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The Difference Between Being and Seeing: The Relative Contribution of Self-Perception and Priming to Behavioral Changes via Digital Self-Representation
Abstract
Studies in the Proteus Effect (N. Yee & J. Bailenson, 200727.
Yee , N. and
Bailenson , J. 2007. The proteus effect: The effect of transformed self-representation on behavior. Human Communication Research, 33: 271–290. [CrossRef], [Web of Science ®]View all references) have shown that the appearance of avatars (i.e., digital representations of ourselves) can lead to behavioral changes in users. For example, participants in attractive avatars became friendlier to confederate strangers than participants in unattractive avatars. While the Proteus Effect is premised on self-perception theory (D. Bem, 19723.
Bem , D. 1972. “Self-perception theory.”. In Advances in experimental social psychology Edited by:
Berkowitz , L. Vol. 6, New York: Academic Press. [CrossRef]View all references)—the notion that we infer our own attitudes by observing ourselves as if from a third party—it is also possible that the previous findings were caused by priming (i.e., behavioral assimilation; J. Bargh, M. Chen, & L. Burrows, 19961.
Bargh , J. ,
Chen , M. and
Burrows , L. 1996. The automaticity of social behaviour: Direct effects of trait concept and stereotype activation on action. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71: 230–244. [CrossRef], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®]View all references). In our study, we used immersive virtual environment technology to experimentally tease apart embodiment from perception of the same visual stimulus. Our results showed that embodiment produced significantly larger behavioral changes than mere observation of the same visual stimuli. These findings support the claim that our avatars provide a unique lever to behavioral change; however, more work is needed to pin down the exact mechanism behind the effect.
... This phenomenon was termed the Proteus effect. The authors showed, for example, that attractive or tall avatars can enhance users' self-confidence while being immersed in VR resulting in behavioral changes such as increased extraversion or aggressive bargaining [64,65]. Since these seminal experiments, the Proteus effect has been reported in a variety of different contexts [12,28,48,49]. ...
... Interestingly, the virtual embodiment of avatars can induce behavioral, perceptual, and attitudinal changes. Yee and Bailenson [64] found that the avatar is not only useful to enhance the VR experience but can also change users' behavior and perception [65]. They term this effect the Proteus effect after the Greek God Proteus who is notable for being the origin of the adjective "protean"-the ability to take on many different self-representations [23,64]. ...
... While Clark [12] concludes that effects are smaller than indicated and suggests alternative explanations, Beyea et al. [8] conducting yet another meta-analysis of the Proteus effect found stronger effect sizes for studies conducted in VR. When initially coining the term Proteus effect, Yee and Bailenson [64,65] only considered behavioral effects. In line with this initial understanding, most work on the Proteus effect investigated effects on behavior and attitudes [49]. ...
Virtual reality enables embodying different avatars. Coined the Pro-teus effect, previous work found that the visual characteristics of an avatar can cause behavioral, attitudinal, and perceptual effects. Recent work suggests that avatars' muscularity can even have physiological effects while cycling in virtual reality. As the effects have not been replicated it is, however, unclear how robust they are and if effects are limited to specific activities, such as cycling. Therefore, we conducted a study to understand if avatars' muscularity also causes physiological and perceptual effects for other tasks and if the effects can be replicated. 16 participants embodied a muscular and a non-muscular avatar while rowing on an indoor rower. We found that over time participants' heart rates increased significantly slower when embodying a muscular avatar compared to a non-muscular avatar. While not significant, descriptive statistics suggest the same trend for perceived exertion. Overall, the results confirm previous findings and support the conclusion that avatars can cause physiological effects for a range of physical activities.
... Peña et al. (2009) have argued in favor of the priming theory in that it enables to explain inhibition effects (i.e., inhibition of positive thoughts using black-cloaked avatars compared to white-cloaked avatars), what self-perception theory seems less able to do. Conversely, Yee & Bailenson (2009) supported the self-perception theory because a stronger avatar effect was observed in a condition where participants controlled an avatar compared to a condition where they observed the avatar. Additionally, two previous studies pointed in favor of an additional effect to that of priming for explaining the Proteus effect. ...
... The second objective of the present study was to investigate the extent to which changes in self-perception can explain the expected relationship between embodiment and the Proteus effect. Although several studies argue in favor of an additional mechanism to that of priming to explain the Proteus effect (Beaudoin et al., 2020;Dupraz et al., 2023;Yee and Bailenson, 2009), no experimental evidence confirms the involvement of self-perception. According to the self-perception account, the appearance of the embodied avatar is expected to activate stereotypes and impact the participant's self-perception (Walther and Lew, 2022;Yee and Bailenson, 2007). ...
... Indeed, the elderly avatar, embodied or not, led to a slowdown in locomotor imagery speed compared to the control condition, in the same way as an elderly-related situational cue might provoke a decrease in motor performance (Banfield et al., 2003;Bargh et al., 1996;Follenfant et al., 2005). Although the present protocol cannot refute this hypothesis, previous studies already evidenced the existence of an additional effect to that of priming to explain the Proteus effect (e.g., stronger avatar effect in embodiment compared to observation condition; Beaudoin et al., 2020;Yee and Bailenson, 2009). ...
The Proteus effect refers to the tendency for individuals to conform to the stereotypes related to the visual characteristics of the avatar used in a virtual environment. If the phenomenon has been widely observed, underlying mechanisms (e.g., self-perception, priming) and moderation factors, such as avatar embodiment, need confirmation. The sense of embodimentemerges when the properties of the avatar are processed in the same way as the properties of the biological body. The objective of the present study was, first, to investigate the effect of avatar embodiment on the Proteus effect related to the influence of an elderly avatar on motor imagery, and second, to examine the extent to which this relationship is explained by a change in self-perception. In two virtual reality studies, the agency and the self-location components of embodiment were manipulated through visuo-motor synchronization and visual perspective respectively. The time required to perform motor imagery displacements while being embodied (visuo-motor synchrony and first-person perspective) or not (visuo-motor asynchrony and/or third-person perspective) in an elderly avatar was measured. The results showed that the Proteus effect was not stronger the more participants embodied the elderly avatar, which does not support that embodiment moderates the Proteus effect. Moreover, analyses did not confirm that change in explicit selfperception mediates the relationship between embodiment and the Proteus effect. The Proteus effect is dis cussed in the light of the avatar identification process and the active-self account: crossover between these mechanisms could offer new insights into understanding the influence of avatars on individuals’ behavior.
... Yee and Bailenson [76] showed that while embodying attractive avatars increased self-confidence in a VR dialogue, the embodiment of tall avatars caused more aggressive bargaining behavior. Such changes are attributed to the Proteus effect [59,76,77]. The Proteus effect describes that users conform in behavior and attitude to their avatars' visual characteristics based on the stereotypical associations connected with the appearance [77]. ...
... Such changes are attributed to the Proteus effect [59,76,77]. The Proteus effect describes that users conform in behavior and attitude to their avatars' visual characteristics based on the stereotypical associations connected with the appearance [77]. ...
... The Proteus effect originates from users' perception of the avatars' stereotypical appearance. While users' embody an avatar with certain visual characteristics, the concepts associated with the avatars' appearance are primed resulting in changes of behavior, attitude, and perception [38,59,77]. ...
... They focus on congruence and plausibility potentially influencing various XR-related qualia. Such can be the spatial presence (the feeling of really being in a VE) [53] or the sense of embodiment (SoE, the feeling of being inside, having, and controlling an avatar in a VE) [23], which, in turn, have been identified as influencing factors of the Proteus effect [22,36,46,73]. However, the theoretical work does not specify the concrete manipulations and congruencies needed to result in certain qualia or effects. ...
... The authors stress the importance of VR qualia (referred to as "corresponding perceptions"), which moderate the effect of VEs on affect, attitude, and behavior, and name the SoE as a crucial moderator for the impact of avatars and spatial presence as a crucial moderator for the impact of environment representation. In this realm, Yee and Bailenson indicated greater behavioral changes when participants embodied an avatar than those observing identical visual stimuli without embodiment [73]. Subsequently, visuomotor coherence has been shown to impact the SoE and be a pivotal factor in provoking the Proteus effect [5,36]. ...
... However, our results indicated the SoE to be an important factor contributing to the Proteus effect. We suggest the SoE to strengthen the bond between the user and the avatar as has been indicated by the introduced related work [22,42,45,73]. In particular, we found evidence for the component of virtual body ownership to be a driving factor moderating the effect of the avatars' athleticism on behavioral changes in exercise performance. ...
Many studies show the significance of the Proteus effect for serious virtual reality applications. The present study extends the existing knowledge by considering the relationship (congruence) between the self-embodiment (avatar) and the virtual environment. We investigated the impact of avatar and environment types and their congruence on avatar plausibility, sense of embodiment, spatial presence, and the Proteus effect. In a 2×2 between-subjects design, participants embodied either an avatar in sports- or business wear in a semantic congruent or incongruent environment while performing lightweight exercises in virtual reality. The avatar-environment congruence significantly affected the avatar's plausibility but not the sense of embodiment or spatial presence. However, a significant Proteus effect emerged only for participants who reported a high feeling of (virtual) body ownership, indicating that a strong sense of having and owning a virtual body is key to facilitating the Proteus effect. We discuss the results assuming current theories of bottom-up and top-down determinants of the Proteus effect and thus contribute to understanding its underlying mechanisms and determinants.
... Yee and Bailenson [108] showed that users embodying attractive avatars exhibited increased confidence in social interactions compared to those with less attractive avatars. This effect stems from users associating stereotypical characteristics with their avatars' appearance, subsequently leading to changes in behavior, attitude, and perception [11,44,83,109]. ...
... Based on the Proteus effect [46,48,109] and potential moderators such as body ownership and avatar identification [7,81], the study therefore tested the following hypotheses: ...
Virtual reality (VR) allows to embody avatars. Coined the Proteus effect, an avatar's visual appearance can influence users' behavior and perception. Recent work suggests that athletic avatars decrease perceptual and physiological responses during VR exercise. However , such effects can fail to occur when users do not experience avatar ownership and identification. While customized avatars increase body ownership and identification, it is unclear whether they improve the Proteus effect. We conducted a study with 24 participants to determine the effects of athletic and non-athletic avatars that were either customized or randomly assigned. We developed a customization editor to allow creating customized avatars. We found that customized avatars reduced perceived exertion. We also found that athletic avatars decreased heart rate while holding weights, however, only when being customized. Results indicate that customized avatars can positively influence users during physical exertion. We discuss the utilization of avatar customization in VR exercise systems.
... Embodiment, which is related to the avatar is an important factor that influences motivation, perception, cognitive activities, and creativity-enhancing effects (e.g., the Proteus effect) in VEs (Yee and Bailenson 2009;Steed et al. 2016;Flavián et al. 2021;Keenaghan et al. 2022). Embodiment is defined as a subjective feeling of being in a virtual body and having the property of that body (Kilteni et al. 2012). ...
... Embodiment is an essential factor and an effective predictor of the Proteus effect. Yee and Bailenson (2009) designed an experiment to examine the importance of embodiment in the Proteus effect. Participants were assigned to either mirror or playback conditions. ...
As an artificial space extended from the physical environment, the virtual environment (VE) provides more possibilities for humans to work and be entertained with less physical restrictions. Benefiting from anonymity, one of the important features of VEs, users are able to receive visual stimuli that might differ from the physical environment through digital representations presented in VEs. Avatars and contextual cues in VEs can be considered as digital representations of users and contexts. In this article, we analyzed 21 articles that examined the creativity-boosting effects of different digital user and contextual representations. We summarized the main effects induced by these two digital representations, notably the effect induced by the self-similar avatar, Proteus effect, avatar with Social Identity Cues, priming effect induced by contextual representation, and embodied metaphorical effect. In addition, we examined the influence of immersion on creativity by comparing non-immersive and immersive VEs (i.e., desktop VE and headset VE, respectively). Last, we discussed the roles of embodiment and presence in the creativity in VEs, which were overlooked in the past research.
... In line with the Proteus effect [14,18,19,22,23], the visual appearance of the avatar influences users' perception and induces thermophysiological changes. However, it is unkown if the effects are caused and modulated by the extent of experienced embodiment over the hands (i.e., changes in selfperception result in different thermophysiological responses) or the mere presence of warm and cold stimuli (i.e., priming effects) [38]. ...
Understanding thermal regulation and subjective perception of temperature is crucial for improving thermal comfort and human energy consumption in times of global warming. Previous work shows that an environment's color temperature affects the experienced temperature. As virtual reality (VR) enables visual immersion, recent work suggests that a VR scene's color temperature also affects experienced temperature. In addition, virtual avatars representing thermal cues influence users' thermal perception and even the body temperature. As immersive technology becomes increasingly prevalent in daily life, leveraging thermal cues to enhance thermal comfort - without relying on actual thermal energy - presents a promising opportunity. Understanding these effects is crucial for optimizing virtual experiences and promoting sustainable energy practices. Therefore, we propose three controlled experiments to learn more about thermal effects caused by virtual worlds and avatars.
... This so-called ''embodied identification'', which is one of the forms of avatar identification, enhances actual communication behaviour (Takano & Taka, 2022). Some studies indicate that in the digital world, the behaviour can affect self-esteem (Gonzales & Hancock, 2011), while the behaviour can also be shaped by various forms of digital self-representation (Yee & Bailenson, 2009). Therefore, it could be said that digital self-representation alone can influence the user's behaviour and key self-concepts, such as self-esteem (Chan, 2022). ...
... Therefore, the use of avatars to help fulfill these physical appearance goals may support healthier interactions in South Korean workplaces. 42,43 ...
Virtual meetings, facilitated through videoconferencing or virtual reality, have become a common form of workplace communication. Despite the advantages these meetings offer, enabling collaboration among workers in dispersed locations, the phenomenon of virtual meeting fatigue, commonly referred to as Zoom fatigue, has emerged as a significant concern. This study explores whether facial appearance dissatisfaction, a known contributor to Zoom fatigue, leads to reduced engagement in virtual meeting interactions by mediating the role of Zoom fatigue. Furthermore, this study examines the impact of facial dissatisfaction and Zoom fatigue on virtual meeting engagement cross-culturally, within the contexts of South Korea and the United States. The findings indicate that in the United States, facial dissatisfaction led to a lower level of virtual meeting engagement through the mediating role of Zoom fatigue, while in South Korea, facial dissatisfaction negatively impacted virtual meeting engagement regardless of Zoom fatigue levels. Additionally, we reveal that Zoom fatigue and facial dissatisfaction
are more pronounced among U.S. women than U.S. men, but differences were not observed between South Korean women and men. These results underscore the influence of societal competitiveness, as seen in South Korea, on impression management concerns in technology-mediated work environments. We highlight the importance of developing virtual meeting features to mitigate facial dissatisfaction and Zoom fatigue, thereby enhancing engagement in virtual interactions.
... Avatars today fulfill a dual purpose: they are tools for practical utility and expression, enhancing our engagement and connectivity in the digital world. The Proteus effect, named after the shape-shifting Greek god, underscores avatars' impact on user identity and behavior, suggesting that an avatar's traits can alter an individual's actions and mindset (Yee and Bailenson 2009). ...
Abstract
In an era where technology increasingly blurs the line between the artificial and the real, this article explores the concept of Digital Lazarus. This term refers to the use of artificial intelligence (AI) to revive and repurpose the performances and personas of individuals from the past. Far from being confined to the entertainment sector, the ripple effects of Digital Lazarus challenge our understanding of authenticity, talent, and the human experience itself. The review article explores the ethical dilemmas of resurrecting popular figures, the unsettling eeriness of increasingly human-like AI entities, and the commercial motivations that drive such initiatives. It also examines the profound impact on societal communication, the life cycle of talent, and the altered grief process in the digital age. By raising critical questions about the exploitation or honoring of legacies, the article offers a nuanced perspective on a future where the boundaries between the real and the artificial are not just blurred but are being actively redefined.
... In 2007, Yee and Bailenson [19] discovered that an avatar's appearance can significantly impact users' behavior -a phenomenon known as the Proteus effect. They found that users with more attractive or taller avatars exhibited increased self-confidence and altered behaviors [19,20]. Researchers explain that users adapt their behavior in accordance to the avatar's appearance and the connected stereotypical associations [4,15,16]. ...
Virtual reality (VR) allows to embody any possible appearance using avatars. Previous work found that the visual characteristics of an avatar can cause behavioral, attitudinal, and perceptual changes-a phenomenon known as the Proteus effect. Recent work revealed that athletic avatars can even change heart rate responses while exercising in VR. However, it is unknown if such effects occur due to behavioral changes caused by the avatar or the mere virtual embodiment. Therefore, we conducted a study to understand if avatars' effects can be replicated while resting in VR. 21 participants embodied neutral, famous, and athletic avatars while lying on the ground. We could not find effects of the avatars' appearance on heart rate and perceived identification. Results indicate that the mere virtual embodiment of stereotypical avatars cannot induce physiological effects. We discuss that physiological effects are caused by behavioral adaptations due to the avatars' visual appearance.
... Yee and Bailenson introduced the Proteus Effect theory [61][62][63] stating that users may conform to expectations and stereotypes associated with the appearance of their avatars (both in 3D and immersive virtual environments). Ratan et al. [48] conducted a meta-analysis and concluded that, among the 46 studies considered, the Proteus Effect was a reliable phenomenon with a small to medium effect size. ...
Virtual reality (VR) provides users with the ability to substitute their physical appearance by embodying virtual characters (avatars) using head-mounted displays and motion-capture technologies. Previous research demonstrated that the sense of embodiment toward an avatar can impact user behavior and cognition. In this paper, we present an experiment designed to investigate whether embodying a well-known creative genius could enhance participants' creative performance. Following a preliminary online survey (N = 157) to select a famous character suited to the purpose of this study, we developed a VR application allowing participants to embody Leonardo da Vinci or a self-avatar. Self-avatars were approximately matched with participants in terms of skin tone and morphology. 40 participants took part in three tasks seamlessly integrated in a virtual workshop. The first task was based on a Guilford's Alternate Uses test (GAU) to assess participants' divergent abilities in terms of fluency and originality. The second task was based on a Remote Associates Test (RAT) to evaluate convergent abilities. Lastly, the third task consisted in designing potential alternative uses of an object displayed in the virtual environment using a 3D sketching tool. Participants embodying Leonardo da Vinci demonstrated significantly higher divergent thinking abilities, with a substantial difference in fluency between the groups. Conversely, participants embodying a self-avatar performed significantly better in the convergent thinking task. Taken together, these results promote the use of our virtual embodiment approach, especially in applications where divergent creativity plays an important role, such as design and innovation
... Other benefits of VR include its potential for engaging learners in perspective-taking, promoting learner efficacy, and fostering attitudinal and behavioral changes (Fauville et al., 2020;Herrera & Bailenson, 2021;Lischer-Katz et al., 2018;Yee & Bailenson, 2009). For example, Fauville et al. (2020) discuss in their research study how VR can be used for environmental literacy and climate change awareness, and Chen et al. (2021) show that avatar embodiment can help students understand the world from a minority's perspective in their study on avatar embodiment and students' attitudes and closeness toward immigrants. ...
Over the past two decades, the number of online programs and courses has increased significantly as more schools consider online learning a viable means of expanding their student base and making their programs accessible to a globally diverse audience (Keengwe & Kidd, 2010; Saba, 2005). Studies have shown that online learning is as effective as in-person classes in student satisfaction and learning outcomes (Cavanaugh & Jacquemin, 2015; Driscoll et al., 2012) and slightly more advantageous in course structure (Soffer & Nachmias, 2018). However, online learning presents challenges that educators and scholars have attempted to resolve, including learners’ feelings of isolation and low levels of learner engagement (Gillett-Swan, 2017). Several studies have associated online learning experiences with low learner attention levels, high levels of learner disengagement, dissatisfaction, and high dropout rates (Childs et al., 2021; McBrien et al., 2009; Zheng et al., 2015). These negative experiences can be linked to low levels of social interaction and collaboration among college students in online education settings (Dumford & Miller, 2018), the near absence of non-verbal communication that usually characterizes face-to-face learning contexts (Jorgensen, 2003; Otter et al., 2013), and learning content that is either lacking or excessive in visual stimulation (McBrien et al., 2009).
Virtual reality (VR) is an innovative technology that can be used for instructional purposes. Its features and affordances can potentially address the limitations and improve learning experiences in online higher education. Some of these affordances include representational fidelity, learner interaction, identity construction/presence, and VR’s ability to provide an engaging environment for experiential learning. Further, with recent advancements in technology and research, VR has gained appeal among higher education faculty and scholars (Lege & Bonner, 2020; Radianti et al., 2020).
To date, VR has primarily been explored as an addition to instruction in in-person learning settings. However, the continued growth of online learning platforms and the increased availability and reduced cost of VR platforms have encouraged further research on the integration of VR into online higher education as a means of improving the quality of learning and engagement and providing learners with opportunities to learn through more authentic means. This chapter outlines the growth of VR, discusses the use of VR in higher education, highlights its benefits and potential challenges, and provides several use cases and best practices for using the technology in online higher education.
... Behaviors such as choosing certain products and brands are a way to express desired personal qualities and identities (Grewal et al., 2019). According to Yee and Bailenson (2009), an observation of appearance lead individuals to make implicit conclusions about their disposition that can lead to behavioral changes. As an example, people that present themselves through attractive avatars online may infer a friendly and sociable disposition and therefore adopt such behavior. ...
This research attempts to understand the perception, use and effect of beauty filters on Tunisian young females' identity negotiation and consumption practices. A triangulation of online observation, semi-structured interviews, and projective techniques revealed paradoxical and ambivalent perceptions of beauty filter technology, intra-personal conflicts and identity questioning
... Avatars in virtual environments can be considered as digital agents acting on behalf of the user and are visualized as 3D shapes controlled by user interactions. The presence of avatars in VR can modify users' behavior in numerous ways, such as by causing them to adapt to expectations of how their own avatar will behave, or by causing them to react in particular ways given the presence of other users' avatars [2]. ...
In this paper, we introduce the concept of aggregate avatars as an abstract avatar type capable of displaying data-to-representation mappings based on a summary of user interactions and other events in a VR space relevant to the application at hand. We argue that abstract avatars can be particularly useful in 3D virtual workspaces, where the goal is to achieve certain tasks in a possibly collaborative scenario. Based on this notion, we investigate and re-interpret the requirements of cognitive fidelity, and propose a framework for the design and evaluation of high cognitive fidelity aggregate avatars.
... Avatars in virtual environments can be considered as digital agents acting on behalf of the user and are visualized as 3D shapes controlled by user interactions. The presence of avatars in VR can modify users' behavior in numerous ways, such as by causing them to adapt to expectations of how their own avatar will behave, or by causing them to react in particular ways given the presence of other users' avatars [2]. ...
... This creates the illusion of ownership of the virtual body or perceiving the virtual body representation to be one's own body (see [37]). This sense of embodiment can cause the "Proteus effect", namely a change in people's behaviour and self-representation to match the identity of their virtual self [38,39]. Along with the high degree of immersion, the body ownership illusion allowed by embodiment makes VR users experience a stronger sense of spatial presence compared to the same environment in 2D [40]. ...
This systematic review provides an up-to-date analysis of existing literature about Virtual Reality (VR) and prejudice. How has VR been used in studying intergroup attitudes, bias and prejudice, are VR interventions effective at reducing prejudice, and what methodological advantages and limitations does VR provide compared to traditional methods are the questions we aim to answer. The included studies had to use VR to create an interaction with one or more avatars belonging to an outgroup, and/or embodiment in an outgroup member; furthermore, they had to be quantitative and peer-reviewed. The review of the 64 included studies shows the potential of VR contact to improve intergroup relations. Nevertheless, the results suggest that under certain circumstances VR contact can increase prejudice as well. We discuss these results in relation to the intergroup perspective (i.e., minority or majority) and target minority groups used in the studies. An analysis of potential mediators and moderators is also carried out. We then identify and address the most pressing theoretical and methodological issues concerning VR as a method to reduce prejudice.
... These studies suggest that avatar customization likely augments the Proteus effect. Similarly, two studies have found that controlling (i.e., feeling embodied in) an avatar-compared to simply watching one-leads to stronger Proteus effects (Yee and Bailenson, 2009;Yoon and Vargas, 2014). Here we note that the comparison of controlling an avatar to watching an avatar lacks ecological validity. ...
This study examined the effects of customization and intuitiveness of control on the feeling of identification and embodiment, and the actual running performance of game players after playing a digital runner game developed for this research. A 2 (avatar design: customized vs. not customized) × 2 (avatar controls: intuitive vs. not intuitive) within-subjects experiment (N = 44) found that playing the game with a customized avatar increased identification with and embodiment in the avatar. However, using unintuitive controls with a customized avatar diminished the feeling of identification. Customizing an avatar increased identification with and embodiment in the avatar. However, using unintuitive controls with a customized avatar diminished the feeling of identification. Further, participants’ running performance was significantly hindered in the customized avatar and unintuitive controls condition, compared to the other conditions. The expectation that identification and embodiment would mediate the effect of avatar customization and control intuitiveness on physical activity was not supported. Together, these results suggest that avatar customization and control intuitiveness should be prioritized when designers intend to use video games to promote post-game physical activity.
This study examined how users’ self-views (i.e., identity coherence, identity confusion, self-esteem) and their self-presentation through avatars (i.e., the number of avatars used, self-avatar dissimilarity, the frequency of and the expenditure on avatar customization) in the metaverse mutually influence each other, based on a three-wave panel survey of Zepeto users in South Korea (N = 640). Dynamic fixed-effects models yielded no significant effects of self-views on avatar-based self-presentation, but identified some significant reverse relationships: users who spent more money on customizing their avatars’ appearance experienced greater identity confusion and lower self-esteem two months later. By contrast, contemporaneous fixed-effects models found no significant effects in either direction. Overall, the results indicate limited unidirectional effects of avatar-based identity experimentation on users’ self-views that manifest over time, while casting doubt on the permeability between virtual and physical self-identities.
Les différences existantes entre les dispositifs immersifs (e.g. roman, cinéma immersif, réalité virtuelle) doivent-elles être appréhendées en termes de degrés se déployant sur un même continuum ou en termes de ruptures ? Un examen de ces dispositifs et de l’expérience utilisateur qu’ils cherchent à produire met en exergue des différences substantielles sur le plan du rôle joué par le corps. En effet, cet article tente de démontrer que le rôle du corps dans chacun de ces dispositifs et de l’expérience qui leur est associée engage à envisager l’existence de ruptures au sein des expériences immersives. Plus précisément, si le corps constitue une condition nécessaire à toute expérience immersive (e.g. roman, cinéma immersif, réalité virtuelle), dans la réalité virtuelle, il constitue, à la différence des autres dispositifs, une condition non seulement nécessaire mais également suffisante.
Purpose
This study aims to investigate the impact of mental simulation triggered by avatar realism on product attitudes. Specifically, this study applies a mental simulation framework when consumers try fashion items on avatars in the metaverse. As metaverse consumers envision themselves as avatars, mental simulation can explain how avatar realism makes them perceive and evaluate fashion products.
Design/methodology/approach
Across two experimental studies, this study manipulates the level of avatar realism. Two versions of a short video clip depicting various avatars in the metaverse were used as stimuli. A total of 106 participants for Study 1 and 137 participants for Study 2 were recruited through an online research company. Data were analyzed with SPSS 26.0 using the PROCESS macro.
Findings
The avatar realism influenced consumers to perceive greater similarity and to easily simulate the fashion item on their own, resulting in a better product attitude. In addition, this study demonstrated a serial moderated mediation effect. According to CLT, where individuals’ construal levels (i.e. abstract vs concrete) differ according to the characteristics of the given decision, individuals with an abstract processing mode focus on commonalities. Thus, they perceived avatars to be visually similar to themselves regardless of the degree of avatar realism.
Originality/value
The findings of the study contribute to the literature on metaverse marketing, focusing on consumer–brand interaction through avatars. This further helps industry practitioners understand and employ avatar features to attract consumers to virtual fashion products.
Web-and Internet-based resources are remarkably popular with the public, patients, and providers as interventions over the last decades. Opportunities exist for health information, support groups, formal education programs, tools for self-directed lifestyle and illness management, obtaining advice/consultation, and self-or provider-directed treatments. Traditional treatments are more easily disseminated to the point-of-service. Modification of regular treatments is being developed, based on smartphone and web medical applications, and applying virtual reality/avatars from games into medicine. Digital mental health (DMH) innovations/new treatments for special populations are made possible, and hybrid models are now becoming more and more popular, creating the opportunity to develop a true personalized psychiatry and integration of medical data from treatment by psychiatrists and somatic physicians. Clinicians must become aware of, adapt, use sound clinical judgment, and serve new advisory roles to patients, as we are all challenged to keep the best of mental healthcare, yet make it more accessible. The development of DMH forces the introduction of mandatory training in the use of medical applications and platforms for both medical students and doctors, as well as the creation and implementation of recommendations of scientific societies and legal regulations, enabling further development of DMH based on algorithms for narrow artificial intelligence, and in the future—general artificial intelligence.
Background:
Over the past 25 years, the development of multiuser applications has seen considerable advancements and challenges. The technological development in this field has emerged from simple chat rooms through videoconferencing tools to the creation of complex, interactive, and often multisensory virtual worlds. These multiuser technologies have gradually found their way into mental health care, where they are used in both dyadic counseling and group interventions. However, some limitations in hardware capabilities, user experience designs, and scalability may have hindered the effectiveness of these applications.
Objective:
This systematic review aims at summarizing the progress made and the potential future directions in this field while evaluating various factors and perspectives relevant to remote multiuser interventions.
Methods:
The systematic review was performed based on a Web of Science and PubMed database search covering articles in English, published from January 1999 to March 2024, related to multiuser mental health interventions. Several inclusion and exclusion criteria were determined before and during the records screening process, which was performed in several steps.
Results:
We identified 49 records exploring multiuser applications in mental health care, ranging from text-based interventions to interventions set in fully immersive environments. The number of publications exploring this topic has been growing since 2015, with a large increase during the COVID-19 pandemic. Most digital interventions were delivered in the form of videoconferencing, with only a few implementing immersive environments. The studies used professional or peer-supported group interventions or a combination of both approaches. The research studies targeted diverse groups and topics, from nursing mothers to psychiatric disorders or various minority groups. Most group sessions occurred weekly, or in the case of the peer-support groups, often with a flexible schedule.
Conclusions:
We identified many benefits to multiuser digital interventions for mental health care. These approaches provide distributed, always available, and affordable peer support that can be used to deliver necessary help to people living outside of areas where in-person interventions are easily available. While immersive virtual environments have become a common tool in many areas of psychiatric care, such as exposure therapy, our results suggest that this technology in multiuser settings is still in its early stages. Most identified studies investigated mainstream technologies, such as videoconferencing or text-based support, substituting the immersive experience for convenience and ease of use. While many studies discuss useful features of virtual environments in group interventions, such as anonymity or stronger engagement with the group, we discuss persisting issues with these technologies, which currently prevent their full adoption.
The Proteus effect is a phenomenon found in over 60 studies where people tend to conform behaviorally to their avatars’ identity characteristics, especially in virtual reality. This study extends research on the Proteus effect to consider organization-representing avatars and misogynistic behavioral outcomes. Male participants (N = 141) in a lab experiment embodied a set of pretested avatars which varied in level of association with a university mascot (i.e., color and body type) in a bespoke virtual reality simulation designed to elicit misogynistic behavior. Namely, participants were directed to place a hand on virtual agents’ body parts, including the buttocks (i.e., a transgressive misogynistic act). Time delay in complying with directions to touch the agents’ buttocks served as an implicit measure of resistance to this misogynistic behavior. Results suggest that within moderately masculine body-size avatar users, those who embodied a university-color-associated avatar exhibited more misogynistic behaviors (i.e., faster buttocks-touching). Unexpectedly, this effect of avatar color was not apparent within the hypermasculine body-size avatars, and within the university-associated color condition, hypermasculine body-type was associated with less misogynistic behavior. These findings suggest that organization-representing avatars may induce behavioral conformity to implicit attitudes associated with the organization, such as misogyny.
Humans' inherent fascination for stories can be observed throughout most of our documented history. If, for a long time, narratives were told through paintings, songs, or literature, recent technological advances such as immersive virtual reality have made it possible for us to interact with storylines and characters in a completely new manner. With these new technologies came the need to study how people interact with them and how they affect their users. Notably, research in this area has revealed that users of virtual environments tend to display behaviors/attitudes that are congruent with the appearance of the avatars they embody; a phenomenon termed the Proteus effect. Since its introduction in the literature, many studies have demonstrated the Proteus effect in various contexts, attesting to the robustness of the effect. However, beyond the first articles on the subject, very few studies have sought to investigate the social, affective, and cognitive mechanisms underlying the effect. Furthermore, the current literature appears somewhat disjointed with different schools of thought, using different methodologies, contributing to this research topic. Therefore, this work aims to give an overview of the current state of the literature and its shortcomings. It also presents a critical analysis of multiple theoretical frameworks that may help explain the Proteus effect. Notably, this work challenges the use of self-perception theory to explain the Proteus effect and considers other approaches from social psychology. Finally, we present new perspectives for upcoming research that seeks to investigate the effect of avatars on user behavior. All in all, this work aims to bring more clarity to an increasingly popular research subject and, more generally, to contribute to a better understanding of the interactions between humans and virtual environments.
As avatars gain prominence in health-promoting applications, understanding how health-related avatar appearance characteristics could affect users' behavior is crucial. Drawing upon the Proteus effect, avatars can positively and negatively affect health behaviors, depending on whether the avatar appearance is aligned with stereotypes about healthy or unhealthy behavior. Investigating avatar appearances is essential to understand potential negative health effects. Three experiments in a non-immersive virtual supermarket examined whether controlling an overweight avatar negatively affected 1) intentions to eat healthy and 2) food choice healthiness in the virtual supermarket, thereby investigating avatar allocation type (Study 1) and visual perspective (Study 2) as moderators. 2 (Avatar body size: overweight vs. healthy weight) by 2 (Avatar allocation type: self-assigned vs. experimenter-assigned [Study 1]; Visual perspective: first-person vs. third-person [Studies 2 and 3]) between-subjects designs were employed. None of the studies demonstrated the Proteus effect and no moderating role of avatar allocation type was found (Study 1). Unexpectedly, controlling an overweight avatar resulted in stronger intentions to eat healthy from a third-person perspective only (Study 2), which led to the hypothesis that the overweight avatar functioned as a fear stimulus. To test this, a health message was added that highlighted obesity as a health risk (Study 3). The addition of this message did not affect intentions to eat healthy and food choice healthiness. The combination of fear appeal and self-perception theory as explanatory frameworks for behavioral responses to avatars opens avenues for new research, such as exploring specific conditions that trigger each effect.
This study examined the use of avatars to provide feedback to influence action identities, anxiety, mood, and performance during job interview training. We recruited 36 university students for the experiment and divided them into two groups. The first group received avatar-based feedback whereas the other group received self-feedback after the first interview session. Results showed that the avatar-based feedback group experienced significantly higher levels of action identities, reduced anxiety, and happier mood in the second interview after the feedback session. Additionally, compared to the self-feedback group, the avatar-based feedback group rated their performance better in the second interview. Furthermore, the effect of avatar feedback on mood and performance varied depending on the participants' initial anxiety levels. For those with low initial anxiety, avatar feedback resulted in higher levels of action identification, a marginally significant increase in positive mood, higher pitch, better word usage, and better self-assessment. In contrast, for those with high initial anxiety, avatar feedback did not cause any significant changes in the action identities or moods, however, it reduced anxiety and the use of weak words. We believe that our findings have implications not only for improving job interview performance but also for designing future communication coaching systems.
Virtual reality is transforming people's behaviour in new online multiplayer games. However, the question of how this technology influences players virtual object purchasing behaviour remains open. To answer this question, this research mobilises the theory of embodiment, the theory of community commitment and the sense of social belonging to explain the behaviour of the embodied gamer. Using a sample of 567 players of massively multiplayer online role-playing games in virtual reality, our study establishes conclusive evidence that player embodiment influences player purchase behaviour. Furthermore, our results reveal the presence of a mediating effect between embodiment and the purchase of virtual objects. In other words, players buy virtual objects because embodiment reinforces their commitment and their sense of belonging to their community. Clearly, this research is the first to propose this model in the field of online multiplayer games. Professionals should exploit these groundbreaking results and democratise virtual reality in games. In addition, it is important that the virtual interfaces deployed in games are more engaging, personalised and community-based.
Thanks to the advances in communication technologies, the costs of connecting to our beloved ones over distance have become negligible. The provision of bandwidth, access to connectivity, and integration of cameras into almost any mobile device allows us to perceive what is happening with our communication counterparts visually. The emergence of telepresence robots even provides us with a remote presence in distant locations. Virtual and augmented environments blend virtual information worlds and physical settings into each other. All these developments together allow better communication and collaboration over distance. During the COVID-19 pandemic, an accompanying cultural and organizational transformation has also been triggered, allowing us to embrace and leverage these technological developments and thus enabling a new way of working. Employees fulfilling their duties from their homes has become the new normal. The traditional office with assigned seating is getting replaced by coworking spaces used for specific occasions, rather than being used on a daily basis. Business travel is losing importance due to in-person gatherings changing to online meetings. In a nutshell, the constraints of space determining presence at a specific location are mitigated by communication technologies that are bringing people together virtually over distance.
The sequencing of information in media can influence processing of content via mechanisms like framing, mood management, and emotion regulation. This study examined three kinds of media sequences on smartphones: (1) balancing positive and negative emotional content; (2) balancing emotional content with informational content; and (3) balancing time spent on and off the media device. Actual media use was measured in natural settings using the Screenomics framework which gathers screenshots from smartphones every 5 s when devices are on. Time-series analyses of 223,531 smartphone sessions recorded from 94 participants showed that emotionally positive content was more likely to follow negative content, and that emotionally negative content was more likely to follow positive content; emotional content was more likely to follow informational content, and informational content was more likely to follow emotional content; and longer smartphone sessions were more likely to follow longer periods of non-use.
In virtual environments, people tend to behave in line with the virtual avatars they embody. For example, when an individual embodies an attractive and physically fit avatar, they might show an increase in self-esteem. This phenomenon is called the Proteus effect. While prior research shows support for this effect with humanlike avatars, it is unclear whether non-humanlike avatars can also induce it. In this study, we examine the Proteus effect in the context of non-humanlike avatars and test whether the level of attractiveness of a non-humanlike avatar affects social participation. Two underlying mechanisms of the Proteus effect are considered: the mediating role of avatar identification and the moderating role of level of embodiment. To test our hypotheses, a 2 x 2 between-subjects lab experiment (N = 134) was conducted. Participants were randomly assigned to one of two non-humanlike avatars differing in level of attractiveness (attractive vs. unattractive) and one of two levels of embodiment (head-mounted display VR vs. desktop). The results showed that participants embodying the attractive non-humanlike avatar perceived higher levels of avatar identification via self-similarity, which increased social participation. Also, this study found that level of embodiment did not moderate the effect of attractiveness of the non-humanlike avatar on social participation.
Avatars are an integral element in most virtual environments including virtual reality and video games, and the Proteus effect initially proposed by Yee and Bailenson (2007) is a framework that explains the psychological effects of individuals’ digital self-representation, which theorizes that the traits of avatars would affect individuals’ behavior and cognition accordingly. Although research on the Proteus effect has been fruitful over the years, this line of research also showed inconsistencies over whether the effect is significant, the direction of how avatars affect individuals, as well as its theoretical explanations, which suggests a lack of elucidation on the cognitive processes underlying the Proteus effect. Hence, this paper provides an overview of the Proteus effect research and offers a reflection on the current literature regarding the theoretical basis, empirical evidence, and methodological approaches of the Proteus effect research. Finally, this study provides three recommendations for future research on the Proteus effect.
The present study examines why some studies of the Proteus effect, the phenomenon that people tend to conform behaviorally and attitudinally to their avatars' identity characteristics, facilitate the phenomenon more effectively than others. A previous meta-analysis of the Proteus effect (Ratan et al., 2020a) failed to examine potentially notable moderating factors of the phenomenon, so we examine such factors through a meta-analysis of the 56 quantitative experimental Proteus effect studies published at the time of this analysis. Studies that utilized virtual reality technology (e.g., head-mounted displays) elicited stronger effect sizes than those that utilized flat screens, as hypothesized. No support was found for the hypothesis that effect sizes differ by software type utilized (commercial or custom-built). We offer suggestions for future research into the Proteus effect, and how to best examine possible variables of the phenomenon.
This experiment was designed to investigate the potential contribution to the sense of embodiment of a wristband worn by the participants both in the real and in the virtual environments. In addition, two virtual limb models were compared following a mixed between-within subjects design: an organic hand and a non-organic prosthesis matching the proposed task. Quantitative results revealed no significant effect of the wristband, while post-experiment semi-structured interviews revealed that the wristband fostered the identification with the virtual limbs for several participants, but that it might be conditioned by inter-individual differences. Ownership scores were significantly higher with the virtual hand. However, participants experienced a very high sense of agency with both conditions despite the lack of finger tracking when controlling the prosthesis. Agency was positively correlated with participants' perceived change in their body schema when embodying the prosthesis. Subjective and objective measures demonstrated that participants were less hesitant and more collisions were recorded at higher speeds against potentially threatening objects with the non-organic prosthesis.
Action research is an approach to research which aims at both taking action and creating knowledge or theory about that action as the action unfolds. It starts with everyday experience and is concerned with the development of living knowledge. Its characteristics are that it generates practical knowledge in the pursuit of worthwhile purposes; it is participative and democratic as its participants work together in the present tense in defining the questions they wish to explore, the methodology for that exploration, and its application through cycles of action and reflection. In this vein they are agents of change and coresearchers in knowledge generation and not merely passive subjects as in traditional research. In this vein, action research can be understood as a social science of the possible as the collective action is focused on creating a desired future in whatever context the action research is located.
Avatars are virtual characters that now belong to the popular culture around video games, social networks, and digital applications in general. However, using an avatar may not be as insignificant as it seems, because avatars, by providing us with a fresh new appearance, may impact the very perception of our own identity. The aim of this entry is to offer an overview of the sociocognitive processes influenced by the use of avatars and illustrate them with empirical findings from the literature, including examples related to the Proteus effect. Finally, we will open avenues as to what could become possible through avatars, in particular in the field of avatar-mediated creativity.
Alongside the development of VR technology, empirical research and theorizing on VR entertainment is also expanding. Currently missing is an integrative conceptual framework that identifies properties of VR that distinguish it from other currently available entertainment media. In the present chapter we attempt a step in this direction. After reviewing recent trends in VR entertainment, we identify key affordances and characteristics of the VR experience. Subsequently, we discuss how these elements may shape the entertainment experience and how existing entertainment theories may be elaborated or challenged by VR. We offer five guiding propositions for future research. We conclude with a brief discussion of the complexities of creating and studying VR entertainment.
The literature proposes that East Asians have a holistic view focusing on both salient objects and their backgrounds, whereas Westerners maintain an analytic view paying attention to focal objects and their attributes. Moreover, East Asians stress interdependency of self, while Westerners emphasize independency of self. The current study examined how cultural differences in world views and self-construals influence players' digital game experience, including visual attention, avatar identification, sense of agency, and spatial presence. Supporting the hypotheses, results showed that South Korean participants, compared to European participants, did pay greater attention to background objects, feel greater spatial presence, and lower agency over their avatar. Participants also differed in the association between spatial presence and enjoyment: spatial presence positively predicted enjoyment for South Korean participants, but not for European participants. Theoretical and practical implications of the study are discussed.
Virtual reality allows users to experience a sense of ownership of a virtual body-a phenomenon commonly known as the body ownership illusion. Researchers and designers aim at inducing a body ownership illusion and creating embodied experiences using avatars-virtual characters that represent the user in the digital world. In accordance with the real world where humans own a body and interact via the body with the environment, avatars thereby enable users to interact with virtual worlds in a natural and intuitive fashion. Interestingly, previous work revealed that the appearance of an avatar can change the behavior, attitude, and perception of the embodying user. For example, research found that users who embodied attractive or tall avatars behaved more confidently in a virtual environment than those who embodied less attractive or smaller avatars. Alluding to the versatility of the Greek God Proteus who was said to be able to change his shape at will, this phenomenon was termed the Proteus effect. For designers and researchers of virtual reality applications, the Proteus effect is therefore an interesting and promising phenomenon to positively affect users during interaction in virtual environments. They can benefit from the limitless design space provided by virtual reality and create avatars with certain features that improve the users' interaction and performance in virtual environments. To utilize this phenomenon, it is crucial to understand how to design such avatars and their characteristics to create more effective virtual reality applications and enhanced experiences. Hence, this work explores the Proteus effect and the underlying mechanisms with the aim to learn about avatar embodiment and the design of effective avatars.
This dissertation presents the results of five user studies focusing on the body ownership of avatars, and how certain characteristics can be harnessed to make users perform better in virtual environments than they would in casual embodiments. Hence, we explore methods for inducing a sensation of body ownership of avatars and learn about perceptual and physiological consequences for the real body. Furthermore, we investigate whether and how an avatar's realism and altered body structures affect the experience. This knowledge is then used to induce body ownership of avatars with features connected with high performance in physical and cognitive tasks. Hence, we aim at enhancing the users' performance in physically and cognitively demanding tasks in virtual reality. We found that muscular and athletic avatars can increase physical performance during exertion in virtual reality. We also found that an Einstein avatar can increase the cognitive performance of another user sharing the same virtual environment. This thesis concludes with design guidelines and implications for the utilization of the Proteus effect in the context of human-computer interaction and virtual reality.
This paper explores the recent advances in research concerning the impact of immersive virtual environments affordances on the expression of users’ creativity at individual and team levels. While the top virtual reality (VR) application areas are entertainment and gaming, simulation and training for professionals, research in the domain of the psychology of creativity and VR is advancing rapidly in Europe. Indeed, between 2014 and 2021, 72% of publications in this domain resulted from European research in diverse fields such as engineering, design, music composition, art-making, and so forth. These studies took advantage of advanced VR affordances, such as head and hand motion trackers to synchronize an avatar in real-time, live streaming of a video into a VR headset screen to create artwork, etc. Four main topics were explored: (a) new creativity techniques involving a virtual upgrade of traditionally used techniques, virtual sketching and prototyping, as well as sophisticated interactive virtual menus and motion tracking systems, (b) the right digital self-representation for enhancing creativity and the degree to which users identify with the “persona avatar” in the context of user-centered innovations, (c) the impact of physical and social virtual contextual cues on creative performance, and (d) the perception of virtual reality by creativity and innovation professionals. Our review confirms that VR supports greater creative performance at individual and collaborative levels as well as enjoyment and fun. However, as rich and varied as this literature has become, it presents major methodological limitations that should be addressed in future research.
Communication technologies such as text-based chat, blogs, virtual reality, and avatars allow people to present deviations from their offline personality or appearance, causing changes to their personality perceptions and social behavior. This review of self-transformation through online self-presentation explores two major paradigms – the discursive approach and the embodiment approach – in terms of the theories on which they draw. It also examines differences and inconsistencies within and between these paradigms with respect to six factors that different studies suggest as critical for self-transformation. It reviews empirical research examining these critical factors, and provides a roadmap for future research testing competing explanations and their generality or specificity across digital platforms.
This paper is reviewing the unprecedented and profound impact of digitalization upon our world and us in the Age of Digitalization, through interdisciplinary perspectives including psychology, neuroscience, psychiatry, sociology, anthropology, culture and history. Progressing from the Industrial Age to the Age of Digitalization when humankind has been undergoing changes in the process of digitalization, there is growing observation and evidence for the possible emergence of a new form of self, called ‘Digitalized Self’, which would be examined, postulated, conceptualized and discussed in the current paper.
Publisher Summary Individuals come to “know” their own attitudes, emotions, and other internal states partially by inferring them from observations of their own overt behavior and/ or the circumstances in which this behavior occurs. Thus, to the extent that internal cues are weak, ambiguous, or uninterpretable, the individual is functionally in the same position as an outside observer, an observer who must necessarily rely upon those same external cues to infer the individual's inner states. This chapter traces the conceptual antecedents and empirical consequences of these propositions, attempts to place the theory in a slightly enlarged frame of reference, and clarifies just what phenomena the theory can and cannot account for in the rapidly growing experimental literature of self-attribution phenomena. Several experiments and paradigms from the cognitive dissonance literature are amenable to self-perception interpretations. But precisely because such experiments are subject to alternative interpretations, they cannot be used as unequivocal evidence for self-perception theory. The reinterpretation of cognitive dissonance phenomena and other self-perception phenomena have been discussed. The chapter highlights some differences between self-perception and interpersonal perception and shift of paradigm in social psychology. It discusses some unsolved problems, such as the conceptual status of noncognitive response classes and the strategy of functional analysis.
Historically, at least 3 methodological problems have dogged experimental social psychology: the experimental control-mundane realism trade-off, lack of replication, and unrepresentative sampling. We argue that immersive virtual environment technology (IVET) can help ameliorate, if not solve, these methodological problems and, thus, holds promise as a new social psychological research tool. In this article, we first present an overview of IVET and review IVET-based research within psychology and other fields. Next, we propose a general model of social influence within immersive virtual environments and present some preliminary findings regarding its utility for social psychology. Finally, we present a new paradigm for experimental social psychology that may enable researchers to unravel the very fabric of social interaction.
This study examined the effects of time restriction on social interaction in computer-mediated communication through a meta-analysis of applicable research. Time was defined as whether subjects were restricted or unrestricted in their opportunity to exchange messages. Studies were included that assessed either of two outcome variables: socially oriented (as opposed to task-oriented) communication, and negative / uninhibited communication. Hypotheses were derived from Walther's social information processing perspective. Meta-analytic tests supported the hypotheses on social communication. Although no effects were found on negative / uninhibited communication, a reexamination of original studies suggests caution regarding previous findings.
While computer-mediated communication use and research are proliferating rapidly, findings offer contrasting images regarding the interpersonal character of this technology. Research trends over the history of these media are reviewed with observations across trends suggested so as to provide integrative principles with which to apply media to different circumstances. First, the notion that the media reduce personal influences—their impersonal effects—is reviewed. Newer theories and research are noted explaining normative “interpersonal” uses of the media. From this vantage point, recognizing that impersonal communication is sometimes advantageous, strategies for the intentional depersonalization of media use are inferred, with implications for Group Decision Support Systems effects. Additionally, recognizing that media sometimes facilitate communication that surpasses normal interpersonal levels, a new perspective on “hyperpersonal” communication is introduced. Subprocesses are discussed pertaining to receivers, senders, channels, and feedback elements in computer-mediated communication that may enhance impressions and interpersonal relations.
Examined whether physically attractive stimulus persons, both male and female, are (a) assumed to possess more socially desirable personality traits than physically unattractive stimulus persons, and (b) expected to lead better lives (e.g., be more competent husbands and wives and more successful occupationally) than unattractive stimulus persons. Sex of Subject * Sex of Stimulus Person interactions along these dimensions also were investigated. Results with 30 male and 30 female undergraduates indicate a "what is beautiful is good" stereotype along the physical attractiveness dimension with no Sex of Judge * Sex of Stimulus interaction. Implications of such a stereotype on self-concept development and the course of social interaction are discussed.
The accessibility of a category in memory has been shown to influence the selection and interpretation of social information. The present experiment examined the possibility that information relevant to a trait category (hostility) presented outside of conscious awareness can temporarily increase that category's accessibility. 108 male undergraduates initially performed a vigilance task in which they were exposed unknowingly to single words. Either 0, 20, or 80% of those words were semantically related to hostility. In an unrelated 2nd task, 20 Ss read a behavioral description of a stimulus person (SP) that was ambiguous regarding hostility and then rated the SP on several trait dimensions. The amount of processing Ss gave to the hostile information and the negativity of their ratings of the SP both were reliably and positively related to the proportion of hostile words to which they were exposed. Several control conditions confirmed that the words were not consciously perceived. It is concluded that social stimuli of which people are not consciously aware can influence conscious judgments. (30 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
In 3 experiments the likelihood that a behavior is interpreted in terms of a particular trait category was postulated to be a function of the relative accessibility of that category in memory. 256 undergraduates performed a task designed to activate concepts associated with a particular trait category. Ss then read a description of behaviors that were ambiguous with respect to the primed trait and rated the target person along a variety of trait-related dimensions. When Ss experienced a delay between activation of trait category and acquisition of stimulus information, their ratings of the target with respect to this trait increased with the number of times the category had been activated but decreased with length of delay. When Ss experienced a delay between acquiring information and making judgments, their ratings of the target increased with both number of prior activations and length of delay. None of these effects occurred when the trait category was activated after the information had been interpreted and encoded into memory. Thus, the way in which information is initially encoded into memory often has a profound effect on subsequent judgments of the person to whom the information is relevant. (45 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
In the 1st session of each of 2 studies, 48 undergraduates' accessible traits were elicited by asking them to list the characteristics of different people, with accessibility defined as frequency of output (Study 1) or primacy of output (Study 2). In the 2nd session, held 1 or 2 wks later, Ss read an essay describing the behaviors of a target person. The essay contained both accessible and inaccessible trait-related information for each S, with different traits being accessible or inaccessible for different Ss. Both studies found that Ss deleted significantly more inaccessible than accessible trait-related information in their impressions and reproductions of the target information. This effect on impressions and reproductions was evident 2 wks after exposure to the target information. Implications of this approach for personality differences, interpersonal conflict and attraction, similarity of self and other judgments, and therapeutic intervention are discussed. (55 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Examined the self-fulfilling influences of social stereotypes on dyadic social interaction. Conceptual analysis suggests that a perceiver's actions based upon stereotype-generated attributions about a specific target individual may cause the behavior of that individual to confirm the perceiver's initially erroneous attributions. A paradigmatic investigation of the behavioral confirmation of stereotypes involving physical attractiveness (e.g., "beautiful people are good people") is presented. 51 male "perceivers" interacted with 51 female "targets" (all undergraduates) whom they believed to be physically attractive or physically unattractive. Tape recordings of each participant's conversational behavior were analyzed by naive observer judges for evidence of behavioral confirmation. Results reveal that targets who were perceived (unknown to them) to be physically attractive came to behave in a friendly, likeable, and sociable manner in comparison with targets whose perceivers regarded them as unattractive. (42 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Many personality trait terms can be thought of as summary labels for broad conceptual categories that are used to encode information about an individual's behavior into memory. The likelihood that a behavior is encoded in terms of a particular trait category is postulated to be a function of the relative accessibility of that category in memory. In addition, the trait category used to encode a particular behavior is thought to affect subsequent judgments of the person along dimensions to which it is directly or indirectly related. To test these hypotheses, undergraduates first performed a sentence construction task that activated concepts associated with either hostility (Exp I, 96 Ss) or kindness (Exp II, 96 new Ss). As part of an ostensibly unrelated impression formation experiment, Ss later read a description of behaviors that were ambiguous with respect to hostility (kindness) and then rated the target person along a variety of trait dimensions. Ratings of the target along these dimensions increased with the number of times that the test concept had previously been activated in the sentence construction task and decreased with the time interval between these prior activations and presentation of the stimulus information to be encoded. Results suggest that category accessibility is a major determinant of the way in which social information is encoded into memory and subsequently used to make judgments. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This study involved an experiment of the effects of time and communication channel—asynchronous computer conferencing versus face-to-face meetings—on relational communication in groups. Prior research on the relational aspects of computer-mediated communication has suggested strong depersonalizing effects of the medium due to the absence of nonverbal cues. Past research is criticized for failing to incorporate temporal and developmental perspectives on information processing and relational development. In this study, data were collected from 96 subjects assigned to computer conferencing or face-to-face zero-history groups of 3, who completed three tasks over several weeks’time. Results showed that computer-mediated groups increased in several relational dimensions to more positive levels and that these subsequent levels approximated those of face-to-face groups. Boundaries on the predominant theories of computer-mediated communication are recommended, and principles from uncertainty reduction and social penetration are discussed.
Describes some of the issues raised by electronic communication, including time and information-processing pressures, absence of regulating feedback, dramaturgical weakness, paucity of status and position cues, social anonymity, and computing norms and immature etiquette. An empirical approach for investigating the social psychological effects of electronic communication is illustrated, and how social psychological research might contribute to a deeper understanding of computers and technological change in society and computer-mediated communication (CMC) is discussed. A series of studies that explored how people participate in CMC and how computerization affects group efforts to reach consensus is described; results indicate differences in participation, decisions, and interaction among groups meeting face to face and in simultaneous computer-linked discourse and communication by electronic mail. Findings are attributed to difficulties of coordination from lack of informational feedback, absence of social influence cues for controlling discussion, and depersonalization from lack of nonverbal involvement and absence of norms. (103 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Manipulated deindividuation and valence of costume cues in a 2 × 2 factorial design. P. G. Zimbardo's (1970) theory of deindividuation suggests that deindividuation should disinhibit antisocial behavior independent of cue valence, and should reduce any influence due to cues. The theory of K. J. Gergen et al (1973) suggests that cues may have increasing influence, given deindividuation, and that deindividuation may increase prosocial behavior, given positive cues, and increase antisocial behavior, given negative cues. Results support Gergen's position. Given options to increase or decrease shock level received by a stranger, no main effect was found for deindividuation. There was a main effect for costume cues, and an interaction of cues with deindividuation, with deindividuation facilitating a significant increase in prosocial responses in the presence of positive cues and a nonsignificant increase in antisocial responses in the presence of negative cues. Also cues interacted with trial blocks, prosocial behavior increasing with positive cues and antisocial behavior increasing with negative cues over trial blocks. (12 ref)
Black is viewed as the color of evil and death in virtually all cultures. With this association in mind, we were interested in whether a cue as subtle as the color of a person's clothing might have a significant impact on his or her behavior. To test this possibility, we examined whether professional football and ice hockey teams that wear black uniforms are more aggressive than those that wear nonblack uniforms. An analysis of the penalty records of the National Football League and the National Hockey League indicate that teams with black uniforms in both sports ranked near the top of their leagues in penalties throughout the period of study. On those occasions when a team switched from nonblack to black uniforms, the switch was accompanied by an immediate increase in penalties. The results of two laboratory experiments indicate that this finding can be attributed to both social perception and self-perception processes--that is, to the biased judgments of referees and to the increased aggressiveness of the players themselves. Our discussion focuses on the theoretical implications of these data for an understanding of the variable, or "situated," nature of the self.
Explored some of the cognitive effects of internal events. The objective was to ascertain whether the labeling of emotional stimuli would be affected by information concerning internal reactions. Ss viewed 10 slides of seminude females while hearing sounds that were allegedly their heart beats. 1 group of Ss heard their "heart rates" increase markedly to 5 of the slides and not change to the other 5; a 2nd group of Ss heard a marked decrease in the bogus heart rate to 5 of the slides and no change to the other 5. In comparisn with the slides to which Ss did not hear a change in the bogus rate, the slides to which they heard a marked change, whether increased or decreased, were (1) rated significantly more attractive during the experiment proper and during a disguised interview conducted 4-5 wk. later, and (2) chosen significantly more as remuneration for experimental participation.
Previous research has shown that trait concepts and stereotype become active automatically in the presence of relevant behavior or stereotyped-group features. Through the use of the same priming procedures as in previous impression formation research, Experiment 1 showed that participants whose concept of rudeness was printed interrupted the experimenter more quickly and frequently than did participants primed with polite-related stimuli. In Experiment 2, participants for whom an elderly stereotype was primed walked more slowly down the hallway when leaving the experiment than did control participants, consistent with the content of that stereotype. In Experiment 3, participants for whom the African American stereotype was primed subliminally reacted with more hostility to a vexatious request of the experimenter. Implications of this automatic behavior priming effect for self-fulfilling prophecies are discussed, as is whether social behavior is necessarily mediated by conscious choice processes.
The authors tested and confirmed the hypothesis that priming a stereotype or trait leads to complex overt behavior in line with this activated stereotype or trait. Specifically, 4 experiments established that priming the stereotype of professors or the trait intelligent enhanced participants' performance on a scale measuring general knowledge. Also, priming the stereotype of soccer hooligans or the trait stupid reduced participants' performance on a general knowledge scale. Results of the experiments revealed (a) that prolonged priming leads to more pronounced behavioral effects and (b) that there is no sign of decay of the effects for at least 15 min. The authors explain their results by claiming that perception had a direct and pervasive impact on overt behavior (cf. J.A. Bargh, M. Chen, & L. Burrows, 1996). Implications for human social behavior are discussed.
The authors propose that automatic social behavior may result from perceivers preparing to interact with primed social group members. In Study 1, participants primed with a disliked outgroup (gay men) showed evidence of interaction preparation (aggression) rather than direct stereotypic trait expression (passivity). In Study 2, participants with implicit positive attitudes toward the elderly walked more slowly after "elderly" priming, but participants with negative attitudes walked more quickly, results consistent with a preparatory account; the reverse was found priming "youth." Study 3 demonstrated that the accessibility of a primed category follows a pattern more consistent with that of goal-related constructs (including post-goal-fulfillment inhibition) than that of semantically primed constructs. Implications for the function of stored knowledge are discussed.
This study examines self-presentation in online dating profiles using a novel cross-validation technique for establishing accuracy. Eighty online daters rated the accuracy of their online self-presentation. Information about participants' physical attributes was then collected (height, weight, and age) and compared with their online profile, revealing that deviations tended to be ubiquitous but small in magnitude. Men lied more about their height, and women lied more about their weight, with participants farther from the mean lying more. Participants' self-ratings of accuracy were significantly correlated with observed accuracy, suggesting that inaccuracies were intentional rather than self-deceptive. Overall, participants reported being the least accurate about their photographs and the most accurate about their relationship information. Deception patterns suggest that participants strategically balanced the deceptive opportunities presented by online self-presentation (e.g., the editability of profiles) with the social constraints of establishing romantic relationships (e.g., the anticipation of future interaction).
Historically, at least three methodological problems have dogged experimental social psychology: the experimental control/mundane realism tradeoff, lack of replication, and unrepresentative sampling. We argue that immersive virtual environment technology (IVET) can help ameliorate if not solve these methodological problems and, thus, holds promise as a new social psychological research tool. In this article, we first present an overview of IVET and review IVET-based research within psychology and other fields. Next, we propose a general model of social influence within immersive virtual environments and present some preliminary findings regarding its utility for social psychology. Finally, we present a new paradigm for experimental social psychology that may enable researchers to unravel the very fabric of social interaction. Tool for Social Psychology Gordon Allport's (1985) well accepted definition of social psychology as "an attempt to understand and explain how the thought, feeling, and behavior of individuals are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others" (p. 3) points to the breadth of the discipline. Most social psychologists have become specialists within one or more of the major domains identified by Allport (thoughts or cognitions, feelings or affect, and behavior or actions). Some carefully isolate effects relevant to social interaction in one domain, while others examine crossinfluences among the domains themselves (e.g., emotions and cognitions, cognitions and behavior). We find it interesting, however, that social psychologists have blurred Allport's presence distinctions (i.e., actual, imagined, or implied), at least in terms of the methods and stimuli they use. Many if not most social psychologists apparently assume that empiric...
The present study examined the immediate and delayed effects of unobtrusive exposure to personality trait terms (e.g., "reckless," "persistent") on subjects' subsequent judgments and recollection of information about another person. Before reading a description of a stimulus person, subjects were unobtrusively exposed to either positive or negative trait terms that either could or could not be used to characterize this person. When the trait terms were applicable to the description of the stimulus person, subjects' characterizations and evaluations of the person reflected the denotative and evaluative aspects of the trait categories activated by the prior exposure to these terms. However, the absence of any effects for nonapplicable trait terms suggested that exposure to trait terms with positive or negative associations was not in itself sufficient to determine attributions and evaluations. Prior verbal exposure had little effect on reproduction of the descriptions. Moreover, no reliable difference in either evaluation or reproduction was found between subjects who overtly characterized the stimulus person and those who did not. Exposure to applicable trait terms had a greater delayed than immediate effect on subjects' evaluations of the stimulus person, suggesting that subjects may have discounted their categorizations of the stimulus person when making their immediate evaluations. The implications of individual and situational variation in the accessibility of different categories for judgments of self and others are considered.
The innovative features of multi-player computer games offer compelling opportunities for self-representation during interactions, and the ways in which these avatars are chosen and manipulated may change interactive experiences. This study investigated the effects of avatar choice (choice vs. no choice) and visual point of view (POV; first-person vs. third-person) on the physiological arousal and subjective evaluations of game experiences. A 2 (Avatar Choice, No Avatar Choice) × 2 (first-person POV, third-person POV) × 2 (female players, male players) mixed-design experiment was conducted (N = 22). The results demonstrated that being able to pick the character that will represent the player in the game leads to greater arousal, especially for males. Visual POVs alone did not affect the game player's arousal, but moderated the effect of avatar choice on the game player's heart rates. Avatar choice produced a more pronounced effect in the third-person POV (where the “camera” was located behind the avatar) in which avatar choice was visually more reinforced than in the first-person POV (where the “camera” was the eyes of the avatar). The results also revealed that the gender of the game player was a significant factor in game play experience. The results suggest theoretical implications of video game self-representation and effects on game player's psychophysiological responses.
Virtual environments, such as online games and web-based chat rooms, increasingly allow us to alter our digital self-representations dramatically and easily. But as we change our self-representations, do our self-representations change our behavior in turn? In 2 experimental studies, we explore the hypothesis that an individual’s behavior conforms to their digital self-representation independent of how others perceive them—a process we term the Proteus Effect. In the first study, participants assigned to more attractive avatars in immersive virtual environments were more intimate with confederates in a self-disclosure and interpersonal distance task than participants assigned to less attractive avatars. In our second study, participants assigned taller avatars behaved more confidently in a negotiation task than participants assigned shorter avatars. We discuss the implications of the Proteus Effect with regards to social interactions in online environments.
Factors influencing the tendency to represent a social stimulus primarily in stereotypic terms, or more as a distinct exemplar, were predicted to moderate automatic behavior effects, producing assimilation and contrast respectively. In Experiment 1, we demonstrated that when an impression pertained to a group of elderly people it led to behavioral assimilation to the stereotype (i.e., slower response latencies) and to contrast when identical information pertained to an individual exemplar. In Experiment 2, an impression of a single individual led to behavioral contrast under normal circumstances but to behavioral assimilation under cognitive load. Experiment 3 demonstrated that while a group impression led to assimilation under normal conditions, this effect was eliminated under conditions of accuracy motivation. Conditions that fostered assimilation were characterized by more stereotypical impressions of the stimulus target(s) compared to conditions that fostered contrast. Implications for automatic behavior are discussed.
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