ArticlePDF Available

Language, power, and pedagogy: Bilingual children in the crossfire, by J. Cummins

Authors:
A preview of the PDF is not available
... In the field of bilingual education, the discourse of "academic language" owes probably most notably to the work of Jim Cummins. His theories of language proficiency have been highly influential (consider the regurgative review by Martinez, 2001;May, Hill, & Tiakiwai's, 2004, use of Cummins in their report to the New Zealand Ministry of Education) and strongly critiqued (see, for example, Edelsky, 1983Edelsky, , 1996Commins & Miramontes, 1989;Wiley, 1996;MacSwan, 2000;Petrovic & Olmstead, 2001). For both reasons, it cannot be denied that he has advanced the field in significant ways. ...
... I use Ebonics merely as a case in point given its wide notoriety in the U.S. context. 2 Note that Cummins' imprecise use of the term "proficiency" is also a point of critique. Specifically, he has been taken to task to the extent that his distinctions confuse language proficiency with the ability to engage in academic tasks, literacy activities, for example (See, for example, MacSwan, 2000;Petrovic and Olmstead, 2001). together with the social practices, forms of subjectivity and power relations which inhere in such knowledges and relations between them" (Weedon, 1997, p. 105). ...
... His answer is for all students, regardless of language background, to accept and adopt academic language proficiency as it currently exists. As Petrovic and Olmstead (2001) argue, "Cummins' pedagogy is transformative only in that it demands respect for other languages and language varieties for the overly utilitarian purpose of acquiring CALP" (p. 410), which, thusly, becomes a tool of prescriptivism. ...
... In linguistics, it is often defined as the language that a person learns naturally from birth or early childhood and has a high level of proficiency in [7]. In education, the mother tongue can also refer to the language used as a medium of instruction in schools and the language of instruction in multilingual contexts [8]. However, the definition and concept of the mother tongue have evolved, and there are different views and perspectives on its content. ...
Article
Full-text available
Understanding the distinct characteristics of unidentified Internet users is helpful in various contexts, including digital forensics, targeted advertising, and user interaction with services and systems. Keystroke dynamics (KD) enables the analysis of data derived from a user's typing behaviour on a keyboard as one approach to obtain such information. This study conducted experiments on a developed dataset that recorded samples of typing in five different mother tongues to determine Internet users' mother tongue. Based on only a few KD features and machine learning techniques, 82% accuracy was achieved in recognising an unknown user's mother tongue. This research highlights the potential for KD as a reliable method for identifying the mother tongue of Internet users, with implications for various applications such as improving digital forensic investigations, targeted advertising strategies, and optimising user experiences with online services.
... Parental education also plays a role in FLP. Although there are controversial studies in some means, for example, one study indicated that parents that are more educated are more likely to preserve their heritage language while another study suggested that parents with lower education find it harder to assimilate to a mainstream language, which means that their heritage language is better preserved for their children [26] (pp. 407-408). ...
Article
Full-text available
This phenomenological study examined six mixed families living in Tallinn who are composed by French-/Italian-/Spanish-Estonian native speakers, who have at least one child who is being raised simultaneously with the combination of French-/Italian-/Spanish-Estonian and who all appeared to follow the one parent one language strategy as family language policy. The semi-structured interviews were conducted with parents. The theoretical aspect features family language policies and strategies, identity and its types, globalisation forces, bilingualism, and multiculturalism. The research aimed at highlighting the reasons behind parents’ ideological decision, more specifically, on how these bilingual families manage and adapt their language policies. The study shows how families control their chosen strategies. Research revealed in which languages children prefer to speak if they have been raised in multilingual environment. The results demonstrated that parents prefer to use a one parent–one language approach and they are led by their intuition and desire to speak in their own mother tongue with their children. It was found that bilingual reading to children during their first years contributes to their ability to speak in both parents’ mother tongues. Data showed that bilingual children living in Tallinn prefer to speak Estonian while having competency in both languages. This study revealed that parents were content about their children being bilingual.
... The concept of semilingualism has received heavy criticism, and is now regarded as, at best, inaccurate and unhelpful (MacSwan 2000, Petrovic andOlmstead 2001). Nonetheless, Cummins observed that some multilingual learners did worse at school than the linguistic interdependence hypothesis would have predicted. ...
Thesis
Full-text available
Approximately one in five primary school pupils in England are classified as having English as an additional language (EAL), meaning that they routinely use, or are exposed to, languages other than English. It is commonly thought that EAL learners’ first languages (L1s) can be leveraged to positively impact their linguistic and academic development in English. However, despite an abundance of theoretical and observational evidence used to argue this position, there is little experimental evidence to clarify the extent and nature of any relevant causal relationships. This gap in evidence was revealed in the first original contribution of this thesis: a systematic review of experimental research on the educational effects of mediating primary and pre-primary multilingual learners’ learning through their L1. An extensive search of twelve bibliographic databases revealed only ten studies that met the review’s inclusion criteria. The pedagogical focuses of these studies varied, and the overall picture was unclear. However, five studies coalesced around the use of L1 as a mediating tool for teaching English vocabulary. Of these, three found that L1-mediation was associated with improved knowledge of the target vocabulary, one found an advantage associated with not using the L1, and the remaining study had mixed results. None of these studies were conducted with linguistically diverse groups of students, typical in English schools. The promising, if somewhat tentative, conclusion invited by the systematic review informed the second original contribution of this thesis: a randomised crossover trial with linguistically diverse students, comparing the effects of L1-mediated teaching and English-only teaching on English vocabulary learning. Forty EAL learners aged from 8 to 11 years, representing 14 different L1s took part. Participants watched short videos that explained the meanings of items of vocabulary taken from the National Curriculum for England. The spoken content of the videos was either in each participant’s L1 or in English. Analysis of the expressive and receptive knowledge of the target words following each condition revealed no statistically significant differences in outcomes. The implications for pedagogy and future research are discussed, especially the imperative to conduct more and better research to add clarity to our understanding of the causal relationships between different types of L1-mediation and linguistic and academic success in linguistically diverse classrooms.
Article
Aims The authors develop a contrast between grounded and ungrounded language ideologies, defining grounded ideologies as those which are anchored empirically and ungrounded ideologies as those which are not. This framework guides a description of the history of translanguaging theory from early translanguaging theory, grounded in empirical research on codeswitching and other scholarship on bilingualism, to late translanguaging theory, which changed under the influence of a postmodernist approach to language policy known as deconstructivism. The authors further discuss charges of “abyssal thinking” attributed to those who do not accept deconstructivism. Approach The approach is argumentative. Data and Analysis The authors draw on a wide range of previously published empirical work to support their conclusions. Conclusions The authors conclude that late translanguaging theory is at odds with empirical research and holds negative consequences for pluralist language ideologies and civil rights advocacy. Originality The article makes original contributions to language ideology, the history of translanguaging theory, and the relationship between language theory and language ideology. Significance The article makes a significant critical contribution to the literature on multilingual language theory by drawing attention to significant limitations of translanguaging theory as a resource for language ideology.
Article
This research explores the perspectives of current English teachers in Nepal who were initially taught English in Nepali. The study adopts a qualitative approach, utilizing semi-structured interviews and thematic analysis to uncover key factors influencing their preferences and challenges in English language instruction. The research reveals the impact of traditional teaching methods, such as rote learning, on their language proficiency, but also highlights teachers who embrace interactive and student-centered approaches. Challenges in conveying idiomatic expressions and cultural nuances are evident, influenced by prior knowledge of Nepali language structures. The teachers' adaptations include differentiated instruction and experiential learning, emphasizing the importance of continuing professional development. The findings contribute to the development of targeted professional development programmes to enhance English education in Nepal and create a supportive learning environment.
Article
Many students experience a language-related barrier which may keep them from fully understanding and engaging in complex chemistry content. Although dense and technically rich scientific language is challenging for most students to interpret, it can become a systematic barrier for English Language Learner (ELL) students when it cognitively interferes with their ability to demonstrate their content knowledge in a competitive, fast-paced, and mandatory science course. However, little is understood about how ELL undergraduates can be assessed in introductory science courses in a fair and equitable manner. The current study examined the potential of an equity-driven, empirical method (the Equitable Framework for Classroom Assessment; EFCA) for modifying assessment items to meet the needs of ELL students in general chemistry. Such an initiative is crucial for impartially assessing the chemical content knowledge of linguistically diverse students. We employed the guidelines of the EFCA to modify three assessment items (about the topics of limiting reactants and percent yield) in a way that reduces their linguistic complexity without watering down their content difficulty. We then presented ELL students with both the original and the modified versions of the items and asked them to comment—during semistructured, retrospective interviews—about the features that were supportive to their comprehension. The students identified multiple supportive features, including those related to the items’ macrostructure (visual appearance) and its readability. They also identified specific types of scaffolds and representations that supported their understanding, as well as their ability to think through and set up the solution to the problems.
Article
We empirically evaluated three theoretical models—the threshold hypothesis, transfer theory, and time-on-task theory—for educating English language learners (ELLs), with a focus on the role of language factors in explaining achievement differences among ELLs. Participants were 196 sixth graders with Spanish language backgrounds who started learning English in kindergarten and then were continuously enrolled in a U.S. school. Structural equation modeling was used to estimate the extent to which Spanish and English language and literacy—skills that are emphasized differentially in competing theories for educating ELLs—predict academic achievement assessed in English. Results indicated that Spanish literacy, over and above English language proficiency, was substantially predictive of academic achievement, consistent with the transfer theory. This model was a more focused version of the threshold hypothesis, in that the weaker predictor of Spanish oral language proficiency was excluded. Time-on task theory was not supported.
Article
Full-text available
Although some educational researchers have appealed to “semilingualism” or “limited bilingualism” to explain differences in student achievement among language minority students, in this article the author argues that the construct contributes much more to the malady than the remedy in the education of linguistic minorities. The author reviews four kinds of reputed evidence for semilingualism (from studies of language variation, linguistic structure, school performances, and language loss) and concludes that all of it is either spurious or irrelevant. The author argues that semilingualism is essentially indistinguishable from classical prescriptivism and that Cummins’s Threshold Hypothesis, which incorporates the semilingualism thesis, should be abandoned on empirical, theoretical, and moral grounds. An alternative account of the descriptive facts Cummins sought to explain is presented, and implications for education are discussed.
Article
Full-text available
The existence of a global language proficiency factor is discussed. This factor, cognitive/academic language proficiency (CALP), is directly related to IQ and to other aspects of academic achievement. It accounts for the bulk of reliable variance in a wide variety of language learning measures. Three propositions concerning CALP are reviewed. (1) CALP can be empirically distinguished from interpersonal communicative skills such as accent and fluency in first language (L1) and second language (L2). (2) CALP proficiencies in both L1 and L2 are manifestations of the same underlying dimension. (3) Because the same dimension underlies CALP in both L1 and L2, older learners, whose proficiency is better developed, will acquire L2 CALP more rapidly than younger learners. The relevance of this analysis for the concepts of semilingualism, code-switching, and bilingual education is outlined. Semilingualism is a manifestation of low CALP in both languages. CALP will be less active and effective when the L1 and the L2 are very dissimilar. In the presence of negative affective variables such as low motivation, CALP will not be applied to learning L2. If motivational involvement and adequate exposure to an L1 or L2 exist, CALP will be promoted in both languages regardless of which is the language of instruction. (PMJ)
Article
Basic orientations toward language and its role in society influence the nature of language planning efforts in any particular context. Three such orientations are proposed in this paper language-as-problem, language-as-right, and language-as-resource. The first two currently compete for predominance in the international literature. While problem-solving has been the main activity of language planners from early on (language planning being an early and important aspect of social planning in ‘development’ contexts), rights-affirmation has gained in importance with the renewed emphasis on the protection of minority groups. The third orientation has received much less attention; it is proposed as vital to the interest of language planning in the United States. Bilingual education is considered in the framework of these orientations. Many of the problems of bilingual education programs in the United States arise because of the hostility and divisiveness inherent in the problem- and rights-orientations which generally underlie them. The development and elaboration of a language-resource orientation is seen as important for the integration of bilingual education into a responsible language policy for the United States.
Article
The central thesis of this paper is that a cognitively and academically beneficial form of bilingualism can be achieved only on the basis of adequately developed first language (L1) skills. Two hypotheses are formulated and combined to arrive at this position. The “developmental interdependence” hypothesis proposes that the development of competence in a second language (L2) is partially a function of the type of competence already developed in L1 at the time when intensive exposure to L2 begins. The “threshold” hypothesis proposes that there may be threshold levels of linguistic competence which a bilingual child must attain both in order to avoid cognitive disadvantages and allow the potentially beneficial aspects of bilingualism to influence his cognitive and academic functioning. These hypotheses are integrated into a model of bilingual education in which educational outcomes are explained as a function of the interaction between background, child input and educational treatment factors. It is suggested that many evaluations of bilingual education programs have produced uninterpretable data because they have failed to incorporate the possibility of these interactions into their research designs.
Article
Junior high and high school academic performance of two groups of students were compared in a quasi-experimental study. The experimental group students (N = 86) had received one or more years of bilingual instruction at the elementary level while the control group students (N = 90) had not participated in an elementary bilingual program. While differences in grade-point average (GPA) and absenteeism were small, the bilinguals were less likely to drop-out and experienced fewer retentions. Secondary analyses focused on the relationships within the experimental group between number of years enrolled in bilingual programs and secondary school outcomes. The relationships of number of years to ab-senteeism and to retention were quite weak. Important relationships between number of years and GPA and between number of years and drop-out were observed. As number of years increased, mean GPA in 7th, 8th and 9th grades increased and the probability of drop-out decreased.
Article
In this article, I address the ?balkanization argument? made by conservatives for English-Only legislation and against bilingualism. The argument here is that the United States faces the sort of linguistic divisions found in other countries. Most frequently invoked are the cases of Canada and Belgium. The claim that the United States should take warning from these countries and avoid the promotion of bilingualism has been made by a number of people, including Linda Chavez, Arthur Schlesinger, Jr., and Newt Gingrich. I argue that this claim is alarmist, at best. Data from Canada and Belgium indicate that the linguistic situations in these two countries are far too different to make reasonable comparisons to the United States. I make my case by using data of language shift, language demographics, and language prestige. These data indicate just how far the United States is from being on the same road toward linguistic division. This is not to say, however, that linguistic division cannot occur, and I point out the lessons we should draw from the cases of Canada, Belgium, and other multilingual nations.
Article
While the United States has never declared a national official language, the primacy of English in public affairs has been well-established since the time of the earliest colonies (Crawford 1992a, Ruiz 1988). This is so in spite of the reluctance on the part of the British colonial authorities and, later, leaders of the early republic, to legislate matters of language—considered traditionally one of the most fundamental freedoms of civilized societies (Heath 1992). English even at that time was considered a language of political, economic, and social power and prestige; its preeminence in the United States, as elsewhere, has been reinforced in recent times by its establishment as a language of technology.
Article
In this unique book on education, Shor develops teaching theory side-by-side with a political analysis of schooling. Drawing on the work of Paulo Freire, he offers the first practical and theoretical guide to Freirean methods for American classrooms. Central to his method is a commitment to learning through dialogue and to exploring themes from everyday life. He poses alienation and mass culture as key obstacles to learning, and establishes critical literacy as a foundation for studying any subject.