact in the behavioral areas of inclusion, control, and affection. It was hypothesized that incompatible dyads would differ from compatible dyads in the need areas of affection and control. A stepwise analysis was utilized to determine the measures that best differentiated the two groups; discriminant function analysis was then carried out on the resulting set of variables. It was concluded that inclusion behavior was the predominant factor contributing to incompatibility in coach-athlete dyads.
The attributions made by female basketball players for both self and team were investigated. It was hypothesized that internal (ability/effort) ascriptions for self would not vary as a function of team outcome, while internal team-oriented attributions would be evaluated negatively as a consequence of failure. No predictions were made relative to external ascriptions (luck/task difficulty) for either self or team. Subjects were selected randomly from winning and losing teams within seven collegiate conferences. Initially, data were analyzed by means of MANOVA. Results indicated presence of overall significance. Data were then subjected to a discriminant function analysis with stepwise F tests. Separate 2 × 2 (Team Outcome x Locus of Causation) ANOV As with repeated measures on the last factor were computed for each dependent variable (ability/effort/luck/task difficulty). Results showed only limited support for the hypothesized relationship between team outcome and ascriptions for self versus team. The team-ability variable emerged as the most powerful discriminator between winners and losers. While the team-effort variable was statistically significant, it was a much less potent discriminator compared to team-ability. Results were discussed in conjunction with current evidence generated from data gathered on Little League players. Speculations were made regarding team-ability as a variable factor and its relationship to group achievement motivation within interacting sport teams.
The present study determined the effect of affiliation and task motivation on the success and satisfaction of college intramural basketball teams. Over 1,200 male college students, members of 144 basketball teams, responded to a pre- and post-season questionnaire which assessed affiliation and task motivation as well as team satisfaction. Teams were categorized into low, moderate, and high levels for both affiliation and task motivation. The number of games won determined success. An Affiliation Motivation × Task Motivation (3 × 3) factorial design was used. The multivariate ANOVA for the affiliation hypothesis was significant, indicating that high affiliation-motivated teams in contrast to moderate- and low-affiliation-motivated teams were less successful but more satisfied. High task-motivated teams, on the other hand, were more successful and more satisfied than moderate or low task-motivated teams. No significant interaction between task and affiliation motivation was found.
The relationship between the behavior of small groups and the patterns of communication in which they operate was experimentally explored. 100 male M.I.T. students served as subjects. Results are analyzed in detail and the theoretical implications are discussed. It was found that the communication patterns within which the groups worked affected their behavior. "The major behavioral differences attributable to communication patterns were differences in accuracy, total activity, satisfaction of group members, emergence of a leader, and organization of the group." Positions held in the communication patterns affected behavior but centrality of communication patterns was most clearly correlated with behavioral differences.
Two experiments were conducted to investigate the prediction of group performance on the motor-maze task from individual member abilities. In both experiments subjects performed 20 individual trials on the maze task in an initial session prior to the actual experiment. On the basis of these individual performance scores, two-person groups were formed so that the groups represented a range of average ability levels and a range of discrepancies in abilities between partners. In Experiment 1, all groups performed a cooperative and a noncooperative group task in separate sessions both involving competition with another group. Only the cooperative group task was used in Experiment 2, but all groups performed under both competitive and noncompetitive conditions. Multiple regression analyses yielded a moderate, positive relationship between member abilities and group performance in both experiments; group performance on the highly cooperative task was dominated by the lower-ability partner.
- Slavin R. E.